Eco-villages as a Sustainable Settlement Type: A Model Proposal for Turkey

*Murat Kuruoğlu, Selin Başcan Yüce, Kahraman Eskidemir, Gözde İrem Cebir, Funda Yirmibeşoğlu and Nurkan Baykara* 

#### **Abstract**

 The search for creating a sustainable living environment throughout the world is increasing day by day. Eco-villages are a type of intelligent settlements with ecological characteristics such as natural agriculture and livestock activities, thus producing their own nutrients, utilizing renewable energy systems, transforming their wastes, and having a self-sufficient and collective social life. With the migration from rural areas to cities, eco-villages constitute a solution for the redevelopment of rural areas where the population is lost and investments decrease. This paper underlines the necessity of eco-village's contribution to cities and human species and points out the lack of eco-village implementations in Turkey. First, this article identifies eco-village movement and the development of eco-villages in various countries, discussing from the beginning how they emerged and were shaped through needs. Second, this paper aims to find answers of eco-village indicators in Turkey with the help of a survey study. The survey consists of different questions which are related to village economy, social structure, usage, transportation, construction materials, etc. Based on the survey results, the paper examines which criteria are important and how they could be improved and integrated to an eco-village model. It is aimed to obtain an eco-village model based mainly on the outputs of the survey, literature review, and various examples from around the world.

**Keywords:** eco-village, smart eco-village, sustainable settlement, ecological settlement, eco-village model

#### **1. Introduction**

Eco-villages are ecologically, socioculturally, and spiritually sustainable settlement models. They aim to reduce the amount of negative effects of human beings on nature through eco-friendly design practices and through voluntary participation. Eco-villages project a living style in which people form communities that are in touch with nature and which makes it a priority that all living creatures healthfully continue to exist in the future. What lies beneath the concept of eco-village is the root idea that a person should take the responsibility for his/her own life. In addition, eco-villages were mentioned at the United Nations' Sustainable Development Programme for perfect sustainable living models [1].

Eco-villages have recently become prominent settlements both in Turkey and throughout the world. In this regard it is known that universities have also been trying to build eco-village settlements using their own resources. Istanbul Technical University (ITU) also is aiming to build an eco-village settlement which is suitable to the sociocultural and spatial structure considering the expectations and needs of the community in order to ensure sustainable development.

 The present study focuses on the strategies about the projected eco-village model design. Regarding this, after a review of the eco-village settlements in the world and in Turkey, a survey study was conducted in order to find out the expectations of potential users of the projected eco-village model. The survey questionnaire, which comprises of 23 question items, consists of multiple-choice and open-ended questions intended to inquire about user profiles and physical and socioeconomic expectations and preferences of users. The sampling of the survey consists of academic staff working in ITU Faculty of Architecture with a total of 109 individuals who participated in the survey.

#### **2. Literature review**

 The concept of eco-village emerged as a new approach in history with the "back to the land" movement in 1960, with a desire to build societies or communities. Emphasizing concepts such as self-sufficiency, autonomy, and local community rather than the dominating industrial or postindustrial living style, which became prominent especially after World War II, that movement is seen as a call for people to claim lands and to grow food in those lands. Although the movement is considered to be the beginning of eco-villages, there are examples of similar applications in different parts of the world which date back to earlier times, such as the Solheimar settlement built in Iceland in 1920. The movement which survived through 1970 and continued to become more and more popular gave way to a new movement which was called "cohousing." With this so-called "cohousing" movement, communities within settlements were encouraged to use shared places for certain functions1 . The communal kitchens, resting, and working areas in eco-villages today basically take their roots from that movement which emerged in 1980. When especially through the 1990s the concept of sustainability became more and more prominent, a search for new settlement models started. The word "eco-village" gained acceptance with Robert and Diane Gilman's study in 1991, which brought together the themes of sustainability, ecology, and community, and after that, many communities began to refer to themselves as "eco-villages." As a result of the Congress organized in Findhorn in 1995, a "Global Network for Eco-villages" was formed to bring these communities together, and the mission was to promote and support sustainable living models. The fact that eco-villages were named among sustainable settlement models of the United Nations in 1998 and that the formed Global Eco-village Network have members and eco-villages from each continent today is proof that the mission has been successfully operating to date [2].

Jackson and Svensson describe the main goal of eco-villages as follows: "Creating a future, as opposed to the energy consumption of the mechanical world ruled by organized monsters, a productive future for individuals and for the nature.

 1 There were also various movements in history such as socialist utopias for communal living. One of the notable utopian communities, the Fourierist community, was based on a communal approach in everyday life to make production more efficient. Owenite communities are another example for prototypes of cooperated villages.

#### *Eco-villages as a Sustainable Settlement Type: A Model Proposal for Turkey DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836*

To create a future for the children where they can grow up as balanced and healthy individuals" [3]. Considering that goal, several studies have been conducted about what the criteria regarding the goal should be. According to Demir, one of the important criteria for eco-villages is culture [4]. All eco-villages embody a cultural aspect. According to the Integrated Urban Development Strategy and Action Plan, the criteria for ecoculture are:


Eco-villages are divided into different types according to their characteristics. When the literature is examined, it is seen that the population and distance, design concept, and community type are classified by taking into consideration three different criteria (e.g., **Table 1**).

 The size of eco-villages formed by the population and the distance rises to 100 ha, and the population and area of the settlement located on the urban fringe are larger than those of the other two settlement types. Due to its proximity to the city, it interacts directly with the city. Hobby gardens are of great importance for the business and interaction between newcomers and villagers. While such businesses and interactions revive agricultural land, additional income can be obtained from land leases and peasants, and social interaction is established with the knowledge of the villagers. The most important feature of eco-villages in rural areas is the creation of an ecological network with rural land resources. Eco-villages in natural areas have the least number of inhabitants and the least number of settlements. In


#### **Table 1.**

*Classification of eco-villages [3, 6, 7].* 

these eco-villages, peasants and newcomers make up half the total population, and the long-term stay of the newcomers becomes important [8].

According to Jackson and Svensson, eco-villages which are formed based on the understanding of design are designed and constructed according to four different focuses: ecological, social, cultural, and spiritual. The main parameter of the ecological-oriented eco-village is to give the least damage to the environment. Through studies on landscaping and sustainable agriculture, it has been aimed to develop future eco-villages compatible with nature. While designing eco-villages, sustainable agriculture, solar and wind energy utilization, rainwater usage, and water capacity are taken into consideration. The settlement plan and architecture are decided by considering ecological principles and the abovementioned factors. Social-oriented eco-villages are defined as housing cooperatives with central common areas. The habitats are formed by clustering around each other, around a street or common area. While forming the housing clusters in which one or two-storey houses are located, attention is paid to the interaction and socialization between the clusters. Public car park is located at the entrance of the eco-village so that motor vehicles are not included in the eco-village. The most important feature of the cultural-oriented eco-village is that there is a space for theater, dance, music, celebrations, meetings, and gatherings. While the meeting space can be under a tree or a statue, stories transmitted through generations are retold in these meeting areas, and celebrations are held here. What distinguishes spiritual-oriented eco-villages from others is that there is a meditation area that is easily accessible to everyone. When all different focus points are considered, there is no right or wrong focus regarding eco-design. What is important is to ensure healthy development in the long run while designing and to proceed in a sustainable manner as much as possible. In the past, eco-villages were a marginal dream for small communities but now have become remarkable and accepted all over the world [3, 6, 7].

 The eco-villages by community type are composed of a common ideology and voluntary communities formed by individuals who have decided to share time and space. Meijering et al. [9] divided volunteer communities into four as religious, ecological, communal, and practical communities [10]. The most important distinguishing feature of religious communities is that there is a strong ideological commitment to the same religion and a corresponding lifestyle adopted by all members of the community. Ecological communities, on the other hand, migrate to rural areas, where they can meet their needs of ecological lifestyles. Considering food and energy production, they try to achieve minimum consumption and maximum self-sufficiency. The use of local materials is important when building houses. In communal societies, the aim is to create strong ties among members. Some common areas (kitchen, laundry, dining room, office, library, playroom) or the whole community space is shared, and these areas are used by all members in their daily rituals (meals, activity planning, parties, etc.). The reason for the combination of practical communities is to share the practical way of saving. All materials, from tools to kitchen and laundry equipment, and facilities are shared, in such a way to make their lives easier and more economical. Since the ideology is practicality, they are usually located on the urban fringes [9, 10].

 Around the world, eco-villages of different populations, functions, geographies, and features have been created and successfully sustained. However, as far as the eco-village initiatives in Turkey are concerned, it is seen that they are usually realized in the form of small-scale enterprises. Those eco-villages are generally built to function as agriculture- and tourism-oriented farms delivering their produce throughout the country rather than as tourist destinations with guest houses or other accommodation facilities. In the past, there had been attempts to build eco-villages that were planned to be large-scale enterprises, but they failed to

 be successful. The foremost reasons for that were the lack of equipment and the inability of the newcomers to adapt to rural life. For example, Eko-Foça Village, established in Izmir in the past, was considered unsuccessful because it was far from the city center and was abandoned first by families with children due to lack of schools in the eco-village and eventually by all others [11]. In addition, it is observed that eco-village examples that do not have an orderly settlement pattern are likely to disappear in time.

### **3. Properties of eco-villages and model proposal**

By examining successful examples of eco-villages around the world, which has been done regarding the issue of energy, the most important characteristic that distinguishes the economic, social, and physical structures and ecocultures from other village settlements has been determined. In the light of survey results and information obtained from the examples, suggestions were made for a model.

#### **3.1 Socioeconomic structure**

 The key elements of the economic structure in eco-villages are trust, transparency, and mutual support. In most eco-villages, regular meetings are held to make decisions about income and expenses, and the members are informed about the economic activities. For example, in Munksøgård eco-village in Denmark, consultation meetings open to all members are held every 2 months [12]. In the Auroville eco-village in India, all income and expenses of the community's economy are shared via a bulletin published on their website at the beginning of each month [13]. The distribution of income from eco-villages can vary in some eco-villages; members earn income from their own products independently, while others share common income from their crops. In another model, the members sustain their lives with the income they earn by working in jobs outside the eco-village. For example, the Damanhur eco-village in Italy defines its members as economically independent individuals and gives its members the opportunity to work in or out of the community [13]. Tamera eco-village in Portugal makes three different budget definitions for the settlement. The first of these is the basic household budget, financed by donations and revenues covering basic service, maintenance, and procurement costs; the second is the loan budget to finance the first investment; and the third is investment budget covering the donated funds for individual project groups [14].

#### *3.1.1 Initiative and management forms*

Eco-villages are usually established as cooperatives. The International Cooperatives Association (ICA) defines the cooperative initiative as follows [15]:

Cooperatives, not only as profit, but as business enterprises motivated by values, share internationally accepted principles and work together to build a better world through cooperation. The collaborative economic development, defined by the search for collaborative production and the means of active change, exists to improve people's lives and to look after nature.

 The cooperative approach based on protecting and sustaining the environment is very similar to the goals and objectives of the eco-villages. For this reason, cooperative-led eco-villages have the potential to become long-lasting and successful. It was seen that most of the successful examples of eco-villages in the world were formed through cooperatives. For example, the Oekodorf Sieben Linden eco-village in Germany was established with the cooperative method. The housing cooperative

 of the eco-village provides a legal and financial framework for some of the projects, and all the future residents of the houses in the project are to devote a part of their shares and labor to the cooperative [16]. The cost of the installation phase of eco-villages is the highest cost. In the Sieben Linden eco-village, one of the successful examples of eco-villages, in case the cooperative is not financially sufficient, loans are taken from banks or persons. For this reason, residents of the settlement have to pay a certain amount of rent determined according to their participation in labor or financing the village [16]. In Denmark, the Dyssekilde eco-village has a participation fee and an annual rent payment [14]. There is no participation fee in Torri Superiore eco-village in Italy to be a new member. However, those who want to become a member must rent or buy a property or live nearby. It is also obligatory that he/she should visit the eco-village several times, work with the members, and live there for at least 6 months before becoming a member [10].

#### *3.1.2 Employment opportunities and income sources*

 The most important sources of income of eco-villages are revenues from the sale of natural agriculture and livestock products, from various workshops, from the sale of the surplus energy produced by the eco-village, and from ecotourism revenues. For example, one of the main goals of the Dyssekilde eco-village in Denmark is to generate surplus energy and generate revenue by creating systems that generate more energy than consumption [14]. The most common employment opportunities in eco-villages are workshops, natural agriculture and animal husbandry sectors, bakery, and sectors such as cafes, restaurants, and accommodation that serve ecotourism. For example, the Solheimar eco-village in Iceland offers a wide range of business opportunities because of its diverse business fields and companies. These include job opportunities in various arts and crafts workshops, bakery, organic vegetable nursery, and forestry, as well as kitchen, cafeteria, shop, gallery, maintenance team work, or guesthouse work [16]. In some eco-villages, a specific currency for the eco-village is accepted, and only that currency is used within the boundaries of the eco-village. For example, the Findhorn eco-village in Scotland has a special currency called "eko." Although the use of that currency supports the circulation of money within the settlement, the fact that it still requires donations from outside the settlement shows that the economy is not yet fully self-sufficient [16].

#### **3.2 Physical structure**

When the examples of settlements in the world and in Turkey are examined in terms of settlement scales, it has been determined that there are similar applications that can be used as a reference while creating the physical structure of the model. In addition, it is seen that the eco-villages where there are no settlements disappear over time; therefore, the physical structure is important in proposed models. As seen in **Figure 1**, the housing in eco-villages with a regular settlement pattern is in the form of clusters. The housing clusters, each of which generally consists of 10–30 housing units, are designed around a common courtyard. At the center of the courtyards are children's playgrounds or terraces, and the courtyards of different clusters are connected by pedestrian paths to increase interaction. The public house, which is usually available in each cluster, is situated in different locations such as in the middle, at the entrance, or at the very end [4, 11, 13, 14, 16–21].

Different methods are used while forming housing clusters. For example, in the Ithaca eco-village, housing clusters were built according to years [22]. In another

*Eco-villages as a Sustainable Settlement Type: A Model Proposal for Turkey DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836* 

**Figure 1.**  *Examples of eco-village settlement chart.* 

eco-village, Hjortshoj eco-village, houses are clustered based on ownership, with separate sets of houses as houses for rent, houses for sale, houses for timeshare, and municipal property [21]. In Munksogard, residential areas are clustered according to social status of residents such as the elderly, families with children, youth, and singles [20]. The aim of such clustering practices is to increase interaction and to provide that groups of individuals from different socioeconomic groups live together in similar houses.

 A general evaluation can be made based on the examples examined: the general approach to architectural design in the eco-village examples is in the form of vernacular and innovative design based on local architectural techniques. In ecovillages where local construction materials are used, straw bale, wood, and adobe are the main materials. It can be said that using recyclable materials make it possible that functions, materials, and construction techniques support each other. It is seen in the examined examples that the use of renewable energy systems and effective building designs considering environmental sustainability are carried out with a participatory approach.

 As for the land use in eco-villages, the most outstanding areas are agricultural areas, houses, common areas, car parks, and other areas that may vary depending on the characteristics of the eco-village. These areas are shaped according to usage rights. Within the scope of the present study, three different fields were defined according to usage rights: areas where one individual or one household is entitled to usage rights are "individual areas," areas that allow the usage of more than one household are "common areas," and areas that entitle different usage rights from individual and common areas are defined as "other areas." Public houses, pedestrian roads, courtyards, and agricultural areas are common areas in all eco-villages that have been studied. Public houses are structures which embody functions such as a library, a dining hall, a large kitchen, and a laundry and which are commonly used by more than one household. These spaces are

effective in building community awareness and developing social relations. Pedestrian paths and also bicycle lanes are considered important because they allow that the inhabitants of eco-villages meet each other in daily life and can develop their communications. In addition, the floor plan shows bathrooms and kitchens designated as common areas in eco-villages where shared dwellings are located [4, 11, 14, 16–21].

The areas that provide different usage rights from the individual and common areas mentioned above are defined as "other areas." They differ depending on activities taking place in the eco-village. There are guest houses for incoming guests such as in Torri Superiore and Auroville, where there is tourism. In addition, spaces to support different functions are also created such as a tourist center, etc. [10, 13]. In eco-villages that host such activities as seminars, courses, and so on, like Solheimar, there are guest houses where these trainings take place and where the attendees of trainings are accommodated [16]. In the eco-villages such as Damanhur and Auroville, which stand out with their spiritual characteristics, there are spaces such as temples and meditation areas [11, 13, 14]. Public spaces such as schools and medical units are also important for the continuity of eco-villages. Studies on failed eco-village examples in Turkey mention the lack of public services [11, 23]. Therefore, it is necessary to design public spaces to serve the needs of the population in eco-villages.

It is important to provide public transportation in eco-villages. In an ecofriendly environment, transportation options such as bicycles or environmentally friendly vehicles that do not leave carbon footprints are preferred. In this regard, there are car parks at the entrances of eco-villages or residential clusters, and some examples show that there are vehicles that can be used daily within the eco-village boundaries [4, 11, 14, 16–21].

#### **3.3 Energy**

The increase in energy consumption worldwide, the trend toward the depletion of energy resources, the difficulties in supplying energy, and the damage to the environment for more energy production in this process have increased concerns about energy [24]. Since avoiding energy use decreases energy consumption and CO2 emissions, energy issue within the scope of sustainable urbanization emerges as a very important factor for that reason. Studying eco-villages in various countries with different policies for energy production and use within the scope of sustainability will be more efficient due to the variety and different approaches in energy strategies to be developed.

In 2014, Haslenda Hashim's eco-village concept study conducted in Iskandar, Malaysia, a model in which biomass and solar energy are integrated, has been proposed. In this example, it is observed that highly competitive power costs occur. In addition, it is seen how important the storage of the generated energy is and that a system for energy storage should definitely be included in the designed eco-villages [27]. In 2000, Richard Sanders studied the economy of ecological agriculture through seven separate Chinese eco-villages and mentioned the role of energy in this context [28]. In this context, an integrated mechanism has been formed with the inclusion of solar energy in the biogas digesting coal. The integrated use of these two energies has reduced the demand for electricity for lighting and cooking, prevented the use of harmful sources, and improved the environment and health. Bringing together the results of the studies on energy production in selected ecovillages from different regions in Turkey and around the world, analyzing them, and generating outputs accordingly will help reveal new energy efficiency strategies (e.g. **Table 2**).


*Eco-villages as a Sustainable Settlement Type: A Model Proposal for Turkey DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836* 

> **Table 2.**  *Information on energy production and waste management in sample eco-villages [11, 14, 16, 23, 25, 26].*

#### **4. ITU eco-village model**

As can be seen from the examples reviewed, the economic, social, and physical characteristics of eco-villages can vary according to the functions of eco-villages, user characteristics, and preferences. Within this framework, the results of the questionnaire answered by 109 people who are potential participants to live in the eco-village will gain importance. The survey study was conducted among ITU members in December 2018 and consisted of 23 questions that reveal the basic components of the settlement, such as economic structure, social structure, physical structure, transportation, and building materials. Below are the results of the survey:

"Agriculture," which is one of the most basic sectors of eco-villages, is planned to also be the main sector of ITU eco-village. According to the survey, 56% of the participants chose agriculture as an answer to the question about the determination of the economic sector of the village settlement. In accordance with permaculture principles of agricultural production, it is accepted that natural farming methods without agricultural drugs and chemical additives will be used.

 As an answer to the question about the basic livelihood of the eco-village, in which the participants selected from multiple options, 63% of the participants opted for "working in a job other than/independent from the eco-village," while 54% selected "working in a job in the settlement." Therefore, it is expected that the participants of the ITU eco-village will be able to choose from various options such as to continue their work outside the village or to have the opportunity to work in the village workshops, in agriculture, in raising livestock, or in the production of activities such as bakery or ecotourism.

 As for the answer to the multiple-choice question regarding the sharing of income obtained from the various products of the eco-village, 67% of the participants suggested that the income should be used for the development of the eco-village. In line with this most popular option, which promotes collective consciousness, it is envisaged that a portion of the future income of the village will be determined by the users for the development of the settlement and the rest will be shared among the users as was preferred by 50% of the participants.

As an answer to the question about the ownership status of the housing in the eco-village, 44% of the participants chose homeownership, 20% were in favor of cooperatives, 9% chose to be tenants, and 9% were in favor of lodging; others chose "timeshare properties," "free of charge," and "social facility with payment" as answers. In accordance with the different preferences of users, the ITU cooperativebased eco-village is planned to have a property model that offers its members the options of being a landlord or a tenant.

According to the results of the survey, the most popular preference of the participants as to the location of the eco-village is a rural area 1 hour away from the city, and the next choice is on the urban fringe. The natural area more than 1 hour away from the city was the least preferred settlement type. In this respect, it can be concluded that the majority of the participants do not want to break away from the city. Therefore, transportation between the city and the eco-village is important. It is expected that transportation in the eco-village will be provided with bicycles, public transportation, and eco-vehicles.

As a must of an eco-village, participants chose "awareness of collective living." For this reason, agricultural areas, public houses, courtyards, and other areas that will create an awareness of collective living are important. The kitchen is used both individually and as a common area. For this reason, it is thought that it will be beneficial to have kitchens in both living units and public houses. Agricultural activities

#### *Eco-villages as a Sustainable Settlement Type: A Model Proposal for Turkey DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836*

are the most desired activity. Therefore, it is important to establish common agricultural areas. The areas that the participants want to be included in the eco-village, the activities they want to participate in, and the other areas depending on the demands of the basic economic sector are workshops, hobby gardens, the library, health facility, sports facility, school, festival area, art center, education center, and meditation center. When the results of the questionnaires are evaluated in terms of life unit scale, it is seen that the housing preferences of the participants are mainly one- or two-storey houses. They are expected to be designed as 2 + 1 residential unit, the sizes of which range from 40 to 80 m2 . Moreover, it is expected by the participants that the most important common space of kitchens, where everyday life takes place, is to be used both individually and as common areas. Considering the sociocultural characteristics, all results should be taken into account in order to address the preferences of everyone.

In the eco-villages, the kitchen, bathroom, and toilet, which can be both public and individual areas, are chosen by the participants to be individual areas. Some of the participants also demand that the use of the kitchen be shared. According to housing choices of participants; 1–2-storied, 80–120–40 m2 ; 2 + 1, 3 + 1, 1 + 1, studio options are, respectively, preferred. It is important to create all the options to address everyone.

The guiding strategies in creating the model of the eco-village based on the results of overseas examples, and the survey results are listed below:

#### **4.1 Strategies related to social structure**


#### **4.2 Strategies related to physical structure**


**Figure 2.**  *The settlement model.* 


#### *Eco-villages as a Sustainable Settlement Type: A Model Proposal for Turkey DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836*

*Facilities required to be found in echoes in the proposed model according to the Turkey construction regulation of spatial plans [29].* 

#### *Eco-villages as a Sustainable Settlement Type: A Model Proposal for Turkey DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836*

**Figure 3.** 

*The housing unit models.* 

#### **4.3 Strategies related to energy**


#### **5. Conclusion and review**

 Today, eco-villages have gained importance as ecological, economic, and socioculturally sustainable human settlements. Eco-villages create environments where local and natural resources are used, sociocultural structure is diversified, and healthy, safe, and qualified living environments are created. They also provide a potential for economic, social, and cultural development. Designed for the members of Istanbul Technical University, the eco-village model, which is expected to extend to other sites across Turkey after its construction, is an intelligent and self-sufficient ecological settlement type which makes use of natural farming and animal husbandry, thus producing its own nutrients, utilizing renewable energy systems, transforming waste, and promoting a collective social life. With this application, it is aimed to revive the economic, social, and cultural relations between the city and the village and to bring together the knowledge of the university and the wisdom of the local.

 Sustainable use of local resources, protection of local cultural values and traditions, and ensuring social solidarity are the basic principles. Adoption of local and agricultural production and permaculture principles is envisaged in the settlement. As a business model, a cooperative-based structure is adopted, and property ownership is diversified offering different property options such as home ownership, rental, and housing; rural areas and the urban fringe options are the primary settlement areas, and by establishing a relationship between the village and the city, the eco-village is ensured to be connected to the city in terms of circulation of products and cooperation. As for housing preference, 40–80 m2 , one- or two-storey residences offering development opportunities are preferred, and a settlement layout including individual areas such as kitchens and bathrooms, as well as shared public areas, prioritizing energyfriendly means of transportation and using intelligent technologies is established.

 The present eco-village model proposed within the scope of the study which investigates in detail the eco-village models applied around the world and in Turkey differs from other eco-villages in that it establishes a system based on population and distance. In doing so, solutions to facilities brought by population are found within the framework of Spatial Plans Building Regulations in Turkey. In the eco-village system with different population sizes, different reinforcements are offered to the population shrinking from the urban perimeter to the rural area and to the natural area; it is projected that the current population of villagers will also benefit from the reinforcements in the settlements in order to ensure sustainability by building bridges between production experiences of villagers and the settlements. Another difference is presented in housing types. Different flexible plan types make it possible for users through a modular system to expand by adding areas from 40 to 160 m2 at any time

#### *Eco-villages as a Sustainable Settlement Type: A Model Proposal for Turkey DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836*

 according to their preferences. This brings along a dynamic understanding of planning in the eco-village, allowing all kinds of users to settle in the village. One-storey and two-storey buildings are important in establishing a disabled-friendly settlement.

The projected use of common public spaces (shared kitchen, meeting area, agricultural area, etc.) as well as of individual areas (separate kitchen and bathroom) in the eco-village reflects a synthesis of the traditional structure of Turkish society and eco-village collective life design, which stands out as another different feature. Yet another difference is related to the diversification of energy sources of the eco-village. Although the main source of energy in the settlements is solar energy, it is important to use local alternative energy sources depending on the physical and natural structure of the application area and to bring the settlement and smart technologies together. Finally, the eco-village model is different from other eco-villages in the world in that the operating system can offer options such as home ownership, tenantship, cooperative, lodging, and timeshare properties.

 As has been explained in detail above, in this model, social structure, physical structure, and energy-related strategies are determined for the eco-village, and it is aimed to reorganize the spatial, sociocultural, and productive structures between the city and the village with a three-stage settlement system to be established according to these strategies. Our main priorities with the eco-village model are the systematization of the urban-rural relationship, contributing to the economy of the country and the region, ensuring sustainable development, and continuing the success stories of eco-villages from around the world in our country.

#### **Acknowledgements**

This paper was developed from the findings of a research project in Istanbul Technical University, Housing Research and Education Center.

#### **Author details**

Murat Kuruoğlu1 \*, Selin Başcan Yüce2 , Kahraman Eskidemir3 , Gözde İrem Cebir4 , Funda Yirmibeşoğlu3 and Nurkan Baykara1

1 Department of Civil Engineering, İstanbul Technical University, İstanbul, Turkey

2 Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey

3 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, İstanbul Technical University, İstanbul, Turkey

4 Department of Architecture, İstanbul Technical University, İstanbul, Turkey

\*Address all correspondence to: kuruoglu@itu.edu.tr

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Available from: https:// sustainabledevelopment.un.org/ partnership/?p=11943/ [Accessed: February 19, 2019]

[2] Taggart J. Inside an Ecovillage. CBS Interactive Business Network; 2009

[3] Jackson H, Svensson K. Ecovillage Living: Restoring the Earth and her People. Devon: Green Books; 2002

[4] Demir ES. Evaluation of intangible cultural heritage in the context of ecotourism in Turkey [M.Sc. thesis]. Ankara: Gazi University; 2015

[5] Işıldar GY. Examining Hamburg, European green capital of 2011, in terms of eco-city criteria and performance indicators. Journal of Social Economics Research. 2012;**12**:241-262

[6] Ecovillage Design Education Curriculum. Scotland, Findhorn: Gaia Education; 2006

[7] Adalılar SN, Alkibay S, Eser Z. Ecovillages as a destination and a study of consumer approaches to ecovillages. In: Procedia Economics and Finance Conference. 2015. pp. 539-546

[8] Takeuchi K, Namiki Y, Tanaka H. Designing eco-villages for revitalizing Japanese rural areas. Ecological Engineering. 1998;**11**:177-197

[9] Meijering L. Making a place of their own: Rural intentional communities in northwest Europe [Ph.D thesis]. Groningen: University of Groningen; 2006

[10] Giani A. Novelties, retro-innovation and fantasy: Torri superiore ecovillage as a form resistance to the abandonment of rural marginal areas in Italy [M.Sc. thesis]. Gelderland: Wageningen University; 2011

[11] Güleryüz M. Eco-villages as a utopian movement: A research on examples in Turkey [M.Sc. thesis]. İstanbul: Istanbul Culture University; 2013

[12] Párdi EP. Eco-communities in Denmark [M.Sc. thesis]. Copenhagen: Aalborg University; 2017

[13] Adalılar SN. Ecovillages as a tourist attraction center and a research to determine consumer approaches to ecovillages [Ph.D thesis]. Ankara: Gazi University; 2012 (In Turkish)

 [14] Turhan F. Superimposing ecovillage principles on children's villages for healthier environment [M.Sc. thesis]. Ankara: Middle East Technical University; 2016

[15] Available from: https://ica.coop/en [Accessed: January 18, 2019]

 [16] Kara EA. Research on all dimensions of sustainability in settlements with ecological concerns: Ecovillages [M.Sc. thesis]. Istanbul: Istanbul Technical University; 2014 (In Turkish)

[17] Boyer RH. Transitioning to sustainable urban development: A niche-based approach [Ph.D thesis]. Chicago: University of Illinois; 2013

[18] Fischetti DM. Building resistance from home: Ecovillage at Ithaca as a model of sustainable living [M.Sc. thesis]. Corvallis: University of Oregon; 2008

[19] Breton E. Organizing for sustainable at a small scale: A case study of an ecovillage [M.Sc. thesis]. Columbia: The University of Northern British; 2004

[20] Available from: http://www. munksoegaard.dk/images/andre/ ungdomsbogruppen.jpg [Accessed: January 17, 2019]

*Eco-villages as a Sustainable Settlement Type: A Model Proposal for Turkey DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836* 

[21] Available from: http://www. andelssamfundet.dk/ [Accessed: January 17, 2019]

[22] Available from: http:// ecovillageithaca.org/live/ neighborhoods/ [Accessed: January 18, 2019]

[23] Arıcan E. Individual escapism or eco-community: Selected cases of ecovillage initiatives in Turkey [Ph.D. thesis]. Ankara: Middle East Technical University; 2014

[24] Lombard L, Ortiz J, Pout C. A review on buildings energy consumption information. Energy and Buildings. 2008;**40**:394-398

[25] Akgul O. The effects of the ecocity design criterias to sustainability: An assessment in the context of malmo-bo01 and eco-viikki examples [M.Sc. thesis]. Istanbul: Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University; 2012

[26] Ozadak A. Back to rural: The experiences of living together in ecological farms in Turkey and neorurality [M.Sc. thesis]. Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi University; 2016

[27] Haslenda H, Shukery MF, Shiun LJ, Siong HC, Yusof HM. Eco village concept for green economic development: Iskandar Malaysia as a case study. In: International Conference and Urban Exhibition on Green Energy for Sustainable Development; 19-21 March 2014; Pattaya City. 2014

[28] Sanders R. Political economy of Chinese ecological agriculture: A case study of seven Chinese eco-villages. Journal of Contemporary China. 2000;**9**:349-372

[29] Turkey Construction Regulation of Spatial Plans; 2014

**405**

**Chapter 33**

**Abstract**

impacts caused by global climate change.

solar application

**1. Introduction**

**Keywords:** energy, renewable energy, solar energy, solar city, Manisa,

Energy is one of the basic sources that human beings need to sustain their existence. The demand for energy is increasing day by day due to the increase in population in the world. Increasing demand for energy brings about an increase in energy production. Many countries in the world like Turkey use non-renewable energy sources to meet most of their energy needs. Generation of electricity by using non-renewable energy sources causes environmental problems. Long-term environmental problems such as dependence on non-renewable energy sources, global climate change, and increasing urbanization have become important issues to be addressed worldwide [1]. It has been accepted all over the world that the need for

transition to the utilization of renewable energy is an undeniable reality.

Utilizing from renewable energy sources has become the intersection of energy planning and urban planning as a more reliable solution for cities in the world [2]. Governments and municipalities have started to change their energy policies with

Solar Cities as a Model in the

Sources: The Case of Manisa

*Ece Özmen, Tugberk Özmen and Funda Yirmibeşoğlu*

Utilization of Renewable Energy

Population growth and a growing number of activities on sectoral basis increase the need for electricity. The use of non-renewable energy sources and the increase in greenhouse gas emissions cause global warming. Solar cities can be defined as a strategic planning and management model for dynamic cities and communities with the utilization of renewable energy sources, targets, and designs which reduce the greenhouse gas emissions, especially in the use of solar energy systems. In addition, published mainly in the tenth development plan and revealed policies for the use of energy resources in many reports will be enhanced the quality of life and greenhouse gas producing policies on climate change to reduce emissions of Turkey. In this chapter, a model for the selected city of Manisa has been prepared to create the solar city, and suggestions are given to different sectors about how to utilize it. On the other hand, mathematical calculations were made for three building blocks with different population densities in the central districts of Manisa. As a result, the solar city model for Manisa will contribute to the development of Manisa and this model, which will be locally utilized, will contribute to the reduction of negative

#### **Chapter 33**
