Adaptation Options for Tropical Rural Communities: A Case Study of Kanshio, Benue State, Nigeria

*Becky M. Ohiaeri* 

#### **Abstract**

This chapter reviews how the built environments in the rural tropical communities of Sub-Saharan Africa are adapting to climate change. The research conducted an extensive study on present constraints to adapting the traditional huts in the "*Kanshio*" community of Benue State, Nigeria. It aims to understand the perception and sustainable adaptation strategies of *Kanshio* rural households toward the adverse effects of climate change impacts. Through survey, questionnaire, interviews, focus group discussion, and informal discussion, this study examines "perceived impacts of climate change on the current method of building" and "the adaptation strategies of households to the events of climate change impacts." Although the built environment in the tropical rural community is particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts, such as extreme temperature, droughts, desertification, flooding, and cyclones, they are the most poorly adapted and researched. The study finds that economic reasons were the most responsible for the lack of preparedness and adaptation. An additional finding was that considering and preserving the culture of ancient traditional architecture as an approach to improve building energy performance, room temperatures, and flood impacts are a worthwhile effort and creating awareness locally can help improve the building performance as part of public response.

**Keywords:** adaptation, cost, climate change, impact, communities, flood, temperature

#### **1. Introduction**

Although climate change is fundamentally a global issue, its impacts are not projected to be felt equally across the planet. Prospects and constraints are unevenly distributed among global regions, communities, sectors, ecological systems, species, as well as across different time periods [1]. There remains substantial uncertainty on the rate and behavior of these changes [2]. For instance, [3] reports that climate change impacts are likely to result in extreme heat waves, droughts, desertification, floods, cyclones, wildfires, etc. in the tropical regions of the world.

The Environmental Protection Agency [4] further suggests that, in addition to the regional variability of impacts, the scenario is likely to be further complicated by the sectorial variability of climate change (CC) impact even in contiguous climatic regions.

**Figure 1.**  *Uneven distribution of climate change [4].* 

Parenti argues that many developing countries do not have the ability, such as social infrastructure in place, to withstand the anticipated burden on the natural environment that could occur as a result of climate change [5]. Even worse, abrupt climate change could make adaptation extremely difficult, even for the most developed regions of the world (**Figure 1**).

 The IPCC's Third Assessment [3] evaluated the capacity of the world to cope with and adapt to the inevitable impacts that climate change will bring. It also found that the impacts of climate change are not evenly distributed. Research and speculation on people's exposure ratio and how they are coping has been growing at a rapid rate. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [6], the people who will be exposed to the worst impacts are the ones least able to cope with the associated risks. This aspect of coping ability has not been given much attention. Conway points out that, given that over 70% of people in sub-Saharan Africa live in rural areas, their livelihoods will be most at risk from CC impacts [7]. This situation becomes even worse given that about a third of the African population already experience severe periodic famines caused by civil unrest, poor governance, and production capacity inadequacies. The limitation of all these interpretations is that specific and sustainable adaptation approaches will need to be developed specifically for communities, taking into considerations their adaptive capacity, economic status, and cultural preservation while adapting.

 Nigeria is among the most vulnerable to the confrontational effects of climate change. It is poverty-stricken, and weak infrastructure has been a long-standing issue in Nigeria, which has made her capacity to adapt to climate change and disasters very low. Olurunmi reports that Nigeria and their people are expected to be most affected by climate change through sea-level rise along its coastline, increased desertification, erosion, flood disasters, and general land degradation [8]. Although Nigeria has engaged with the UNFCCC, much still needs to be done to develop local responsiveness in a sustainable fashion, developing data availability and coping ability. Studies of community adaptation in Nigeria are rare based on availability of literature.

Considering the uneven growth of sustainability services across the world, and recognizing the expected growth in sustainability of the built environment in developing countries, this paper aims to understand the perception and sustainable adaptation strategies of *Kanshio* rural households to the adverse effects of climate change impacts. Through survey, questionnaire, interviews, focus group discussion, and informal discussion, this study examines:

*Adaptation Options for Tropical Rural Communities: A Case Study of Kanshio, Benue State… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836* 


 The findings of the study could provide context-specific inputs for policymakers and generate useful insights for comprehending the underlying factors for effective and sustainable adaptation for the community. The study is divided into four parts: the introduction, which states the purpose and relevance of study, the second part of the paper which will explore the material and methods used in the study, and the third part which will discuss results and findings on strategies and constraints of climate change adaptation in the study area. Finally, the conclusion will give an overview of the key findings of the research and possible recommendation.

#### **2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1 Description of the study area**

 Benue State was created in 1976 and is located within the lower Benue River in the Middle Belt region of Nigeria. The National Population Commission Nigeria 2006 census reported its population as 4,253,641. Its geographic coordinates are longitude 7° 47′ and 10° 0′ East and latitude 6° 25′ and 8° 8' North [9]. Based on Köppen's Scheme of Classification, Benue State lies within the "Aw" climate category and experiences two distinct seasons: the wet/rainy season and the dry/ summer season. The rainy season lasts from April to October with annual rainfall in the range of 100–200 mm. The dry season begins in November and ends in March. Temperatures fluctuate between 23 and 37°C in the year.

Ravindran reports that generally, research studies on the impact of climate change in the tropics are relatively few in number [10]. He further states that previously, specialists reasoned that since climate change was sudden at the poles, arctic and alpine species in those areas would be hit first and hardest before regions further away. However, in recent years, an increasing number of researchers have recognized the urgent need to assess the damage that is already underway in the Amazon, the cloud forests of Costa Rica, and the tropical regions.

#### **2.2 Data collection and analysis**

 Data was collected from 250 respondents in the community of 1214 dwellers. Respondents were chosen based on their hut ownership and hut building skills. Based on the type of variables measured, in order to analyze the data collected through the survey, both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed accordingly, to measure perception of climate variability, the perceived consequences, and the obstacles to adaptation; percentages were primarily used to summate data. Results from focus group discussion and the field observations were transcribed and analyzed according to themes (coding).

To identify the determinants/constraints of adaptation strategies and prioritization, a multi-criteria analysis approach was employed. According to Haque structure for prioritization of adaptation measures is lacking in decision-making in the context which could greatly help in making informed and structured decisions, through the planning process of adaptation strategies in developing countries [11]. The multi-criteria approach used in this research engages all stakeholders therefore mostly arriving at a sustainability approach to adapting.

### **3. Results and discussions**

#### **3.1 Perception of climate variability and climate change**

 The awareness of rural households of prevailing climate change is important as it can significantly influence their readiness and capacity to develop appropriate and sustainable adaptation strategies. **Figure 2** shows features that are repaired, while **Figure 3** shows a pie chart summary of factors that lead to repairs. When asked how often repairs were carried out, it was observed that the material's quality had a direct effect on the frequency followed by the use of experienced/inexperienced builders. For instance, all 250 respondents used earth as a walling material, but wall repairs were consistent with huts not skillfully built. One hundred and ninety-two out of 250 reported to have repaired their external wall, 177 roof structure, 169 the foundation, 146 roof straw, and 19 doors. In each repair category it was observed that features that were not yet repaired had better quality materials and were built by skilled individuals.

#### **3.2 Renovated features**

**Table 1** and **Figure 2** show features of the hut that were renovated and the number of people who had renovated these features. This information was meant to show the features of the hut that needed the most improvement and investigate causes.

Repaired features are matched with materials used for those features; the frequency of repairs to determine if the materials have a direct effect on the frequency

**Figure 2.**  *Renovated features in percentages.* 

**Figure 3.**  *Factors that prompted repairs.* 

*Adaptation Options for Tropical Rural Communities: A Case Study of Kanshio, Benue State… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836* 


#### **Table 1.**

*Renovated features in numbers.* 


**Table 2.**  *Renovation prompts.* 

 of repairs was noted that, for instance, all 250 respondents used earth as a walling material, but wall repairs were consisted with huts not professionally built or built with plain mud. One hundred and ninety-two out of 250 reported to have repaired their external wall, 177 roof structure, 169 foundation, 146 roof straw, and 19 doors.

#### **3.3 Causes of renovation**

**Table 2** shows a comparison of the sources of damages that caused repairs; data on cause of repairs is acknowledged; these data weather events that prompted repairs are collected. **Figure 3** presents data on the reasons for repair, to aid proper consideration of adaptation options and prioritization. The purpose of the question was to find out sources of impact and how to better prevent or minimize the impacts.

 Questionnaires are studied to relate these events with the types of repair to aid proper consideration of adaptation options and avoid clashing solutions. Temperature is found to be the biggest source of impact with 31%, cracks commonly due to material use with 28% and rain and flood with 23 and 17%, respectively.

#### **3.4 Renovation frequency change**

To find out about the impact of changing weather on the hut, data on changes in frequency of maintenance was collected. Up to 55% of occupants reported that they had changed from an every-2-years maintenance pattern to every year (**Figure 4**).

It was observed that all categories stepped up their maintenance by 50%, for instance, 24% of people who previously renovated every 4 years now renovated every 2 years, while 14% of those who renovated once in 8 years now had their maintenance done every 4 years. When asked what weather condition affected

**Figure 4.**  *Renovation frequency change.* 

the hut most, 45% reported the cause of impact to come from rain, 36% reported temperature as a factor, and 19% were affected by flooding.

#### **3.5 Implementation of adaptive features to combat impacts of rain and temperature**

**Table 3** shows problems identified with the existing method of constructing the foundations and measures taken to improve the condition and prolong the life of the foundations.

 To reduce the speed of wear caused by running water and wind causing erosion, the foundations were raised and made more resistant to water penetration and erosion. **Figure 5** shows the case study and model side by side, physical signs of wear are shown in the case study foundation wall, and new adaptive measures for this are shown in the model.

A survey in a rural community in Mexico by Eakin et al. [13] reported a similar test, in which they found that, during the rainy season, 66% of the participants said most times they experience flood impacts in their homes and particularly the foundations were affected. They stated that to reduce/avoid flood impacts, raising the foundation floor is an option [4]. In this research, 68% reported impact on their homes due to rain and flood.

 The reinforcement of the foundation base and elevation from ground level as seen in [14, 15] is considered an adaptation option based on data gathered on floods and rainfall. For example, the Federal Emergency Management Agency's (FEMA) step-by-step guidance in identifying flood risk and determining whether a home is located within a Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) and what Base Flood Elevation (BFE) is to be used was applied. Data collected via survey, questionnaire, and interview suggested that although flooding was minimal, the present methods of constructing foundations in the case study area are unsatisfactory, with the foundations usually needing regular maintenance especially after the rainy season (**Figure 6**). **Table 4** shows the problems identified with high indoor temperature


#### **Table 3.**  *Adaptation options for foundations.*

*Adaptation Options for Tropical Rural Communities: A Case Study of Kanshio, Benue State… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836* 

#### **Figure 5.**  *Case study foundation vs. prototype (adapted) [12].*

**Figure 6.** 

*Temperature comparison of outdoor and indoor unmodified hut versus controlled project.* 


#### **Table 4.**

*Adaptation measures for temperature.* 

and measures taken to reduce the indoor temperature for a cooler and more comfortable temperature.

In the hot regions, building thick houses and courtyards keeps hot, dusty winds out. Thick walls serve as insulators against hot air. Wall thickness is increased by increasing block size from 1.2 mm thickness/2.5 length to 1.8 thicknesses and 2.5 mm length. Roof density is also increased to keep out direct sunlight (heat).

#### **3.6 Monitoring and examination of temperature results**

 This step analyzes the results of temperature data of the model against the existing unmodified hut. The results of the multi-criteria analysis (MCA), used to create a list of options prioritized according to the criteria and preferences identified, are critically examined. The numerical weights in percentage assigned are used, to derive the final score for each option. Based on weights assigned to each criterion, MCA methods will result in a prioritized list of multiple options. Two-year observation data is used for comparison of the model with the existing unmodified hut, and the following data gathered is presented in **Table 5**.

#### *ISBS 2019 - 4th International Sustainable Buildings Symposium*


**Table 5.** 

*Temperature readings for outside and inside unmodified and controlled hut.* 

#### **3.7 Results from focus group discussion**

 Findings on determinants of prioritization from focus group discussion are also revealed, and **Figure 8**, simplified from **Figure 7**, shows the aspects of adaptation criteria to be considered. It shows 41.25% in relation to economic reasons why there has been no modification of the Tiv hut. **Figure 8** shows a breakdown of those reasons especially relating to cost. This means that in adapting the hut, considering the economic impact (cost, material availability, etc.) should take priority over everything else.

The second most important aspect for stakeholders was social factors; this typically pointed to the present design of the hut as a heritage artifact and therefore

**Figure 7.** 

*Features of importance based on focus group discussion.* 

*Adaptation Options for Tropical Rural Communities: A Case Study of Kanshio, Benue State… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836* 

**Figure 8.**  *Summarized features of importance.* 

 part of the culture, specifically communal living. Thirty-five percent of responses suggested that it was important to keep the style of the building intact and preserve what they considered as their identity. Twenty-three percent of responses suggested that environmental factors were responsible for the way they were built. These included comforts, the natural feel of the building, the shape of the building resembling the trees that hang over them, etc.

#### **3.8 Barriers to sustainable adaptation strategies**

Generally, people have more to gain if they act to solve local adaptation problems and more to lose if they fail to act. As the number of actors increases, the impact of individual action to adapt to a collective problem decreases. Thus, strategies to motivate public action to tackle climate change need to focus on the local level where individual fears, dependence, and effectiveness are highest. However, there are constraints to this action.

 The research found that one of the biggest constraints to sustainable climate change adaptation on the local level, after cost, is the people's need to preserve their cultural heritage/identity. In countries like Nigeria where more than 300 languages exist, cultural heritage will vary very widely across the society. It is therefore important to reflect and preserve cultural identity in any adaptation procedures.

It is very clear from the focus group discussion that the occupants of the case study community consider the preservation of cultural heritage as very important. This is therefore seen as a barrier capable of impeding adaptation strategies that contrast their identity and form. Understanding barriers can therefore increase the success of adaptation responses to existing and possible imminent climatic changes and prioritization of adaptation strategies and can maximize decision-making efforts.

 Based on a study by Seekamp, it was observed that barriers to cultural heritage adaptation or historic preservation worldwide have not yet been well understood [16]. It is commonplace in developed cities to issue weather hazard warnings and prepare the community ahead of likely impacts. However, lack of technical skills for making decisions about adaptation is a not an uncommon issue in developing countries and especially poor communities, as well as having limited procedures for gathering data. When coupled with climate change uncertainty, this knowledge insufficiency may obstruct adaptation.

Adaptation and preservation contexts are primarily related to the lack of funding, especially in poor communities. The earnings of residents show that typically the community is a low-income one. They will primarily be concerned with food, clothing, and basic shelter. Incorporating measures of adaptation will therefore be the least of their priorities especially combined with unawareness and an absence of viable alternatives.

### **4. Conclusion and recommendations**

 The rate of climate change is increasing both in relation to extreme weather events and slow changes in climate and brings consequent aggravation of the impacts on the major occupations of the rural people and the other livelihood assets they depend upon that are climate sensitive.


*Adaptation Options for Tropical Rural Communities: A Case Study of Kanshio, Benue State… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87836* 

#### **Author details**

Becky M. Ohiaeri Faculty of Sciences and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, UK

\*Address all correspondence to: mvandejune25@yahoo.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

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 [2] Christensen JH. A summary of the prudence model projections of changes in European climate by the end of this century [Internet]. 2007. Available from: https://www.researchgate. net/profile/Jens\_Christensen/ publication/225778645\_A\_summary\_ of\_the\_PRUDENCE\_model\_ projections\_of\_changes\_in\_European\_ climate\_by\_the\_end\_of\_this\_century/ links/0912f50630928e7300000000/Asummary-of-the-PRUDENCE-modelprojections-of-changes-in-Europeanclimate-by-the-end-of-this-century. pdf

[3] IPCC. Climate change: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability [Internet]. 2014. Available from: https:// ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/ IPCC\_WG2AR5\_SPM\_Approved.pdf [Accessed: 2018-12-25]

[4] Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Climate impact on global issues [Internet]. 2011. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ impactsadaptation/international. html#basics

[5] Parenti C. Tropic of Chaos: Climate Change and New Geography of Violence. New York: Nations Book Press; 2011

[6] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Climate change: Impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation in developing countries [Internet]. 2006. Available from: https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/ publications/impacts.pdf

[7] Conway G. The science of climate change in Africa: impacts and adaptation Africa [Internet]. 2009. Available from: https://workspace. imperial.ac.uk/climatechange/public/ pdfs/discussion\_papers/Grantham\_ Institue\_-\_The\_science\_of\_climate\_ change\_in\_Africa.pdf [Accessed: 2018-12-30]

[8] Olurunmi F. Risk communication in climate change and adaptation: Policy issues and challenges for Nigeria. Earth and Environmental Science. 2009;**6**:41

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[11] Haque AN. Application of multicriteria analysis on climate adaptation assessment in the context of least developed countries. Journal of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis. 2016;**23**:210-224. Available from: http:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ mcda.1571/abstract>

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[13] Eakin CM, Liu G, Gomez AM, De La Cour JL, Heron SF, Skirving WJ. Global coral bleaching status and an appeal for observations. Reef Encounter. 2016;**31**:20-26

[14] FEMA. Designing for Flood Levels Above the Base Flood Elevation. [Internet]. 2013. Available from: https://www.fema.gov/

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**561**

**Chapter 46**

**Abstract**

Entropy Value of Sustainable

a Study on Turkish REICs

*Ayşen Sanbur and Arzuhan Burcu Gültekin*

Property Design Criteria: To Start

Nowadays, the World seems to concentrate around two main subjects: the "Capital" and the "Environment"; in which the notions like the politics, finance, society, culture, and ecology are condensed to in terms of adding value to the real estate and to its genius logi. The main purpose of this study is to emphasize the necessity of maintaining the real estate development and sustainability in a structure that aims to invest nowadays as well as to the future in a holistic and interdisciplinary approach. For this purpose, the data flow required for a solid foundation of future forecasting; the information reflected the real and legal entities, which are the basic building blocks of investment/savings, is discussed over the capacity of expressing the returns of the sustainable built environment. In this study, the concept of design, construction, and valuation are discussed in the name of "value"

with the sustainability and capital theories, in the academic environment, in international institutions, and in the asset markets. The liquidity of the real estate projects, which are considered to be a high return on investment despite the low

circular economy, capital, built capital, green capital, asset-backed securities,

**Keywords:** sustainable property, real estate market liquidity, REIT, REIC, ΣSoCulTΞ,

Environmental performances have been started to be inspected, evaluated, and certified by developing environmental and structural bi-directional impacts, and the certification systems which were first developed for the certification of the environmental impacts of industrial products were adopted in the development process by the construction sector in time [1]. In addition to detailing a real estate (RE) as space and asset, all the details that the strategic plan can be applied should be taken into consideration in the coding required from building and project typology to sustainable materials. If fair value can be determined for each break-down, the value increase/decrease in sub-sectors may be observed in the sectoral sense. There is no doubt that the market value will be examined by the

According to Turkish data in March 2019 (Q1); the number of certified buildings and projects in the investment portfolio of Real Estate Investment Companies

liquidity, can be ensured through investment types.

worth of sustainable factors while the perception increased.

green bond, sustainability bond

**1. Introduction**

#### **Chapter 46**
