Practices for Resilience Building and Enhancement

*Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement*

[55] Obeta MC. Extreme river flood events in Nigeria: A geographical perspective of Nigerian. Journal of Geography and the Environment.

[56] Jeb DN, Aggarwal SP. Flood inundation hazard modelling of the River Kaduna using remote sensing and geographic information systems. Journal Of Applied Sciences Research.

[57] Tarhule A, Woo MK. Changes in rainfall characteristics in northern Nigeria. International Journal of Climatology: A Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society.

[58] Abdussalam AF, Monaghan AJ, Dukić VM, Hayden MH, Hopson TM, Leckebusch GC, et al. Climate influences on meningitis incidence in northwest Nigeria. Weather, Climate,

[59] Ogolo EO, Adeyemi B. Variations and trends of some meteorological parameters at Ibadan, Nigeria. The Pacific Journal of Science and Technology. 2009;**10**:981-987

[60] Obioha EE. Climate variability, environment change and food security nexus in Nigeria. Journal of Human

[61] Shiru MS, Shahid S, Chung ES, Alias N. Changing characteristics of meteorological droughts in Nigeria during 1901-2010. Atmospheric Research. 2019;**223**:60-73

2009;**1**:170-179

2008;**4**:1822-1833

1998;**18**:1261-1271

and Society. 2014;**6**:62-76

Ecology. 2009;**26**:107-121

[62] Adelekan IO. Flood risk management in the coastal city of Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Flood Risk

Management. 2016;**9**:255-264

2018;**18**:1145-1159

[63] Adekola O, Lamond J. A media framing analysis of urban flooding in Nigeria: Current narratives and implications for policy. Regional Environmental Change.

[47] Adelekan I. Private sector investment decisions in building and construction: Increasing, managing and transferring risks: Case study of Lagos, Nigeria. In: Background Paper Prepared for the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. Geneva:

[48] Mashi SA, Oghenejabor OD, Inkani AI. Disaster risks and management policies and practices in Nigeria: A critical appraisal of the National Emergency Management Agency Act. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction.

[49] Nkwunonwo UC. A review of flooding and flood risk reduction in Nigeria. Global Journal of Human-Social Science: B Geography, Geo-Sciences, Environmental Science & Disaster Management. 2016;**16**:22-42

[50] Iloje NP. A New Geography of

[51] Agbola BS, Ajayi O, Taiwo OJ, Wahab BW. The August 2011 flood in Ibadan, Nigeria: Anthropogenic causes and consequences. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science. 2012;**3**:207-217

[52] Bashir OO, Oludare AH,

Development. 2012;**5**(7):69

and the urban poor in Africa. Environment and Urbanization.

Nigeria: AHS; 2013. pp. 13-18

[54] Adebayo AA, Oruonye ED. An assessment of the effects of the 2012 floods in Taraba State, Nigeria. In: Annual National Conference, organized by the Association Hydrological Science University of Agriculture. Abeokuta,

2008;**20**:187-205

Nigeria. Lagos: Longman publishers; 2004

Johnson OO, Aloysius B. Floods of fury in Nigerian cities. Journal of Sustainable

[53] Douglas I, Alam K, Maghenda M, Mcdonnell Y, McLean L, Campbell J. Unjust waters: Climate change, flooding

UNISDR; 2013

2019;**33**:253-265

**102**

**Chapter 6**

**Abstract**

Rotterdam

**105**

**1. Introduction**

Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam'

Experience in Flood Risk and

how disaster prone cities transform itself to become disaster resilient.

serves as the major economic backbone of Rotterdam.

**Keywords:** resilient city, flooding, collective engagement, urban resilience,

The City of Rotterdam has undergone several city development plans since World War II. After the bombing of Rotterdam in 1940, the city drew up a reconstruction plan which focused on the major infrastructures within the center. However, it was only after the Germans left in 1945 did the reconstruction work finally took off. In 1946, Cornelius Van Traa drew up the Basic Scheme for the Reconstruction of the City of Rotterdam, most commonly referred to as the Basic Plan [1]. Much of the earlier efforts were focused on the reconstruction of the port which

In February 1, 1953, a huge flooding disaster called the Great North Sea flood hit

the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom. The Great North Sea flood inundated 160,000 ha of polderland and left a total of 1835 dead ([2], p. 740) in the South of Holland. The flooding disaster led to the development of the Deltaplan and in 1958 the plan was released prioritizing the implementation of the Deltaworks project which is a network of flood preventive infrastructures such as dams, sluices, storm surge barriers throughout the Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt river delta in the South of Holland. Since Rotterdam is an important port for the Netherlands the Deltaplan is very significant in the development of the city. It also coincided with the port expansion in the Botlek and Europoort areas which made Rotterdam the

Rotterdam City in the South of Holland is one of the most vibrant cities you will find in the Netherlands. The city has gone through a transformation from the time it was bombed in the 1940s up to the time that a part of the city was flooded in 1953. Through extensive rebuilding and the Delta Plan project, the city has been well protected against any flooding disaster that may come. However, how resilient really is Rotterdam? Through in-depth interviews of key stakeholders in the City of Rotterdam, the study investigates the collective engagement in the city and how this has helped shape Rotterdam's position in urban resilience. The study used the Collective Engagement Urban Resilience Framework as a framework to understand

*Theresa Audrey O. Esteban, Jurian Edelenbos*

Resilience Building

*and Naomi van Stapele*

s

## **Chapter 6**

## Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam' s Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building

*Theresa Audrey O. Esteban, Jurian Edelenbos and Naomi van Stapele*

## **Abstract**

Rotterdam City in the South of Holland is one of the most vibrant cities you will find in the Netherlands. The city has gone through a transformation from the time it was bombed in the 1940s up to the time that a part of the city was flooded in 1953. Through extensive rebuilding and the Delta Plan project, the city has been well protected against any flooding disaster that may come. However, how resilient really is Rotterdam? Through in-depth interviews of key stakeholders in the City of Rotterdam, the study investigates the collective engagement in the city and how this has helped shape Rotterdam's position in urban resilience. The study used the Collective Engagement Urban Resilience Framework as a framework to understand how disaster prone cities transform itself to become disaster resilient.

**Keywords:** resilient city, flooding, collective engagement, urban resilience, Rotterdam

#### **1. Introduction**

The City of Rotterdam has undergone several city development plans since World War II. After the bombing of Rotterdam in 1940, the city drew up a reconstruction plan which focused on the major infrastructures within the center. However, it was only after the Germans left in 1945 did the reconstruction work finally took off. In 1946, Cornelius Van Traa drew up the Basic Scheme for the Reconstruction of the City of Rotterdam, most commonly referred to as the Basic Plan [1]. Much of the earlier efforts were focused on the reconstruction of the port which serves as the major economic backbone of Rotterdam.

In February 1, 1953, a huge flooding disaster called the Great North Sea flood hit the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom. The Great North Sea flood inundated 160,000 ha of polderland and left a total of 1835 dead ([2], p. 740) in the South of Holland. The flooding disaster led to the development of the Deltaplan and in 1958 the plan was released prioritizing the implementation of the Deltaworks project which is a network of flood preventive infrastructures such as dams, sluices, storm surge barriers throughout the Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt river delta in the South of Holland. Since Rotterdam is an important port for the Netherlands the Deltaplan is very significant in the development of the city. It also coincided with the port expansion in the Botlek and Europoort areas which made Rotterdam the

largest port in the world in the early 60s. The Deltaworks project necessitated the raising of existing dikes and storm closures except for the waterway between Rotterdam and Antwerp [2, 3]. This opening was necessary to provide access to both ports.

Cities that have experienced a disaster often go through series of transformations at different levels and scales. One key element in this transformation after a disaster is the capacity of the people to collectively engage to support and work together to overcome the disaster and become more resilient. Participation and engagement of stakeholders in development planning allows different sectors to discuss, design, develop and create solutions that benefit the general population. There is a perception that without a multi-stakeholder participatory approach stronger and more powerful sectors or sections of society may step on weaker sectors in the planning process. This results to a skewed development that leans to these more powerful sectors. This criticism is not without basis since most government initiated participatory consultation workshops are often done to present

*Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building*

Collective engagement is considered within the realm of collaboration and collaborative processes which means that multiple stakeholders across sectors and networks engage in collective decision-making and action. This collaborative process may be through formal and informal networks bounded by trust and mutual adaptation of roles among the institutional actors and non-institutional stakeholders. Collective engagement in urban resilience is a dynamic process of trans-

*A collaborative process participated in by multiple stakeholders to arrive at a solution or decision to increase urban resilience through both formal and informal means. It is the collaboration between and among stakeholders over a prolonged period with varying manners in achieving a level of resilience that contributes to a collective goal of urban resilience. Collective engagement as a collaborative process is characterized by having reciprocity, trust and mutual respect between and among*

in the vision of the city to become resilient. There are two approaches to urban resilience, the government approach and the self-organization approach. The collective engagement urban resilience framework incorporates the two approaches emphasizing that urban resilience can be achieved when the government and the self-organization (citizen) approach has the same concern and awareness on the city's risks and vulnerabilities, and the same vision and goal to become resilient. This can be assessed in terms of the collaborative capacities of the institutional actors (government) and the non-institutional actors (citizens and citizen groups). It meets in the middle when both actors increase their capacities and collaboration

Collective engagement as a transformation framework has four dimensions concern, action, efficacy and security. Each dimension reflects the level of urban resilience in terms of the collaborative capacities of the institutional actors and the non-institutional actors. These collaborative capacities may be in the partnerships formed by the institutional actors and the citizens and citizen groups, and/or the government-led collaborative initiatives, and/or self-organizations formed by the non-government stakeholders that contribute to the overall vision and goal of the city to become resilient. All stakeholders must have the shared vision and goals to

The collective engagement urban resilience framework begins from the collective

concern which refers to the shared concern of the stakeholders on the risks and vulnerabilities of the city. Resilience requires public concern (p. 26) [8] but concern is ineffective if the people do not have the capacity to participate, engage and collaborate in creating a resilient city. Knowledge, skills and awareness increases their ability

Building urban resilience requires the collective engagement of stakeholders

formation that goes through a series of actions and is defined as,

to achieve their common goal (mutual adaptation of roles).

achieve urban resilience and are committed to support these efforts.

already pre-decided development plans.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

*state and non-state stakeholders.* [7]

**107**

The World Risk Report 2019 [4] indicated the risk exposure score of the Netherlands at 31.73 being a low-lying country threatened by sea level rise. However, the same report indicated that while the country has high exposure to disaster risks its vulnerability is very low and is ranked 77 over 180 countries. This can be attributed to the very strong and organized Dutch preventive infrastructure that has been in place for more than 60 years. In recent years, the Dutch have shifted its water management strategy from mitigation to a more climate adaptive way. Cities like Rotterdam have turned to this strategy since 2007 with the Water Plan 2. The city has been a frontrunner in climate change adaptation by designing innovative and inconspicuous water basins and reservoirs throughout the city. These infrastructure were built based on the studies and projections on sea level rise and its projected effects in the City of Rotterdam. The rising sea and river level remains a threat to the city especially during the storm season between October and April. But these are not the only threats present; heavy rainfall and low groundwater absorption are more often experienced in the city.

In 2014, the City of Rotterdam formally joined the 100 Resilient Cities of The Rockefeller Foundation and in 2016 released its Resilience Strategy with seven resilience goals: (1) Rotterdam: a balanced society, (2) World Port City built on clean and reliable energy, (3) Rotterdam Cyber Port City, (4) Climate adaptive city to a new level, (5) infrastructure ready for the 21st century, (6) Rotterdam network—truly our city, and (7) anchoring resilience in the city (City of Rotterdam, 2016). Rotterdam's Resilience Strategy highlight the city's strong and robust "planning and control" but also "foresee a number of new transitions and challenges and will have to stay alert and be prepared to build capacity to adapt to these challenges" (p. 26) [5]. According to Spaans and Waterhout since joining the 100 Resilient Cities, Rotterdam expanded its resilience agenda from climate change adaptation to include other urban issues such as cyber security, social issues, education, and labor market [6]. However, the Resilience Strategy did not define what resilience is, instead boasted that resilience need not be explained because it is in the DNA of the Rotterdammers.

There is no doubt that resilience is in the DNA of the Rotterdammers. The will to survive and rise up to adversity has been there since the bombing of the city in 1940—wherein a reconstruction plan was immediately created—and the Great North Sea flood in 1953—which led to the Deltaworks project. But resilience is not just about the infrastructure and while the Resilience Strategy of Rotterdam identified the Rotterdammers as resilient, how do the "Rotterdammers," the stakeholders, define resilience? And what makes a city like Rotterdam resilient? Using in-depth interviews of key stakeholders in the City of Rotterdam, this study investigates the collective engagement in the city and how this has helped shape Rotterdam's position in urban resilience.

#### **2. Collective engagement and urban resilience**

Cities are complex, multi-dimensional socio-ecological systems that have both the social systems (institutional, social, economic functions) and ecological systems (physical, spatial, built and natural environments). A resilient city uses this socioecological system as interrelated and interdependent networks to prepare and adapt to changes and disturbances. Natural disaster like flooding is one of the many disturbances that prompts change in cities.

#### *Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

Cities that have experienced a disaster often go through series of transformations at different levels and scales. One key element in this transformation after a disaster is the capacity of the people to collectively engage to support and work together to overcome the disaster and become more resilient. Participation and engagement of stakeholders in development planning allows different sectors to discuss, design, develop and create solutions that benefit the general population. There is a perception that without a multi-stakeholder participatory approach stronger and more powerful sectors or sections of society may step on weaker sectors in the planning process. This results to a skewed development that leans to these more powerful sectors. This criticism is not without basis since most government initiated participatory consultation workshops are often done to present already pre-decided development plans.

Collective engagement is considered within the realm of collaboration and collaborative processes which means that multiple stakeholders across sectors and networks engage in collective decision-making and action. This collaborative process may be through formal and informal networks bounded by trust and mutual adaptation of roles among the institutional actors and non-institutional stakeholders. Collective engagement in urban resilience is a dynamic process of transformation that goes through a series of actions and is defined as,

*A collaborative process participated in by multiple stakeholders to arrive at a solution or decision to increase urban resilience through both formal and informal means. It is the collaboration between and among stakeholders over a prolonged period with varying manners in achieving a level of resilience that contributes to a collective goal of urban resilience. Collective engagement as a collaborative process is characterized by having reciprocity, trust and mutual respect between and among state and non-state stakeholders.* [7]

Building urban resilience requires the collective engagement of stakeholders in the vision of the city to become resilient. There are two approaches to urban resilience, the government approach and the self-organization approach. The collective engagement urban resilience framework incorporates the two approaches emphasizing that urban resilience can be achieved when the government and the self-organization (citizen) approach has the same concern and awareness on the city's risks and vulnerabilities, and the same vision and goal to become resilient. This can be assessed in terms of the collaborative capacities of the institutional actors (government) and the non-institutional actors (citizens and citizen groups). It meets in the middle when both actors increase their capacities and collaboration to achieve their common goal (mutual adaptation of roles).

Collective engagement as a transformation framework has four dimensions concern, action, efficacy and security. Each dimension reflects the level of urban resilience in terms of the collaborative capacities of the institutional actors and the non-institutional actors. These collaborative capacities may be in the partnerships formed by the institutional actors and the citizens and citizen groups, and/or the government-led collaborative initiatives, and/or self-organizations formed by the non-government stakeholders that contribute to the overall vision and goal of the city to become resilient. All stakeholders must have the shared vision and goals to achieve urban resilience and are committed to support these efforts.

The collective engagement urban resilience framework begins from the collective concern which refers to the shared concern of the stakeholders on the risks and vulnerabilities of the city. Resilience requires public concern (p. 26) [8] but concern is ineffective if the people do not have the capacity to participate, engage and collaborate in creating a resilient city. Knowledge, skills and awareness increases their ability

largest port in the world in the early 60s. The Deltaworks project necessitated the raising of existing dikes and storm closures except for the waterway between Rotterdam and Antwerp [2, 3]. This opening was necessary to provide access to

The World Risk Report 2019 [4] indicated the risk exposure score of the Netherlands at 31.73 being a low-lying country threatened by sea level rise. However, the same report indicated that while the country has high exposure to disaster risks its vulnerability is very low and is ranked 77 over 180 countries. This can be attributed to the very strong and organized Dutch preventive infrastructure that has been in place for more than 60 years. In recent years, the Dutch have shifted its water management strategy from mitigation to a more climate adaptive way. Cities like Rotterdam have turned to this strategy since 2007 with the Water Plan 2. The city has been a frontrunner in climate change adaptation by designing innovative and inconspicuous water basins and reservoirs throughout the city. These infrastructure were built based on the studies and projections on sea level rise and its projected effects in the City of Rotterdam. The rising sea and river level remains a threat to the city especially during the storm season between October and April. But these are not the only threats present; heavy rainfall and low groundwater absorption are

In 2014, the City of Rotterdam formally joined the 100 Resilient Cities of The Rockefeller Foundation and in 2016 released its Resilience Strategy with seven resilience goals: (1) Rotterdam: a balanced society, (2) World Port City built on clean and reliable energy, (3) Rotterdam Cyber Port City, (4) Climate adaptive city to a new level, (5) infrastructure ready for the 21st century, (6) Rotterdam network—truly our city, and (7) anchoring resilience in the city (City of Rotterdam, 2016). Rotterdam's Resilience Strategy highlight the city's strong and robust "planning and control" but also "foresee a number of new transitions and challenges and will have to stay alert and be prepared to build capacity to adapt to these challenges" (p. 26) [5]. According to Spaans and Waterhout since joining the 100 Resilient Cities, Rotterdam expanded its resilience agenda from climate change adaptation to include other urban issues such as cyber security, social issues, education, and labor market [6]. However, the Resilience Strategy did not define what resilience is, instead boasted that resilience

need not be explained because it is in the DNA of the Rotterdammers.

**2. Collective engagement and urban resilience**

disturbances that prompts change in cities.

There is no doubt that resilience is in the DNA of the Rotterdammers. The will to survive and rise up to adversity has been there since the bombing of the city in 1940—wherein a reconstruction plan was immediately created—and the Great North Sea flood in 1953—which led to the Deltaworks project. But resilience is not just about the infrastructure and while the Resilience Strategy of Rotterdam identified the Rotterdammers as resilient, how do the "Rotterdammers," the stakeholders, define resilience? And what makes a city like Rotterdam resilient? Using in-depth interviews of key stakeholders in the City of Rotterdam, this study investigates the collective engagement in the city and how this has helped shape Rotterdam's posi-

Cities are complex, multi-dimensional socio-ecological systems that have both the social systems (institutional, social, economic functions) and ecological systems (physical, spatial, built and natural environments). A resilient city uses this socioecological system as interrelated and interdependent networks to prepare and adapt to changes and disturbances. Natural disaster like flooding is one of the many

both ports.

more often experienced in the city.

*Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement*

tion in urban resilience.

**106**

The Rotterdam city case study is one of the four case studies under the dissertation research. This study draws on the secondary data and primary data collected through key informants interviews conducted from November 2018 to February 2019. It focuses on how the disaster experience of Rotterdam led to the its current level of urban resilience, and the role and understanding of the stakeholders towards the vision of Rotterdam as a Resilient City. The primary data collected will be the main source of information supported by secondary data such as policy documents, scientific articles, government websites and other secondary sources. The Rotterdam city case study is based on 19 semi-structured interviews of key stakeholders following the criteria of the collective engagement urban resilience framework. Specifically, stakeholders who fall under the government approach and the self-organization approach. The government stakeholders identified for the study are the institutional actors (government workers and the water board) and the planners (academics). Under the self-organization approach stakeholders identified are citizens (non-government organizations, community council, housing associations, private citizens) and the capital stakeholders (architectural firm and the port authority). There was an initial list of 13 key knowledgeable persons in city development and planning, and disaster risk management in the City of Rotterdam targeted to be interviewed. Using the snowball sampling each key informants interview respondent was asked to recommend one or two persons until reaching the saturation point. In total, 19 interviews were done for the case study (9 institu-

*Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

A set of scores were used to assess the urban resilience of Rotterdam using the collective engagement urban resilience framework. Each collective dimension consists of a set of variables and further operationalized into a criteria that falls under

The results of the assessment of Rotterdam's collective engagement and urban resilience are discussed below. Each collective dimensions scores given in **Figure 2**

The Dutch have a collective knowledge on the history of the Netherlands relationship with water through history lessons from schools. Stakeholders interviewed recalled the 1953 Great North Sea flood as the catalyst for the creation of the Delta Plan and later on the implementation of the Delta Works. The construction of the vast preventive infrastructures in the Netherlands was communicated publicly making it common knowledge. The Maeslantkering and Oosterscheldekering are two large storm surge barriers in Rotterdam and Zeeland, respectively that residents are familiar with. The residents' familiarity with the large preventive infrastructures were based on the history lessons about the 1953 flood, Delta Plan, and the

In 1993 and 1995, the riverine threat in the Rhine began the paradigm shift in the

Netherlands from preventive measures to more adaptive measures in terms of dealing with high river discharges. This shifted the water management approach of the Dutch from preventive to more adaptive. Policies such as the Flood Defence Act (1996), Room for the River (1997), and "Dealing differently with water" (2000)

tional, 2 planners, 6 citizens and 2 capital stakeholders).

each score using a five-point Likert scale (**Table 1**).

were based on the discussion.

*4.1.1 Collective memory on disaster events*

Delta Works learned from school.

**109**

**4.1 Collective concern**

**4. Collective engagement and urban resilience in Rotterdam**

#### **Figure 1.**

*Collective engagement urban resilience framework. Source: Esteban [7].*

to participate, empowers the citizens and increases government accountability. Concern is also the catalyst for action, the second dimension of the framework. Collective action happens when there is a shared effort to achieve an outcome. It facilitates the exchange of information, knowledge and experiences to help in creating solutions. It is driven by the networks maintained by the stakeholders as individuals and groups. Social networks help in facilitating the required action towards a given issue. The sense of community is much more evident in this dimension where stakeholders with the help of their social networks cooperate to achieve a common agenda. In this dimension, the action taken by the government driven approach will be more policy oriented and general to benefit all of the stakeholders.

The next dimension, collective efficacy, conjures a task specific construct that highlights shared expectation and mutual agreements by residents in local social control [9]. Collective efficacy is the result of having an empowered community that effectively takes action to improve their city but also a government that has a strong enabling environment and economy that help propagate growth. This dimension is built on mutual trust and regular interaction that is accessible to a wider network. Last, collective security refers to the security against disasters that the city and its citizens collectively enjoy, which is brought about by the alliance and partnership between the stakeholders and the city government. Engaging stakeholders in discussing problems and possible solutions help in developing arrangements with the government to push forward collaborative actions towards urban management and resilience. However, in order to this effectively governments should be open to collaborating with stakeholders and should have the necessary resources to be able to fully realize a resilient city.

The framework shows that both government and self-organization approach begins at the collective concern and moves towards the different dimensions in different pathways and timescales to reach a level of efficacy and converge to a level of security. As illustrated in **Figure 1** the overall urban resilience is also influenced by the human, social, institutional, economic and environmental capitals.

#### **3. Methodology**

This study is based on the findings of the first author's fieldwork for her dissertation project "Collective engagement: from disaster-prone city to disaster-resilient city."

#### *Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

The Rotterdam city case study is one of the four case studies under the dissertation research. This study draws on the secondary data and primary data collected through key informants interviews conducted from November 2018 to February 2019. It focuses on how the disaster experience of Rotterdam led to the its current level of urban resilience, and the role and understanding of the stakeholders towards the vision of Rotterdam as a Resilient City. The primary data collected will be the main source of information supported by secondary data such as policy documents, scientific articles, government websites and other secondary sources.

The Rotterdam city case study is based on 19 semi-structured interviews of key stakeholders following the criteria of the collective engagement urban resilience framework. Specifically, stakeholders who fall under the government approach and the self-organization approach. The government stakeholders identified for the study are the institutional actors (government workers and the water board) and the planners (academics). Under the self-organization approach stakeholders identified are citizens (non-government organizations, community council, housing associations, private citizens) and the capital stakeholders (architectural firm and the port authority). There was an initial list of 13 key knowledgeable persons in city development and planning, and disaster risk management in the City of Rotterdam targeted to be interviewed. Using the snowball sampling each key informants interview respondent was asked to recommend one or two persons until reaching the saturation point. In total, 19 interviews were done for the case study (9 institutional, 2 planners, 6 citizens and 2 capital stakeholders).

A set of scores were used to assess the urban resilience of Rotterdam using the collective engagement urban resilience framework. Each collective dimension consists of a set of variables and further operationalized into a criteria that falls under each score using a five-point Likert scale (**Table 1**).

#### **4. Collective engagement and urban resilience in Rotterdam**

The results of the assessment of Rotterdam's collective engagement and urban resilience are discussed below. Each collective dimensions scores given in **Figure 2** were based on the discussion.

#### **4.1 Collective concern**

to participate, empowers the citizens and increases government accountability. Concern is also the catalyst for action, the second dimension of the framework. Collective action happens when there is a shared effort to achieve an outcome. It facilitates the exchange of information, knowledge and experiences to help in creating solutions. It is driven by the networks maintained by the stakeholders as individuals and groups. Social networks help in facilitating the required action towards a given issue. The sense of community is much more evident in this dimension where stakeholders with the help of their social networks cooperate to achieve a common agenda. In this dimension, the action taken by the government driven approach will be more policy

The next dimension, collective efficacy, conjures a task specific construct that highlights shared expectation and mutual agreements by residents in local social control [9]. Collective efficacy is the result of having an empowered community that effectively takes action to improve their city but also a government that has a strong enabling environment and economy that help propagate growth. This dimension is built on mutual trust and regular interaction that is accessible to a wider network. Last, collective security refers to the security against disasters that the city and its citizens collectively enjoy, which is brought about by the alliance and partnership between the stakeholders and the city government. Engaging stakeholders in discussing problems and possible solutions help in developing arrangements with the government to push forward collaborative actions towards urban management and resilience. However, in order to this effectively governments should be open to collaborating with stakeholders and should have the

The framework shows that both government and self-organization approach begins at the collective concern and moves towards the different dimensions in different pathways and timescales to reach a level of efficacy and converge to a level of security. As illustrated in **Figure 1** the overall urban resilience is also influenced

This study is based on the findings of the first author's fieldwork for her dissertation project "Collective engagement: from disaster-prone city to disaster-resilient city."

by the human, social, institutional, economic and environmental capitals.

oriented and general to benefit all of the stakeholders.

*Collective engagement urban resilience framework. Source: Esteban [7].*

*Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement*

necessary resources to be able to fully realize a resilient city.

**3. Methodology**

**108**

**Figure 1.**

#### *4.1.1 Collective memory on disaster events*

The Dutch have a collective knowledge on the history of the Netherlands relationship with water through history lessons from schools. Stakeholders interviewed recalled the 1953 Great North Sea flood as the catalyst for the creation of the Delta Plan and later on the implementation of the Delta Works. The construction of the vast preventive infrastructures in the Netherlands was communicated publicly making it common knowledge. The Maeslantkering and Oosterscheldekering are two large storm surge barriers in Rotterdam and Zeeland, respectively that residents are familiar with. The residents' familiarity with the large preventive infrastructures were based on the history lessons about the 1953 flood, Delta Plan, and the Delta Works learned from school.

In 1993 and 1995, the riverine threat in the Rhine began the paradigm shift in the Netherlands from preventive measures to more adaptive measures in terms of dealing with high river discharges. This shifted the water management approach of the Dutch from preventive to more adaptive. Policies such as the Flood Defence Act (1996), Room for the River (1997), and "Dealing differently with water" (2000)


**Collective dimensions**

**111**

**variables**

 **and**

**Score**

**Poor**

**1**

**Collective efficacy**

Strong technical knowledge

No or weak technical

Awareness of some technical

Practical disaster risk

management

understanding

 on

Strong disaster risk and organized advocacy on

disaster risk and planning

City disaster risk

management

closely with local

communities

 office works

preparedness

understanding

 on

Applied disaster risk organized advocacy on

disaster risk and planning

City disaster risk

management

closely with external agencies

and

NGOs and the regional and

national agencies Regular disaster risk

management

workshops,

education and communication

including at the primary and

secondary education

 campaigns

 or information

 drills,

organizations

 such as

 office works

*Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building*

preparedness

management

 and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

understanding

 on

management

knowledge and disaster risk

management

knowledge and advocacy on

disaster risk

management

and advocacy on disaster risk

management

Strong presence of city

No presence of city disaster

Presence of city disaster risk

City disaster risk

management

closely with other

departments

government

 in the city

 office works

management

 office

risk

management

 office

disaster risk

office

Regular disaster risk

No or weak disaster risk

Presence of at least one

disaster risk

management

two

—disaster risk

management

workshops,

education and communication

 campaigns

 or information

 drills,

> or

—

Regular occurrence

 of at least

Regular disaster risk

management

workshops,

education and communication

 campaigns

 and information

 drills,

management

workshops,

education and communication

 campaigns

 and

information,

drills, workshops,

information

 education and

communication

 campaigns

 drills,

management

workshops and information

campaigns

**Collective security**

Strong technical knowledge

No or weak technical

Some technical knowledge

Practical technical knowledge

Strong technical knowledge

Applied technical knowledge

and expertise in physical

infrastructure

and expertise and skills on

disaster risk and organized advocacy on

disaster risk and planning

preparedness

management

and expertise on disaster risk

management

and expertise on disaster risk

management

knowledge and expertise and

advocacy on disaster risk

management

and expertise, social interest

and advocacy on disaster risk

management

stakeholder,

change

 behavioral

 in the city,

 drills,

management

 in the city

**Fair**

**23**

**Moderate**

**Good**

**45**

**Very good**


*Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

**Collective dimensions**

**110**

**variables**

 **and**

**Score**

**Poor**

**1**

**Collective concern** Strong collective memory on

Poor disaster events or no experience of disaster

No presence or weak

Presence of organized

groups such as housing or

community

 associations

presence of organized groups

remembrance

 of

Remembers

events

 past disaster

Remembers

events and the action of the

city thereafter

Presence of both housing

Presence of housing

associations,

organizations

 and volunteers

 community

associations

organizations

 and community

 past disaster

Past disaster events passed

Past disaster events stimulate

current

city

Locally organized groups

recognized by the

government

with local government Local knowledge and local

adaptation measures

combined with knowledge

sharing within networks

 and working

development

 of the

*Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement*

on to new generation

disaster events Strong network

Strong local knowledge and

Absence or poor local

Some local knowledge and

Adequate local knowledge

Demonstrable

knowledge and local

adaptation measures

 local

> and local adaptation

measures

local adaptation measures

knowledge on how to address

flooding

local adaptation measures

**Collective action**

Strong awareness and

Poor level of concern and

Low level of concern and

Adequate level of concern

Aware of the disaster risks in

Strong awareness and

understanding

risks in the city and disaster

management

Local disaster risk

management

own strategy plan

 units have their

 of disaster

the city and understand

disaster

management

and awareness on disaster

risk, management

Presence of local disaster risk

Presence of local disaster risk

management

coordinates

community

Adequate information,

 education and

communication

risk

management

 on disaster

dissemination

 of

Citizen led information,

 education and

communication

risk

management

 on disaster

dissemination

 of

 with local

 units

management

recognized by the local

government

 units

preparedness,

 and

awareness on disaster risk,

preparedness,

management

Presence of locally organized

 and

awareness on disaster risk of

the city

concern on disaster risk,

preparedness,

management

Strong presence of disaster

No presence of local disaster

risk

management

 units

groups on disaster risk

management

preparedness

 and

risk Strong education and communication

risk

management

 on disaster

information,

Weak or no education and communication

risk

management

 on disaster

information,

Available education and communication

risk

management

 on disaster

information,

Available and accessible

information,

 education and

communication

risk

management

 on disaster

management

 units

 and

**Fair**

**23**

**Moderate**

**Good**

**45**

**Very good**


**Table 1.** *Scoring scales for the collective engagement urban resilience framework.* [10] led to Rotterdam adapting a more climate adaptive approach to flood management and city development. These near disaster events have directed the climate

*Scores per collective dimension. Source: Esteban TAO. Draft Chapter 6. Mind the Gap. Rotterdam: Erasmus*

There are two organizations at the local level the gebiedscommissie and the neighborhood committees. Members of the gebiedscommissie are elected by the residents while members of the neighborhood committees are chosen through lottery. The gebiedscommissie or the area committees are groups of people living in the community who play the role as "eyes and ears of an area for the city council" [11]. Most of the time the gebiedscommissie serves as an intermediary between the community and the government. The gebiedscommissie holds monthly meetings called the area commission evening where people can gather to discuss their concerns. This is also a venue for the city government to present their ideas and plans

Aside from the gebiedscommissie and neighborhood committees, there are housing associations and building associations. These associations are mostly where residents congregate and discuss issues happening in their streets, buildings or community in general. There are also volunteers within each community such as those who volunteer in the community gardens. There are some well-organized neighborhoods in Rotterdam with a number of volunteers who help the city government in their projects. In Noordereiland, the buur bestuurd (neighborhood governance organization) act as a vigilance group to report suspicious activities within the neighborhood. Most of the time the neighborhoods will organize themselves based on what they perceive as important in the neighborhoods. This does not necessarily mean flood disasters or climate related threats.

change adaptation and influenced Rotterdam's plans and policies.

*Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

*4.1.2 Networks*

*University Rotterdam; 2019 (Unpublished).*

**Figure 2.**

for the neighborhood.

**113**

*Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

**Figure 2.**

*Scores per collective dimension. Source: Esteban TAO. Draft Chapter 6. Mind the Gap. Rotterdam: Erasmus University Rotterdam; 2019 (Unpublished).*

[10] led to Rotterdam adapting a more climate adaptive approach to flood management and city development. These near disaster events have directed the climate change adaptation and influenced Rotterdam's plans and policies.

#### *4.1.2 Networks*

There are two organizations at the local level the gebiedscommissie and the neighborhood committees. Members of the gebiedscommissie are elected by the residents while members of the neighborhood committees are chosen through lottery. The gebiedscommissie or the area committees are groups of people living in the community who play the role as "eyes and ears of an area for the city council" [11]. Most of the time the gebiedscommissie serves as an intermediary between the community and the government. The gebiedscommissie holds monthly meetings called the area commission evening where people can gather to discuss their concerns. This is also a venue for the city government to present their ideas and plans for the neighborhood.

Aside from the gebiedscommissie and neighborhood committees, there are housing associations and building associations. These associations are mostly where residents congregate and discuss issues happening in their streets, buildings or community in general. There are also volunteers within each community such as those who volunteer in the community gardens. There are some well-organized neighborhoods in Rotterdam with a number of volunteers who help the city government in their projects. In Noordereiland, the buur bestuurd (neighborhood governance organization) act as a vigilance group to report suspicious activities within the neighborhood. Most of the time the neighborhoods will organize themselves based on what they perceive as important in the neighborhoods. This does not necessarily mean flood disasters or climate related threats.

**Collective dimensions**

**112**

**variables**

 **and**

**Score**

**Poor**

**1**

No presence or weak concern

Strong national, regional, city

disaster risk

Strong education and communication

risk, climate and disaster

proof

city

*Source: Esteban TAO. Draft Chapter 6. Mind the Gap. Rotterdam: Erasmus University Rotterdam; 2019* 

**Table 1.**

*Scoring scales for the collective engagement*

 *urban resilience framework.*

infrastructure

 in the

 on disaster

information,

Weak or no education and communication

risk

and disaster proof

infrastructure

 in the city

management,

 climate

risk

and disaster proof

infrastructure

 in the city

management,

 climate

risk and disaster proof

infrastructure

 in the city

*(Unpublished).*

management,

 climate

risk and disaster proof

infrastructure

 in the city

management,

 climate

risk and disaster proof

infrastructure

 in the city

management,

 climate

 on disaster

information,

Available education and communication

 on disaster

information,

Available and accessible

Adequate information,

 education and

communication

 on disaster

dissemination

 of

Citizen led information,

 education and

communication

 on disaster

dissemination

 of

information,

 education and

communication

 on disaster

management

on disaster risk

management

at the national or regional

level on disaster risk

management

**Fair**

Presence of an

organization

Organization

disaster risk works closely with national,

and regional

with similar function

organizations

government

management

 dealing with

**23**

**Moderate**

**Good**

Organization

disaster risk works closely with city

management

 dealing with

Organization

disaster risk works closely with external

agencies and

such as NGOs and the

regional and national

agencies

organizations

*Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement*

management

 dealing with

**45**

**Very good** However, interviewees recognize that the social networks and organizations within and around the neighborhoods help make the community socially resilient.

other companies in the port. They base their port adaptation strategies on the Delta Program predicted sea level rise and work together with the City of Rotterdam on

People get information on flooding, high water levels from the media, social media, television, newspapers and neighborhood newsletters but they are not concerned. Most of the interviewees mentioned that information during the storm season is often disseminated through leaflets. Information includes warnings and reminders specifically to residents in flood prone areas, i.e., Noordereiland.

Other means of communication provided by the city government to residents include information on websites such as the www.overstrooming.nl, and www.nie uws.nl. The city government is increasing communications on climate change adaptation through their websites. Information lodged virtually through the websites may not be effective for some groups who do not often use the internet, who have no internet, and who do not know how to use the internet. Further if these information are not sought in the internet then there is also no guarantee on

*4.3.1 Technical knowledge and advocacy on disaster risk management in the city*

The city government has a strong awareness and understanding on Rotterdam's flood risks and vulnerabilities. The city development plans have moved towards sustainable development and climate change adaptation since the 1990s. A number of plans and policies were developed to guide the direction of Rotterdam's growth towards a more sustainable, climate adaptive and resilient path. However, it was in the 2000s that climate change adaptation took a stronghold in the city development planning due to several near flooding events in 1993, 1995 and 1998. The Architectural Biennial in 2005 became the main turning point towards this direction of climate change adaptation with the Rotterdam Water City 2035 design study [12, 14–17]. What ensued after is a series of development planning, studies and strategy development that takes into account the city's position as an economic hub but also as one of the densest places in the Netherlands with highly vulnerable

The Rotterdam Water City 2035 combined urban design and climate change adaptation strategies to transform Rotterdam to an attractive city. The Water Plan 2 was adapted in 2007 which links urban and water highlighting the urgency to address climate change through adaptive measures [12, 14, 15, 17, 18]. The Water Plan 2 was integrated to the Rotterdam City Vision 2030 the mission statement of which is to the mission "build a strong economy and an attractive place to live" [19] (City of Rotterdam, 2019). The Rotterdam Climate Initiative (RCI) was also initiated in 2007 to focus on the port, carbon dioxide reduction and energy savings, in the city the RCI included an adaptation program. The RCI envisions Rotterdam to be the leader in water innovation while increasing resilience to climate change [20]. Similar to the RCI, the Rotterdam Climate Change Adaptation Strategy adapted in 2013 aims to achieve a climate proof Rotterdam by 2025 [21]. A year after Rotterdam joined the 100 Resilient Cities of the Rockefeller Foundation and in 2016

With all the plans and strategies on resilience, there are no information campaigns widely disseminated in Rotterdam. There are also no information on disaster

*4.2.3 Information, education and communication on disaster risk management*

*Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building*

the future direction of the port.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

the outreach.

**4.3 Collective efficacy**

geographic and geologic position.

released its Resilient Strategy.

**115**

#### *4.1.3 Local knowledge and adaptation measures*

Interviewees agree that Noordereiland is the only place where people know what to do when there is a flood. Noordereiland is a small community located outside of the dike area, along the River Meuse, and in the middle of the city. Residents of Noordereiland experience low level flooding every 2–5 years usually during the storm season. Since the residents regularly experience flooding and sea the water daily they understand that living in the area comes with risks of flooding. Most residents do not put valuables in the cellar of their buildings and know how to prepare during the storm season. They know that there is a possibility that their basements will be flooded or their cars parked on the quays run the risk of being washed away, as such many of the residents take precaution. The residents also know that they need to install wooden barriers and sand bags in front of their doors to keep the water from entering their homes.

#### **4.2 Collective action**

#### *4.2.1 Awareness and concern on disaster risk, preparedness, and management*

There is a general perception on the low level of awareness and concern of the people in Rotterdam on their flood risks and vulnerabilities. This can be attributed to the general "feeling of safety" that the people have because of the strong preventive infrastructures present in the city and in large the country. The completion of the Delta Works in 1997 with the final storm surge barriers built in Rotterdam (Maeslantkering) and Spijkenisse (Hartelkering) also marked the development of the first water management (Water Plan 1) in Rotterdam. The Water Plan 1 Urban water strategy and short term plan included a plan to increase Rotterdam's water retention [12, 13]. This was because prior to the Water Plan 1 water retention was a "low priority in Rotterdam compared to other issues such as economic development, unemployment and safety" [14].

The level of trust and reliance on the government is high because the people hold the government accountable for the taxes that they pay for. People expect the government to maintain the dikes and to keep people safe and dry because it is the government's job to do so. This trust on the government is warranted since the people have remained safe since the Deltaworks project was implemented. However, the collective memory on the flooding disaster is disappearing because the people do not experience flooding or any disaster, disasters happen elsewhere, people are unaware of the threats and vulnerabilities in the city. Further scientists have predicted the possibility of a disaster from happening in the Netherlands at 1 in 10,000 years. This is often translated by the people as never going to happen in their lifetime. This low level of awareness and concern is disadvantageous when it comes to crisis management and disaster preparation.

#### *4.2.2 Presence of community-based disaster risk management units*

There are no community-based disaster risk management units or any community based group dealing with disaster risks. Such there are also no community plans in the event of an emergency. The only example of a community that has it its own self-organized crisis management plan is the port area as led by the Port Authority. The Port Authority has an adaptation strategy that they developed together with

other companies in the port. They base their port adaptation strategies on the Delta Program predicted sea level rise and work together with the City of Rotterdam on the future direction of the port.

### *4.2.3 Information, education and communication on disaster risk management*

People get information on flooding, high water levels from the media, social media, television, newspapers and neighborhood newsletters but they are not concerned. Most of the interviewees mentioned that information during the storm season is often disseminated through leaflets. Information includes warnings and reminders specifically to residents in flood prone areas, i.e., Noordereiland.

Other means of communication provided by the city government to residents include information on websites such as the www.overstrooming.nl, and www.nie uws.nl. The city government is increasing communications on climate change adaptation through their websites. Information lodged virtually through the websites may not be effective for some groups who do not often use the internet, who have no internet, and who do not know how to use the internet. Further if these information are not sought in the internet then there is also no guarantee on the outreach.

#### **4.3 Collective efficacy**

However, interviewees recognize that the social networks and organizations within

Interviewees agree that Noordereiland is the only place where people know what to do when there is a flood. Noordereiland is a small community located outside of the dike area, along the River Meuse, and in the middle of the city. Residents of Noordereiland experience low level flooding every 2–5 years usually during the storm season. Since the residents regularly experience flooding and sea the water daily they understand that living in the area comes with risks of flooding. Most residents do not put valuables in the cellar of their buildings and know how to prepare during the storm season. They know that there is a possibility that their basements will be flooded or their cars parked on the quays run the risk of being washed away, as such many of the residents take precaution. The residents also know that they need to install wooden barriers and sand bags in front of their doors

and around the neighborhoods help make the community socially resilient.

*4.2.1 Awareness and concern on disaster risk, preparedness, and management*

There is a general perception on the low level of awareness and concern of the people in Rotterdam on their flood risks and vulnerabilities. This can be attributed to the general "feeling of safety" that the people have because of the strong preventive infrastructures present in the city and in large the country. The completion of the Delta Works in 1997 with the final storm surge barriers built in Rotterdam (Maeslantkering) and Spijkenisse (Hartelkering) also marked the development of the first water management (Water Plan 1) in Rotterdam. The Water Plan 1 Urban water strategy and short term plan included a plan to increase Rotterdam's water retention [12, 13]. This was because prior to the Water Plan 1 water retention was a "low priority in Rotterdam compared to other issues such as economic develop-

The level of trust and reliance on the government is high because the people hold

There are no community-based disaster risk management units or any community based group dealing with disaster risks. Such there are also no community plans in the event of an emergency. The only example of a community that has it its own self-organized crisis management plan is the port area as led by the Port Authority. The Port Authority has an adaptation strategy that they developed together with

the government accountable for the taxes that they pay for. People expect the government to maintain the dikes and to keep people safe and dry because it is the government's job to do so. This trust on the government is warranted since the people have remained safe since the Deltaworks project was implemented. However, the collective memory on the flooding disaster is disappearing because the people do not experience flooding or any disaster, disasters happen elsewhere, people are unaware of the threats and vulnerabilities in the city. Further scientists have predicted the possibility of a disaster from happening in the Netherlands at 1 in 10,000 years. This is often translated by the people as never going to happen in their lifetime. This low level of awareness and concern is disadvantageous when it

*4.1.3 Local knowledge and adaptation measures*

*Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement*

to keep the water from entering their homes.

ment, unemployment and safety" [14].

comes to crisis management and disaster preparation.

*4.2.2 Presence of community-based disaster risk management units*

**4.2 Collective action**

**114**

#### *4.3.1 Technical knowledge and advocacy on disaster risk management in the city*

The city government has a strong awareness and understanding on Rotterdam's flood risks and vulnerabilities. The city development plans have moved towards sustainable development and climate change adaptation since the 1990s. A number of plans and policies were developed to guide the direction of Rotterdam's growth towards a more sustainable, climate adaptive and resilient path. However, it was in the 2000s that climate change adaptation took a stronghold in the city development planning due to several near flooding events in 1993, 1995 and 1998. The Architectural Biennial in 2005 became the main turning point towards this direction of climate change adaptation with the Rotterdam Water City 2035 design study [12, 14–17]. What ensued after is a series of development planning, studies and strategy development that takes into account the city's position as an economic hub but also as one of the densest places in the Netherlands with highly vulnerable geographic and geologic position.

The Rotterdam Water City 2035 combined urban design and climate change adaptation strategies to transform Rotterdam to an attractive city. The Water Plan 2 was adapted in 2007 which links urban and water highlighting the urgency to address climate change through adaptive measures [12, 14, 15, 17, 18]. The Water Plan 2 was integrated to the Rotterdam City Vision 2030 the mission statement of which is to the mission "build a strong economy and an attractive place to live" [19] (City of Rotterdam, 2019). The Rotterdam Climate Initiative (RCI) was also initiated in 2007 to focus on the port, carbon dioxide reduction and energy savings, in the city the RCI included an adaptation program. The RCI envisions Rotterdam to be the leader in water innovation while increasing resilience to climate change [20]. Similar to the RCI, the Rotterdam Climate Change Adaptation Strategy adapted in 2013 aims to achieve a climate proof Rotterdam by 2025 [21]. A year after Rotterdam joined the 100 Resilient Cities of the Rockefeller Foundation and in 2016 released its Resilient Strategy.

With all the plans and strategies on resilience, there are no information campaigns widely disseminated in Rotterdam. There are also no information on disaster management only warnings such as announcements on tv, radio or through SMS when there are gas leaks from the port. These are more reactionary exercises rather than preparatory like a drill on flooding and evacuation. Further preparation and evacuation is seen as an individual responsibility yet this is not very well communicated to the residents.

Hague. The Maeslantkering and Oosterscheldekering storm surge barriers prevent storm surges of more than 3 m high and the dikes are also heightened along the

*Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

which is especially helpful during the dry seasons.

*4.4.2 National, regional, city disaster risk management*

government and the Red Cross to help especially in big disasters.

Rotterdam is also strong in spatial planning; the city has been in the forefront in developing climate adaptive strategies in the city that combines urban design and flood management. The city has a green roof policy and a water plan that allows public spaces to be used as retention basins like the water squares. The overall greening of the city is based on the city's climate adaptive policies; the volume of water that can be retained in the event of a heavy rainfall for each neighborhood was calculated by the city to assess areas for improvement. One such project is the urban water buffer located under the Sparta stadium which collects water in an underground reservoir [22]. The collected rainwater is treated and used to water the grass for the football area. Another example is the water storage in Benthemplein where they can store water then released gradually to the surface. According to the interviewees this strategy is what they call the "keep, store or release" strategy

The biggest innovative climate adaptive infrastructure built in the city is the water storage underneath Museumpark parking garage. The Museumpark water storage has a capacity to hold 10,000 m<sup>3</sup> in case of a flood and the biggest water storage in the country. The water storage and water squares help control the flood water level by storing the floodwater for a certain period before releasing to the

Crisis management is still fairly low in the city and relies on the veiligheidsregio.

Crisis management in the Netherlands is organized under the veiligheidsregio. The city government, fire brigades, waterboards and the veiligheidsregio all work together in the event of a disaster. There is also an agreement between the city

In terms of flood risk management, there are three different government levels responsible, the city government, the waterboards and the Rijkswaterstaat. The Rijkswaterstaat holds most of the information including maps and simulations that is used in the entire country. Cities can access these data to predict flood events as well as design strategies based on these predictions. The data obtained from the Rijkswaterstaat on water levels are also used by the three waterboards in Rotterdam to give advice to close the Maeslantkering or not. The city government upon receiving data and forecasts gives the warning to the people and decides on whether

The port area as a special economic area of interest has its own crisis manage-

According to some interviewees, the City of Rotterdam has a disaster management plan that includes pre-identified evacuation centers in the city; however, people in general are not aware where these evacuation centers are. There are no other drills or disaster risk management activities being conducted except for the fire drill done at least once a year. There are no information on how to prepare for a

ment plan. The Port Authority works together with the city government and veiligheidsregio on this plan and looks at three possible impacts of a disaster, casualties (deaths), economic and environmental effects. The adaptation strategy includes approaches to address these impacts using the multi-layer safety principle.

*4.4.3 Information, education and communication, climate and disaster proof*

coast and river.

open water system.

to evacuate people or not.

*infrastructure*

**117**

#### *4.3.2 Presence of city disaster risk management office*

The City of Rotterdam does not have a specific disaster risk reduction management office. There is no government mandate for the creation of one at the city level since disaster management or crisis management as it is most commonly termed is dealt under the veiligheidsregio (safety region). Rotterdam is part of the 16 cities under the care of the veiligheidsregio Rotterdam-Rijnmond. Each of the sixteen cities has their own disaster management plan that is part of the regional disaster management plan.

The city does have a "safety department" responsible for public safety issues and crisis management coordination with the veiligheidsregio and the city depending on the scale of the crisis. Water management and dike management are both under the jurisdiction of the waterboards. The waterboards have a dike army that regularly checks the dikes integrity. The Red Cross is also present in Rotterdam and has an existing pool of 3,000 Ready-to-Help volunteers. These volunteers are not trained but are citizens that are willing to be tapped in case of an emergency. Aside from the veiligheidsregio and the Red Cross, the City of Rotterdam also works with various academic and research institutions. Most of the time these academic and research institutions have projects within the city results of which are also shared with the city government and the residents.

#### *4.3.3 Regular disaster risk management drills, workshops and information campaigns*

There are fire drills conducted by different institutions and organizations in their workplaces within the city. But there is no citywide drill on any type of disaster that people collectively participate in. The citizens receive information on disaster and emergency situations through an SMS alert (NL-Alert). Every first Monday of the month there is an alarm at 12 noon to inform people on whether everything is secure and safe or not. Other than that there are no other drills or campaigns being conducted throughout the city and even in primary and secondary schools. There are no disaster management and training in schools and in the city in general. This is not part of the school curriculum and is not part of the wider narrative. However, it was also noted by some interviewees that there are evacuation drills only done by specific organizations concerned on crisis management like the military and the Red Cross but these are not widely known by the general population.

#### **4.4 Collective security**

#### *4.4.1 Technical knowledge and expertise, advocacy and behavioral change*

The multi-layer safety approach, prevention, spatial planning and crisis management, is known in the Netherlands and applied at the city level. Among the three approaches prevention is the highest priority in the country. Technical knowledge on water management, flood management, and climate change are translated in numerous preventive infrastructures. In Rotterdam, there is a Sand Engine Project which extends the shoreline and strengthens the dunes between Rotterdam and the

#### *Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

Hague. The Maeslantkering and Oosterscheldekering storm surge barriers prevent storm surges of more than 3 m high and the dikes are also heightened along the coast and river.

Rotterdam is also strong in spatial planning; the city has been in the forefront in developing climate adaptive strategies in the city that combines urban design and flood management. The city has a green roof policy and a water plan that allows public spaces to be used as retention basins like the water squares. The overall greening of the city is based on the city's climate adaptive policies; the volume of water that can be retained in the event of a heavy rainfall for each neighborhood was calculated by the city to assess areas for improvement. One such project is the urban water buffer located under the Sparta stadium which collects water in an underground reservoir [22]. The collected rainwater is treated and used to water the grass for the football area. Another example is the water storage in Benthemplein where they can store water then released gradually to the surface. According to the interviewees this strategy is what they call the "keep, store or release" strategy which is especially helpful during the dry seasons.

The biggest innovative climate adaptive infrastructure built in the city is the water storage underneath Museumpark parking garage. The Museumpark water storage has a capacity to hold 10,000 m<sup>3</sup> in case of a flood and the biggest water storage in the country. The water storage and water squares help control the flood water level by storing the floodwater for a certain period before releasing to the open water system.

Crisis management is still fairly low in the city and relies on the veiligheidsregio.

#### *4.4.2 National, regional, city disaster risk management*

Crisis management in the Netherlands is organized under the veiligheidsregio. The city government, fire brigades, waterboards and the veiligheidsregio all work together in the event of a disaster. There is also an agreement between the city government and the Red Cross to help especially in big disasters.

In terms of flood risk management, there are three different government levels responsible, the city government, the waterboards and the Rijkswaterstaat. The Rijkswaterstaat holds most of the information including maps and simulations that is used in the entire country. Cities can access these data to predict flood events as well as design strategies based on these predictions. The data obtained from the Rijkswaterstaat on water levels are also used by the three waterboards in Rotterdam to give advice to close the Maeslantkering or not. The city government upon receiving data and forecasts gives the warning to the people and decides on whether to evacuate people or not.

The port area as a special economic area of interest has its own crisis management plan. The Port Authority works together with the city government and veiligheidsregio on this plan and looks at three possible impacts of a disaster, casualties (deaths), economic and environmental effects. The adaptation strategy includes approaches to address these impacts using the multi-layer safety principle.

#### *4.4.3 Information, education and communication, climate and disaster proof infrastructure*

According to some interviewees, the City of Rotterdam has a disaster management plan that includes pre-identified evacuation centers in the city; however, people in general are not aware where these evacuation centers are. There are no other drills or disaster risk management activities being conducted except for the fire drill done at least once a year. There are no information on how to prepare for a

management only warnings such as announcements on tv, radio or through SMS when there are gas leaks from the port. These are more reactionary exercises rather than preparatory like a drill on flooding and evacuation. Further preparation and evacuation is seen as an individual responsibility yet this is not very well commu-

The City of Rotterdam does not have a specific disaster risk reduction management office. There is no government mandate for the creation of one at the city level since disaster management or crisis management as it is most commonly termed is dealt under the veiligheidsregio (safety region). Rotterdam is part of the 16 cities under the care of the veiligheidsregio Rotterdam-Rijnmond. Each of the sixteen cities has their own disaster management plan that is part of the regional

The city does have a "safety department" responsible for public safety issues and crisis management coordination with the veiligheidsregio and the city depending on the scale of the crisis. Water management and dike management are both under the jurisdiction of the waterboards. The waterboards have a dike army that regularly checks the dikes integrity. The Red Cross is also present in Rotterdam and has an existing pool of 3,000 Ready-to-Help volunteers. These volunteers are not trained but are citizens that are willing to be tapped in case of an emergency. Aside from the veiligheidsregio and the Red Cross, the City of Rotterdam also works with various academic and research institutions. Most of the time these academic and research institutions have projects within the city results of which are also shared with the

*4.3.3 Regular disaster risk management drills, workshops and information campaigns*

There are fire drills conducted by different institutions and organizations in their workplaces within the city. But there is no citywide drill on any type of disaster that people collectively participate in. The citizens receive information on disaster and emergency situations through an SMS alert (NL-Alert). Every first Monday of the month there is an alarm at 12 noon to inform people on whether everything is secure and safe or not. Other than that there are no other drills or campaigns being conducted throughout the city and even in primary and secondary schools. There are no disaster management and training in schools and in the city in general. This is not part of the school curriculum and is not part of the wider narrative. However, it was also noted by some interviewees that there are evacuation drills only done by specific organizations concerned on crisis management like the military and the Red Cross but these are not widely known by the general

*4.4.1 Technical knowledge and expertise, advocacy and behavioral change*

The multi-layer safety approach, prevention, spatial planning and crisis management, is known in the Netherlands and applied at the city level. Among the three approaches prevention is the highest priority in the country. Technical knowledge on water management, flood management, and climate change are translated in numerous preventive infrastructures. In Rotterdam, there is a Sand Engine Project which extends the shoreline and strengthens the dunes between Rotterdam and the

nicated to the residents.

disaster management plan.

city government and the residents.

population.

**116**

**4.4 Collective security**

*4.3.2 Presence of city disaster risk management office*

*Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement*

possible flood event in the workplace or at home. Companies by law are required to conduct basic evacuation exercise for work safety but the rest of the population is not aware of these activities.

The communities autonomous nature is evident in the way they also selforganize such that issues that are important for the residents like the community gardens are given more emphasis. The community garden around the city is a community initiative to make the area more attractive and more green. Through this initiative more people can be reached and encouraged to be involved in city development. This can be a way to introduce climate change issues by explaining

There is a level of awareness and understanding of the flood risks and vulnerabilities in Rotterdam among the residents. But the level of concern over these issues is not as strong as other issues that are present in the city such as social integration especially for lower income areas. This social and economic gap in Rotterdam is seen as a bigger threat than the threat of flooding in the city. The low level of concern over disaster issues makes it difficult for the government to encourage residents to prepare for the disaster. Many believe that since citizens pay for taxes that it is up to the government to do their job in taking care of everyone. This places a huge expectation on the government's side. This is not enough to make a city resilient since everyone needs to make sure that each one takes necessary precaution against these possible disasters. All levels of the government from the Rijkswaterstaat, veiligheidsregio, waterboards and the city government are all involved in developing climate change adaptation strategies and crisis management. The mutually adapted roles of the key stakeholders, the city government, the waterboards, the veiligheidsregio, and the academe in delivering a level of safety and security in the city are high. Each of these actors knows the technical and scientific basis of the city development plans and policies. Programs and projects are anchored on these development plans and policies. Still there is a need to increase the residents knowledge on these initiatives and the effects of climate change for them to understand the urgency of the matter and what they can do as an individual and a community. At present the NGOs and community groups have their community garden projects, some of them are also advocating solar panels and through these advocacies they are able to explain to the residents the value of the environment. However, the NGOs and community groups also feel that policies are not translated very well at the community level. This makes appreciation of the general framework of climate change, disasters, and

Lastly, the collective engagement urban resilience framework used in the case indicates that Rotterdam's resilience approach is more government-led and less community-driven. This shows a rather low community resiliency although there are communities that are much more equipped than other communities. Such as Noordereiland in terms of knowledge, information and preparation for flood events are much more equipped than others, Hillegersberg and Agniesebuurt both have community members who initiate discussions with the city government to help

The authors would like to thank the interviewees for their most honest and

their community and address their problems on groundwater.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

the benefits of greening the environment to the community and the city.

*Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

resilience quite abstract.

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

candid responses.

**119**

Still in terms of spatial planning, preventive and climate proof infrastructures, Rotterdam is equipped. However, most of these are still government driven rather than community driven. Participation of the community including information are fairly limited and mostly limited to smaller neighborhood projects that directly affect the community. Neighborhoods like Noordereiland (already mentioned), Hillegersberg and Agniesebuurt have community members who come together to find solutions for a common problem. In both Hillegersberg and Agniesebuurt, residents addressed their groundwater problems by lobbying to the city government to help address this problem and help keep their homes (mostly built on wooden poles) safe.

The national government has also mandated all cities to conduct a stress test to help assess the level of risks and vulnerabilities of their city. Rotterdam is a pioneer on this since the city has an extensive model to identify the risks and vulnerabilities as well as projections on the effects of the key flooding threats. The results of the stress test will lead to the development of strategies for different scenarios in the city covering topics on climate change such as floods, droughts, and heat stress.

#### **5. Conclusion**

The level of collective engagement on urban resilience in Rotterdam is scored at 4 or assessed as good (see **Figure 3**). The past disaster events, 1953 Great North Sea Flood, the flood threat in 1993 and 1995, pushed the government to bring out policies and plans to safeguard the country from flooding events. The government understands the importance of learning from these past disaster events in order to move forward. However, local adaptation and knowledge are only evident in Noordereiland where the government regularly communicates precautionary measures during the storm season.

#### **Figure 3.**

*Collective engagement on urban resilience. The total average score for Rotterdam is 4 or "good." Source: Esteban TAO. Draft Chapter 6. Mind the Gap. Rotterdam: Erasmus University Rotterdam; 2019 (Unpublished).*

#### *Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

The communities autonomous nature is evident in the way they also selforganize such that issues that are important for the residents like the community gardens are given more emphasis. The community garden around the city is a community initiative to make the area more attractive and more green. Through this initiative more people can be reached and encouraged to be involved in city development. This can be a way to introduce climate change issues by explaining the benefits of greening the environment to the community and the city.

There is a level of awareness and understanding of the flood risks and vulnerabilities in Rotterdam among the residents. But the level of concern over these issues is not as strong as other issues that are present in the city such as social integration especially for lower income areas. This social and economic gap in Rotterdam is seen as a bigger threat than the threat of flooding in the city. The low level of concern over disaster issues makes it difficult for the government to encourage residents to prepare for the disaster. Many believe that since citizens pay for taxes that it is up to the government to do their job in taking care of everyone. This places a huge expectation on the government's side. This is not enough to make a city resilient since everyone needs to make sure that each one takes necessary precaution against these possible disasters.

All levels of the government from the Rijkswaterstaat, veiligheidsregio, waterboards and the city government are all involved in developing climate change adaptation strategies and crisis management. The mutually adapted roles of the key stakeholders, the city government, the waterboards, the veiligheidsregio, and the academe in delivering a level of safety and security in the city are high. Each of these actors knows the technical and scientific basis of the city development plans and policies. Programs and projects are anchored on these development plans and policies.

Still there is a need to increase the residents knowledge on these initiatives and the effects of climate change for them to understand the urgency of the matter and what they can do as an individual and a community. At present the NGOs and community groups have their community garden projects, some of them are also advocating solar panels and through these advocacies they are able to explain to the residents the value of the environment. However, the NGOs and community groups also feel that policies are not translated very well at the community level. This makes appreciation of the general framework of climate change, disasters, and resilience quite abstract.

Lastly, the collective engagement urban resilience framework used in the case indicates that Rotterdam's resilience approach is more government-led and less community-driven. This shows a rather low community resiliency although there are communities that are much more equipped than other communities. Such as Noordereiland in terms of knowledge, information and preparation for flood events are much more equipped than others, Hillegersberg and Agniesebuurt both have community members who initiate discussions with the city government to help their community and address their problems on groundwater.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The authors would like to thank the interviewees for their most honest and candid responses.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

possible flood event in the workplace or at home. Companies by law are required to conduct basic evacuation exercise for work safety but the rest of the population is

Still in terms of spatial planning, preventive and climate proof infrastructures, Rotterdam is equipped. However, most of these are still government driven rather than community driven. Participation of the community including information are fairly limited and mostly limited to smaller neighborhood projects that directly affect

Hillegersberg and Agniesebuurt have community members who come together to find solutions for a common problem. In both Hillegersberg and Agniesebuurt, residents addressed their groundwater problems by lobbying to the city government to help address this problem and help keep their homes (mostly built on wooden poles) safe. The national government has also mandated all cities to conduct a stress test to help assess the level of risks and vulnerabilities of their city. Rotterdam is a pioneer on this since the city has an extensive model to identify the risks and vulnerabilities as well as projections on the effects of the key flooding threats. The results of the stress test will lead to the development of strategies for different scenarios in the city covering topics on climate change such as floods, droughts, and heat stress.

The level of collective engagement on urban resilience in Rotterdam is scored at 4 or assessed as good (see **Figure 3**). The past disaster events, 1953 Great North Sea Flood, the flood threat in 1993 and 1995, pushed the government to bring out policies and plans to safeguard the country from flooding events. The government understands the importance of learning from these past disaster events in order to move forward. However, local adaptation and knowledge are only evident in Noordereiland where the government regularly communicates precautionary

*Collective engagement on urban resilience. The total average score for Rotterdam is 4 or "good." Source: Esteban TAO. Draft Chapter 6. Mind the Gap. Rotterdam: Erasmus University Rotterdam; 2019 (Unpublished).*

the community. Neighborhoods like Noordereiland (already mentioned),

not aware of these activities.

*Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement*

**5. Conclusion**

**Figure 3.**

**118**

measures during the storm season.

**References**

020678ar

2019:2019

ISSN: 0749-02080

[1] Diem A. Urban development

problems of the ports of Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Cahiers de Géographie du Québec. 1967;**11**(22):5-25. DOI: 10.7202/

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

*Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building*

[10] Kaufmann M, van Doorn-Hoekveld W, Gilissen H, Van Rijswick H, et al. Analysing and Evaluating Flood Risk Governance in the Netherlands: Drowning in Safety. STARFLOOD Consortium: Utrecht, The Netherlands;

[11] City of Rotterdam. Area

10.1016/j.envsci.2017.04.013

[13] van der Toorn Vrijthoff W, Heurkens E. More water in the city, from 1850 to 1945: Consolidation. In: Hooimeijer F, Vrijthoff WT, eds., 2008.

More Urban Water: Design and Management of Dutch Water Cities. London, United Kingdom: Taylor and

[14] De Graaf R, Van Der Brugge R. Transforming water infrastructure by linking water management and urban renewal in Rotterdam. Technological Forecasting and Social Change. 2010; **77**(8):1282-1291. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[15] Mees HP, Driessen PP. Adaptation to climate change in urban areas: Climate greening London, Rotterdam, and Toronto. Climate Law. 2011;**2**(2): 251-280. DOI: 10.3233/CL-2011-036

Advancing urban ecosystem governance in Rotterdam: From experimenting and evidence gathering to new ways for integrated planning. Environmental

[16] Tillie N, van der Heijden R.

Francis Group; 2008

techfore.2010.03.011

28 November 2019]

Committees, Neighborhood Councils, District Committees [Internet]. 2019. Available from: https://www. rotterdam.nl/bestuur-organisatie/ gebiedscommissies/ [Accessed:

[12] Dunn G, Brown R, Bos J, Bakker K. The role of science-policy interface in sustainable urban water transitions: Lessons from Rotterdam. Environmental Science & Policy. 2017;**73**:71-79. DOI:

2016

[2] Watson I, Finkl CW Jr. State of the art in storm-surge protection: The Netherlands Delta Project. Journal of Coastal Research. 1990;**6**(3):739-764.

[3] Wesselink AJ. Flood safety in the Netherlands: The Dutch response to Hurricane Katrina. Technology in Society. 2007;**29**(2):239-247. DOI: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2007.01.010

[4] Hilft BE. Ruhr University Bochum Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict. World Risk Report.

[5] City of Rotterdam. Rotterdam resilience strategy. Ready for the 21st century. Consultation document. Rotterdam: 100 Resilient Cities; 2016

[6] Spaans M, Waterhout B. Building up resilience in cities worldwide–Rotterdam as participant in the 100 Resilient Cities Programme. Cities. 2017;**61**:109-116. DOI: 10.1016/j.cities.2016.05.011

[7] Esteban TAO. Building resilience through collective engagement. Architecture\_MPS. 2020;**17**(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.14324/111.444.

[8] O'Rourke TD. Critical infrastructure, interdependencies, and resilience. BRIDGE-Washington-National Academy of Engineering. 2007;**37**(1):

[9] Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW, Earls F. Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science. 1997;**277**(5328):918-924. DOI:

10.1126/science.277.5328.918

amps.2020v17i1.001

22-29

**121**

#### **Author details**

Theresa Audrey O. Esteban<sup>1</sup> \*, Jurian Edelenbos<sup>2</sup> and Naomi van Stapele<sup>3</sup>

1 Graduate School of Social Science and the Humanities, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

2 Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

3 International Institute for Social Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Hague, The Netherlands

\*Address all correspondence to: t.esteban.urban@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam's Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91147*

## **References**

[1] Diem A. Urban development problems of the ports of Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Cahiers de Géographie du Québec. 1967;**11**(22):5-25. DOI: 10.7202/ 020678ar

[2] Watson I, Finkl CW Jr. State of the art in storm-surge protection: The Netherlands Delta Project. Journal of Coastal Research. 1990;**6**(3):739-764. ISSN: 0749-02080

[3] Wesselink AJ. Flood safety in the Netherlands: The Dutch response to Hurricane Katrina. Technology in Society. 2007;**29**(2):239-247. DOI: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2007.01.010

[4] Hilft BE. Ruhr University Bochum Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict. World Risk Report. 2019:2019

[5] City of Rotterdam. Rotterdam resilience strategy. Ready for the 21st century. Consultation document. Rotterdam: 100 Resilient Cities; 2016

[6] Spaans M, Waterhout B. Building up resilience in cities worldwide–Rotterdam as participant in the 100 Resilient Cities Programme. Cities. 2017;**61**:109-116. DOI: 10.1016/j.cities.2016.05.011

[7] Esteban TAO. Building resilience through collective engagement. Architecture\_MPS. 2020;**17**(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.14324/111.444. amps.2020v17i1.001

[8] O'Rourke TD. Critical infrastructure, interdependencies, and resilience. BRIDGE-Washington-National Academy of Engineering. 2007;**37**(1): 22-29

[9] Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW, Earls F. Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science. 1997;**277**(5328):918-924. DOI: 10.1126/science.277.5328.918

[10] Kaufmann M, van Doorn-Hoekveld W, Gilissen H, Van Rijswick H, et al. Analysing and Evaluating Flood Risk Governance in the Netherlands: Drowning in Safety. STARFLOOD Consortium: Utrecht, The Netherlands; 2016

[11] City of Rotterdam. Area Committees, Neighborhood Councils, District Committees [Internet]. 2019. Available from: https://www. rotterdam.nl/bestuur-organisatie/ gebiedscommissies/ [Accessed: 28 November 2019]

[12] Dunn G, Brown R, Bos J, Bakker K. The role of science-policy interface in sustainable urban water transitions: Lessons from Rotterdam. Environmental Science & Policy. 2017;**73**:71-79. DOI: 10.1016/j.envsci.2017.04.013

[13] van der Toorn Vrijthoff W, Heurkens E. More water in the city, from 1850 to 1945: Consolidation. In: Hooimeijer F, Vrijthoff WT, eds., 2008. More Urban Water: Design and Management of Dutch Water Cities. London, United Kingdom: Taylor and Francis Group; 2008

[14] De Graaf R, Van Der Brugge R. Transforming water infrastructure by linking water management and urban renewal in Rotterdam. Technological Forecasting and Social Change. 2010; **77**(8):1282-1291. DOI: 10.1016/j. techfore.2010.03.011

[15] Mees HP, Driessen PP. Adaptation to climate change in urban areas: Climate greening London, Rotterdam, and Toronto. Climate Law. 2011;**2**(2): 251-280. DOI: 10.3233/CL-2011-036

[16] Tillie N, van der Heijden R. Advancing urban ecosystem governance in Rotterdam: From experimenting and evidence gathering to new ways for integrated planning. Environmental

**Author details**

**120**

Theresa Audrey O. Esteban<sup>1</sup>

The Hague, The Netherlands

Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

*Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement*

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*, Jurian Edelenbos<sup>2</sup> and Naomi van Stapele<sup>3</sup>

1 Graduate School of Social Science and the Humanities, Erasmus University

3 International Institute for Social Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

2 Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

\*Address all correspondence to: t.esteban.urban@gmail.com

**Chapter 7**

*Ming Zhong*

**Abstract**

Enhancing the Community

Resilience with a Network

Community resilience is a key index for describing the response of human habitat system against hazards. Enhancing the community resilience to flood disaster requires indicator identification and measurement system establishment, especially for flooding risk management. In this study, an advanced index framework for measuring community resilience to flood disaster is proposed integrating fuzzy Delphi method (FDM) and interpretative structural model (ISM). Based on the definition of community resilience, the indicators are classified into six dimensions, including environmental factors, social factors, economic factors, psychological factors, institutional factors, and information and communication factors. A simplified community resilience evaluation index system is established by using FDM, and the hierarchical network structure of the community resilience to flood disasters is confirmed, in which the direct influence indicators and the root influence indicators are analyzed. The proposed framework in this study contributes to the interdisciplinary understanding of community resilience to flooding disasters and building a more resilience community; it is also expected to be extended for risk

**Keywords:** community resilience, flood disaster, fuzzy Delphi method,

Fighting with disasters is a common challenge of human beings from all parts of world since time immemorial. In recent years, hydrometeorological disasters are on the rise [1], which continues to threaten people's lives and belongings, bringing victims great misery. According to International Disaster Database, from 1990 to 2018, there were more than 4000 flood disasters with variant scales and levels around the world, resulting in great loss to people's lives and inhibiting the devel-

Additionally, the expansion of urban land use leads to the increase of the number of impervious areas, which would bring about poor drainage. Many flood plains have been overexploited, ending up in the damage of river courses, so rivers would be suffering more floods. Moreover, extreme weather is becoming a common phenomenon in urban districts due to a series of environmental damages, and

Structuring Model

reduction in other natural hazards.

interpretative structural model

**1. Introduction**

opment of economy.

**123**

Science & Policy. 2016;**62**:139-145. DOI: 10.1016/j.envsci.2016.04.016

[17] Van der Brugge R, De Graaf R. Linking water policy innovation and urban renewal: The case of Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Water Policy. 2010; **12**(3):381-400. DOI: 10.2166/ wp.2010.037

[18] City of Rotterdam, Waterplan Rotterdam. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Municipality of Rotterdam; Hollandse Delta Water Board; Higher Water Board of Schieland and Krimpenerwaard; Higher Water Board of Delfland, 2007

[19] City of Rotterdam. City Vision [Internet]. 2019. Available from: https:// www.rotterdam.nl/wonen-leven/stad svisie/ [Accessed: 28 November 2019]

[20] Stead D. Urban planning, water management and climate change strategies: Adaptation, mitigation and resilience narratives in the Netherlands. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology. 2014; **21**(1):15-27. DOI: 10.1080/ 13504509.2013.824928

[21] City of Rotterdam. Rotterdam Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: City of Rotterdam; 2013

[22] Fieldfactors. Urban Waterbuffer Supplies Water for Sparta Stadium, Rotterdam [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://fieldfactors.com/blog/ indexphp/urban-waterbuffer-is-open [Accessed: 10 January 2020]

## **Chapter 7**

Science & Policy. 2016;**62**:139-145. DOI:

*Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement*

10.1016/j.envsci.2016.04.016

**12**(3):381-400. DOI: 10.2166/

Board of Delfland, 2007

[18] City of Rotterdam, Waterplan Rotterdam. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Municipality of Rotterdam; Hollandse Delta Water Board; Higher Water Board of Schieland and Krimpenerwaard; Higher Water

[19] City of Rotterdam. City Vision [Internet]. 2019. Available from: https:// www.rotterdam.nl/wonen-leven/stad svisie/ [Accessed: 28 November 2019]

[20] Stead D. Urban planning, water management and climate change strategies: Adaptation, mitigation and resilience narratives in the Netherlands. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology. 2014;

**21**(1):15-27. DOI: 10.1080/ 13504509.2013.824928

Rotterdam; 2013

**122**

[21] City of Rotterdam. Rotterdam Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: City of

[22] Fieldfactors. Urban Waterbuffer Supplies Water for Sparta Stadium, Rotterdam [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://fieldfactors.com/blog/ indexphp/urban-waterbuffer-is-open

[Accessed: 10 January 2020]

wp.2010.037

[17] Van der Brugge R, De Graaf R. Linking water policy innovation and urban renewal: The case of Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Water Policy. 2010;
