Regional and Local Contexts of Processing Information

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

39-50.

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336-352.

Akron Press; 1992.

variables and measurement error; Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research. 1981 Aug; 18(1):

[63] Hancock GR, Mueller RO. Structural equation modeling: A second course. Greenwich: Information Age Publishing;

[64] Falk R.F, Miller NB. A primer for soft modeling. Akron: University of

[65] Kube T, D'Astolfo L, Glombiewski JA, Doering BK, Rief W. Focusing on situation-specific expectations in major depression as basis for behavioural experiments: Development of the Depressive Expectations Scale.

Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice. 2017 Sep; 90(3):

[66] Foster G, Frijters P, Johnston DW.

disappointment: A note on the utility value of good health expectations. Journal of Economic Psychology. 2012

[67] Chen FP, Chen TJ, Kung YY, Chen YC, Chou LF, Chen FJ, Hwang SJ. Use frequency of traditional Chinese medicine in Taiwan. BMC Health Service Research. 2007 Feb; 7; 26.

[68] De Jong N, Ocke MC, Branderhorst HA, Friele R. Demographic and lifestyle characteristics of functional food consumers and dietary supplement users. British Journal of Nutrition. 2003

Feb; 89(2): 273-281.

The triumph of hope over

Feb; 33(1): 206-214.

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2002 Jan; 38: 31– 40.

[53] Kulik JA, Sledge P, Mahler HIM. Selfconfirmatory attribution, egocentrism, and the perpetuation of self-beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1986 Jan; 50: 587-594.

[54] Shifman L. Memes in a digital world: Reconciling with a conceptual troublemaker. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 2013 Apr;

[55] Aunger R. The electric meme: A new theory of how we think. New York: The

[56] Plotkin H. Evolution in mind: An introduction to evolutionary psychology. Cambridge: Harvard

[57] Castelfranci C. Towards a cognitive memetics: Socio-cognitive mechanisms for memes selection and spreading. Journal of Memetics—Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission.

[58] LINE official site. Data report of LINE user in Taiwan. 2019. Available from http://official-blog.line.me/tw/

[59] Wilt J, Revelle W. Extraversion. In Leary MR, Hoyle RH, editors. Handbook of individual differences in social behavior. New York: Guilford

[60] Lahey BB. Public health significance of neuroticism. American Psychologist.

[62] Fornell C, Larcker DF. Structural equation models with unobservable

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[61] Hair J, Black B, Babin B, Anderson RE. Multivariate data analysis. 7th ed. Englewood Cliffs:

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**170**

**173**

**Chapter 9**

**Abstract**

The Potentials of Radio in

**Keywords:** radio, misinformation, COVID-19, Nigeria, Africa

COVID-19 in Nigeria

*Philip Effiom Ephraim*

implications for Africa.

watching television by 2025 [2].

excluded from these broadcasts [3].

**1. Introduction**

Combating Misinformation about

Radio remains an important mass medium in Nigeria and across Africa. Issues of power availability, internet connectivity, and media costs, make radio a highly sort after medium for public information. However, the potentials of radio in efforts to combat misinformation about COVID-19 are yet to be fully exploited in Nigeria. Extant efforts have mostly focused on live press briefings, TV programming, SMS, and social media messaging. Media sources show that the spread of misinformation about the pandemic in the country is rife. This chapter critically evaluates the state of radio in Nigeria and proposes various strategies for utilizing its resources in efforts to debunk and minimize the spread of misinformation, with wider

Radio as a mass medium employs electromagnetic radio waves through transmitters and antennas, to disseminate information, education, and entertainment to listeners. Attributed to the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) and several other inventors in Europe and the USA; radio has developed since the 1890s to become one of the most widely used mass media in the world. It is argued that despite the immense popularity of television and the internet, radio remains the mass medium that reaches the widest audience in the quickest possible time [1]. Statistics show that radio reaches over 5 billion people, representing 70 percent of the total world population. There are over 44,000 functional radio stations worldwide. Predictions based on research findings by Nielsen and Deloitte show that people aged between 18 to 34 will most likely spend more time on radio than

The portability, convenience, cheap cost, and availability of free signals make radio a very popular medium in both developed and developing climes. In Europe and North America, radio is well established and has become a viable industry that generates billions of dollars annually. Within developing countries especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, radio is still maturing with many untapped potentials. There exist both state and private-run radio stations in most country capitals and other large cities and towns across Africa. However, their transmitters often reach only a few miles. People at the grassroots, often living in remote communities, are often

#### **Chapter 9**

## The Potentials of Radio in Combating Misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria

*Philip Effiom Ephraim*

#### **Abstract**

Radio remains an important mass medium in Nigeria and across Africa. Issues of power availability, internet connectivity, and media costs, make radio a highly sort after medium for public information. However, the potentials of radio in efforts to combat misinformation about COVID-19 are yet to be fully exploited in Nigeria. Extant efforts have mostly focused on live press briefings, TV programming, SMS, and social media messaging. Media sources show that the spread of misinformation about the pandemic in the country is rife. This chapter critically evaluates the state of radio in Nigeria and proposes various strategies for utilizing its resources in efforts to debunk and minimize the spread of misinformation, with wider implications for Africa.

**Keywords:** radio, misinformation, COVID-19, Nigeria, Africa

#### **1. Introduction**

Radio as a mass medium employs electromagnetic radio waves through transmitters and antennas, to disseminate information, education, and entertainment to listeners. Attributed to the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) and several other inventors in Europe and the USA; radio has developed since the 1890s to become one of the most widely used mass media in the world. It is argued that despite the immense popularity of television and the internet, radio remains the mass medium that reaches the widest audience in the quickest possible time [1]. Statistics show that radio reaches over 5 billion people, representing 70 percent of the total world population. There are over 44,000 functional radio stations worldwide. Predictions based on research findings by Nielsen and Deloitte show that people aged between 18 to 34 will most likely spend more time on radio than watching television by 2025 [2].

The portability, convenience, cheap cost, and availability of free signals make radio a very popular medium in both developed and developing climes. In Europe and North America, radio is well established and has become a viable industry that generates billions of dollars annually. Within developing countries especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, radio is still maturing with many untapped potentials. There exist both state and private-run radio stations in most country capitals and other large cities and towns across Africa. However, their transmitters often reach only a few miles. People at the grassroots, often living in remote communities, are often excluded from these broadcasts [3].

In response to community needs for public information, community radio stations were established in several African countries in the 1990s. Community radio describes radio stations owned and run by people of a specific community to promote and protect the community's common interests and objectives [4]. Through community radio, people at the grassroots can voice their concerns on issues central to them including; health, gender relations, human rights, security and infrastructure. Countries like South Africa, Niger, Ghana, Ethiopia, and Mali have well established community radio networks. However, in Nigeria, Africa's most populous country, the first community radio was only established in 2015.

The arrival of radio in Nigeria could be described as the arrival of electronic broadcasting to the country. Radio was introduced to Nigeria in 1932. The first radio stations were established as re-broadcast stations for the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). Radio at the time served as a tool for spreading and reinforcing the narratives of the British colonial government. Radio helped colonial officers to keep abreast with current events in Britain. Locals were not considered in the programing and outreach activities; as the medium was meant to satisfy the information needs of the British colonialists and not Nigerians [5].

In 1951, the colonial government established The Nigerian Broadcasting Service (NBS). The NBS set out to convert all existing re-broadcast stations to fully-fledged and nationally focused radio stations. However, the NBS soon came under sharp criticism for being too pro-government and not working in the interest of citizens. The NBS was called out for its insensitivity towards the multicultural and religious sensibilities of the people. In April 1957, the NBS was reformed and restructured to become the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC). The main goal of the NBC was to promote the establishment of regional radio and TV stations across the country. These broadcast stations were to maintain independence and impartially in their programing and outreach [6].

Sadly in 1966, the military overthrew the then civilian administration. However, radio under military regimes, still continued to develop. The NBC established radio stations in most state capitals. In 1978, the military government restructured the NBC and renamed it the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN). The main goal of the FRCN was to manage federal government owned radio stations, with supervisory oversight on state owned radio stations. In 1992, the then military dictator of Nigeria General Ibrahim Babangida issued Decree 38 of 1992, granting permission for individuals to establish private radio stations. With the return to a democracy in 1999, Nigeria witnessed an expansion in radio broadcasting. State owned and private radio stations were established in the country's 36 states. Currently, the FRCN still manages radio in the country. There are currently over two hundred radio stations operating in Nigeria [7].

Infrastructural problems such as limited power supply, internet availability and costs, make radio hugely popular in Nigeria. Many Nigerians, especially at the grassroots, live far below the global poverty line and cannot afford to buy televisions, laptops or smart phones and hence, resort to radio as a key media source for daily information, education and entertainment. Despite the country's vast resources, most Nigerians are unemployed and live below the global poverty line, surviving on less than \$1.90 a day [8]. Battery powered portable radios are widely used in cities and at the grassroots.

Currently in Nigeria, community radio together with more established stateand privately-owned radio stations, work together to disseminate public information to listeners in cities, towns and at the grassroots [9]. Radio functions not just as a mass medium for disseminating general information and entertainment, but also in particular as a medium for disseminating public health information, as witnessed during the Ebola outbreak in 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

**175**

*The Potentials of Radio in Combating Misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria*

COVID-19, a deadly illness caused by a corona virus was first reported in Nigeria on February 27, 2020. The index case was an Italian construction worker who had returned from Milan. Since February 2020, the number of infections escalated to over 52,000 with over 900 deaths in August. In response to rising infections and deaths, the Nigerian government issued directives for lockdowns and social distancing in the three worst-hit states of Lagos, Ogun, and Abuja, the country's capital. State governors also issued total or partial lockdowns in their respective regions based on prevailing circumstances. However, lockdowns caused untold hardships for many Nigerians, due to the government's chaotic and lousy social welfare

The Nigeria Center for Disease Control (NCDC) and The Federal Ministry of Health have been at the forefront of efforts to combat COVID-19 in Nigeria. Both organizations have been active in setting up isolation centers, hospitals, and spaces to manage suspected and confirmed cases. The NCDC has also been engaged in training personnel and setting up rapid-response teams across Nigeria's 36 states [11]. However, despite efforts to combat the spread COVID-19, both organizations have been seriously challenged by a particular problem - the spread of misinformation or false information about COVID-19. The spread of misinformation has been described as the single biggest danger Nigeria faces in its fight against COVID-19. Misinformation has created public panic and is inhibiting efforts to stop the spread

As part of efforts to combat misinformation, NCDC periodically hosts daily press briefings to keep the press and the public up to date with its activities. These briefings are often broadcast live on the major national TV stations including the National Television Authority (NTA), Channels TV and African Independent Television (AIT). The NCDC has also teamed up with leading movie actors to produce public service messages on TV to debunk fake news and rumors about COVID-19. Besides, the NCDC has also teamed up with mobile network operators to send weekly SMS to Nigerians warning them on the dangers of misinformation. Through its social media pages on Twitter, Facebook and Instagram, the NCDC regularly posts messages showing the daily number of confirmed cases, recoveries

While existing efforts have mainly been focused on social media, SMS, TV and live media briefings, the potentials of radio in efforts to combat the spread of misinformation about COVID-19 has been downplayed. Direct observation of twenty-five radio stations across Nigeria over a three-month period (March to May 2020), revealed the airing of only one radio advert titled '*Make you take responsibility'* directly sponsored by the NCDC. The one-minute advert produced in Nigerian pidgin, highlights the need for citizens to take responsibility for their safety through safe practices like hand washing, social distancing and not touching

There is still a strong need for the use of radio, Nigerian languages and town criers to ensure that correct information about COVID-19 reaches people, irrespective of their location or literacy level [13]. Radio is one of Nigeria's leading media channels, with a capacity to reach tens of millions daily. There is a need to employ radio in the disseminating of safe and accurate information about hand washing, social distancing and other safe practices to prevent the transmission of the corona

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93949*

of the corona virus in Nigeria and across Africa [12].

structures [10].

**2. The problem**

and deaths.

their faces.

virus in Nigeria [14].

*The Potentials of Radio in Combating Misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93949*

COVID-19, a deadly illness caused by a corona virus was first reported in Nigeria on February 27, 2020. The index case was an Italian construction worker who had returned from Milan. Since February 2020, the number of infections escalated to over 52,000 with over 900 deaths in August. In response to rising infections and deaths, the Nigerian government issued directives for lockdowns and social distancing in the three worst-hit states of Lagos, Ogun, and Abuja, the country's capital. State governors also issued total or partial lockdowns in their respective regions based on prevailing circumstances. However, lockdowns caused untold hardships for many Nigerians, due to the government's chaotic and lousy social welfare structures [10].

The Nigeria Center for Disease Control (NCDC) and The Federal Ministry of Health have been at the forefront of efforts to combat COVID-19 in Nigeria. Both organizations have been active in setting up isolation centers, hospitals, and spaces to manage suspected and confirmed cases. The NCDC has also been engaged in training personnel and setting up rapid-response teams across Nigeria's 36 states [11]. However, despite efforts to combat the spread COVID-19, both organizations have been seriously challenged by a particular problem - the spread of misinformation or false information about COVID-19. The spread of misinformation has been described as the single biggest danger Nigeria faces in its fight against COVID-19. Misinformation has created public panic and is inhibiting efforts to stop the spread of the corona virus in Nigeria and across Africa [12].

#### **2. The problem**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

populous country, the first community radio was only established in 2015.

mation needs of the British colonialists and not Nigerians [5].

their programing and outreach [6].

two hundred radio stations operating in Nigeria [7].

The arrival of radio in Nigeria could be described as the arrival of electronic broadcasting to the country. Radio was introduced to Nigeria in 1932. The first radio stations were established as re-broadcast stations for the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). Radio at the time served as a tool for spreading and reinforcing the narratives of the British colonial government. Radio helped colonial officers to keep abreast with current events in Britain. Locals were not considered in the programing and outreach activities; as the medium was meant to satisfy the infor-

In 1951, the colonial government established The Nigerian Broadcasting Service (NBS). The NBS set out to convert all existing re-broadcast stations to fully-fledged and nationally focused radio stations. However, the NBS soon came under sharp criticism for being too pro-government and not working in the interest of citizens. The NBS was called out for its insensitivity towards the multicultural and religious sensibilities of the people. In April 1957, the NBS was reformed and restructured to become the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC). The main goal of the NBC was to promote the establishment of regional radio and TV stations across the country. These broadcast stations were to maintain independence and impartially in

Sadly in 1966, the military overthrew the then civilian administration. However, radio under military regimes, still continued to develop. The NBC established radio stations in most state capitals. In 1978, the military government restructured the NBC and renamed it the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN). The main goal of the FRCN was to manage federal government owned radio stations, with supervisory oversight on state owned radio stations. In 1992, the then military dictator of Nigeria General Ibrahim Babangida issued Decree 38 of 1992, granting permission for individuals to establish private radio stations. With the return to a democracy in 1999, Nigeria witnessed an expansion in radio broadcasting. State owned and private radio stations were established in the country's 36 states. Currently, the FRCN still manages radio in the country. There are currently over

Infrastructural problems such as limited power supply, internet availability and costs, make radio hugely popular in Nigeria. Many Nigerians, especially at the grassroots, live far below the global poverty line and cannot afford to buy televisions, laptops or smart phones and hence, resort to radio as a key media source for daily information, education and entertainment. Despite the country's vast resources, most Nigerians are unemployed and live below the global poverty line, surviving on less than \$1.90 a day [8]. Battery powered portable radios are widely used in cities and at the grassroots. Currently in Nigeria, community radio together with more established stateand privately-owned radio stations, work together to disseminate public information to listeners in cities, towns and at the grassroots [9]. Radio functions not just as a mass medium for disseminating general information and entertainment, but also in particular as a medium for disseminating public health information, as witnessed

during the Ebola outbreak in 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

In response to community needs for public information, community radio stations were established in several African countries in the 1990s. Community radio describes radio stations owned and run by people of a specific community to promote and protect the community's common interests and objectives [4]. Through community radio, people at the grassroots can voice their concerns on issues central to them including; health, gender relations, human rights, security and infrastructure. Countries like South Africa, Niger, Ghana, Ethiopia, and Mali have well established community radio networks. However, in Nigeria, Africa's most

**174**

As part of efforts to combat misinformation, NCDC periodically hosts daily press briefings to keep the press and the public up to date with its activities. These briefings are often broadcast live on the major national TV stations including the National Television Authority (NTA), Channels TV and African Independent Television (AIT). The NCDC has also teamed up with leading movie actors to produce public service messages on TV to debunk fake news and rumors about COVID-19. Besides, the NCDC has also teamed up with mobile network operators to send weekly SMS to Nigerians warning them on the dangers of misinformation. Through its social media pages on Twitter, Facebook and Instagram, the NCDC regularly posts messages showing the daily number of confirmed cases, recoveries and deaths.

While existing efforts have mainly been focused on social media, SMS, TV and live media briefings, the potentials of radio in efforts to combat the spread of misinformation about COVID-19 has been downplayed. Direct observation of twenty-five radio stations across Nigeria over a three-month period (March to May 2020), revealed the airing of only one radio advert titled '*Make you take responsibility'* directly sponsored by the NCDC. The one-minute advert produced in Nigerian pidgin, highlights the need for citizens to take responsibility for their safety through safe practices like hand washing, social distancing and not touching their faces.

There is still a strong need for the use of radio, Nigerian languages and town criers to ensure that correct information about COVID-19 reaches people, irrespective of their location or literacy level [13]. Radio is one of Nigeria's leading media channels, with a capacity to reach tens of millions daily. There is a need to employ radio in the disseminating of safe and accurate information about hand washing, social distancing and other safe practices to prevent the transmission of the corona virus in Nigeria [14].

#### **3. Misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria**

Misinformation is a term that describes the dissemination of false and inaccurate information. Examples of misinformation includes; rumor, spam, hoaxes, halftruths and fake news. Unlike the closely related term, disinformation; misinformation is often unintentionally propagated by its recipients. Recipients unintentionally spread misinformation merely due to existing trust for family members, friends, colleagues or influential users in their social media networks [15].

The growing spread of misinformation globally, has been attributed to the proliferation of the internet and digital media channels. More than half of the world is digitally connected. This new information ecosystem has created a fertile ground for the rapid dissemination of rumors, hoaxes and fake news.

Misinformation has a particular advantage over factual information. This advantage informs its rapid spread, compared to the latter. Misinformation is not constrained by reality. It is usually very appealing and attention grabbing. Misinformation is often more memorable than factual information [16].

Misinformation about COVID-19 has mostly proliferated through social media platforms, mainly in the form of rumors and conspiracy theories [17]. A notable example was that the corona virus was a biological weapon invented by China's for use against its enemies in a bid to become the main world power [18].

The rapid spread of misinformation about COVID-19 has been labeled an *infodemic* by the United Nations (UN). Misinformation has created public panic and led to dangerous practices which have worsened the spread of the corona virus and led to the loss of many lives in many countries [19]. Social media platforms constitute a serious threat to public health by allowing the promotion of medical fake news, which seriously puts lives at risk [20].

As in most countries, misinformation about COVID-19 has mostly circulated through social media channels in Nigeria. Social media is immensely popular in the country. Social media channels have provided citizens spaces for free expression with little or no government control [21]. With the proliferation of smart phones and lowering internet costs, Nigerian youths are increasingly participating in both national and international conversations. Sadly, these youths are also engaged in abetting the spread of rumors and other harmful content on social media platforms [22].

The first rumor about COVID-19 emerged in January 2020. The rumor held that it was impossible for the corona virus to reach Africa or even survive in Nigeria, due to the generally warm climate. Stories of natural shielding by nature were circulated mostly through WhatsApp [23]. By February, the rumor that black people were immune to COVID19 due to melanin in their skin, reached Nigeria from the USA. This rumor widely circulated through Twitter, WhatsApp and Facebook. After news of the index case, another rumor emerged that COVID-19 could only affect rich and corrupt politicians, hence most poor Nigerians were safe from the virus [24]. At the same time were rumors that taking ample quantities of Vitamin C or bathing in warm water laced with ginger and garlic would kill the virus [25]. Several YouTube videos (all taken down) were made by pastors and several conspiracy theorists in Nigeria to promote these stories.

In April, the 5G theory emerged. This conspiracy theory held that 5G transmitters were responsible for the rapid escalation of COVID-19 infections in Europe and North America and were about to be installed across Africa. It was rumored that these transmitters will cause massive number of infections and deaths in Africa. At the forefront of promoting this conspiracy was Chris Oyakhilome the head pastor the Christ Embassy Church. In reaction, the UK government severely sanctioned his Loveworld News; a channel that broadcasts both from Nigeria and the UK [26].

**177**

employed.

*The Potentials of Radio in Combating Misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria*

**4. Strategies for combating misinformation through radio**

The effects of misinformation took a serious toll in Nigeria. Several deaths and hospitalizations due to chloroquine overdose and food poisoning were reported. Many people with serious symptoms refused to turn themselves in to the NCDC, but rather preferred to manage treatment at home with phony herbal mixtures due to fear and stigma [27]. In Cross River State in South Eastern Nigeria, there was severe public panic as it was rumored that a nurse and a university student had already infected hundreds of people in Calabar the capital city. People became terrified and refused to step outside their homes for days. Businesses suffered [28].

Radio has the power to promote citizen's resilience during periods of health crisis. Radio has the potential to influence opinions, change behavior and accurately inform the public about COVID-19 [29]. In order to effectively position radio to debunk misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria, several strategies could be

Using credible sources is probably the first important step towards combating misinformation. UNESCO describes credible news sources as the best vaccine against COVID-19 [30]. These sources comprise of health experts directly working on treatment or limiting the spread of the virus. These experts have firsthand and factual knowledge. Radio stations need to contact and collaborate with the information departments of the NCDC, Federal Ministry of Health and other recognized health-based NGOs related to COVID-19. However, with lockdowns and social distancing, radio reporters have been impeded from physically visiting relevant locations. Investigative reporting during COVID-19 pandemic has become very difficult as reporters are fearful of getting infected. The NCDC has a dedicated website and pages on various social media channels including Facebook, Twitter and Instagram from where radio reporters could source verified information. The NCDC's social media pages are updated daily, showing the number of people infected, deaths and recoveries. These organizations also publish regular updates on how best to keep safe as well as news on ongoing efforts to find a cure against the virus. At regional levels, community radio stations could collaborate with their state government's COVID-19 task force, to obtain verified information on the state of the pandemic. Broadcasting statistical updates at community level is another strategy. Similar to the NCDC's daily broadcasts on national TV, community radio stations across Nigeria could also broadcast their own daily statistical updates. These local broadcasts should be based on verified information and could appear as short items in the news, or in-between programs. Verified statistical figures help to minimize the spread of rumors and fears about the extent of infections. Statistics help to shape public understanding of COVID-19 by presenting figures that are factual and clear. Statistical updates via the media help health experts to carefully monitor likely

Radio jingles are tools which could be employed to tactically to combat misinformation. A jingle is a short musical advertisement of products or services. Jingles are also used in non-advertising contexts to share public service messages. Jingles work by transmitting sensory messages through sound [32]. When sound is well synchronized with the message, the listener easily remembers the message. Radio jingles are often employed by public health organizations to alert the public about the spread of diseases and to announce environmental cleanups [33]. Radio stations could produce and broadcast jingles to promote the need for sourcing verified information. Jingles could be produced to directly debunk rumors about COVID-19. However, it is recommended that message of the jingle be presented in simple

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93949*

infection hotspots around the country [31].

*The Potentials of Radio in Combating Misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93949*

The effects of misinformation took a serious toll in Nigeria. Several deaths and hospitalizations due to chloroquine overdose and food poisoning were reported. Many people with serious symptoms refused to turn themselves in to the NCDC, but rather preferred to manage treatment at home with phony herbal mixtures due to fear and stigma [27]. In Cross River State in South Eastern Nigeria, there was severe public panic as it was rumored that a nurse and a university student had already infected hundreds of people in Calabar the capital city. People became terrified and refused to step outside their homes for days. Businesses suffered [28].

#### **4. Strategies for combating misinformation through radio**

Radio has the power to promote citizen's resilience during periods of health crisis. Radio has the potential to influence opinions, change behavior and accurately inform the public about COVID-19 [29]. In order to effectively position radio to debunk misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria, several strategies could be employed.

Using credible sources is probably the first important step towards combating misinformation. UNESCO describes credible news sources as the best vaccine against COVID-19 [30]. These sources comprise of health experts directly working on treatment or limiting the spread of the virus. These experts have firsthand and factual knowledge. Radio stations need to contact and collaborate with the information departments of the NCDC, Federal Ministry of Health and other recognized health-based NGOs related to COVID-19. However, with lockdowns and social distancing, radio reporters have been impeded from physically visiting relevant locations. Investigative reporting during COVID-19 pandemic has become very difficult as reporters are fearful of getting infected. The NCDC has a dedicated website and pages on various social media channels including Facebook, Twitter and Instagram from where radio reporters could source verified information. The NCDC's social media pages are updated daily, showing the number of people infected, deaths and recoveries. These organizations also publish regular updates on how best to keep safe as well as news on ongoing efforts to find a cure against the virus. At regional levels, community radio stations could collaborate with their state government's COVID-19 task force, to obtain verified information on the state of the pandemic.

Broadcasting statistical updates at community level is another strategy. Similar to the NCDC's daily broadcasts on national TV, community radio stations across Nigeria could also broadcast their own daily statistical updates. These local broadcasts should be based on verified information and could appear as short items in the news, or in-between programs. Verified statistical figures help to minimize the spread of rumors and fears about the extent of infections. Statistics help to shape public understanding of COVID-19 by presenting figures that are factual and clear. Statistical updates via the media help health experts to carefully monitor likely infection hotspots around the country [31].

Radio jingles are tools which could be employed to tactically to combat misinformation. A jingle is a short musical advertisement of products or services. Jingles are also used in non-advertising contexts to share public service messages. Jingles work by transmitting sensory messages through sound [32]. When sound is well synchronized with the message, the listener easily remembers the message. Radio jingles are often employed by public health organizations to alert the public about the spread of diseases and to announce environmental cleanups [33]. Radio stations could produce and broadcast jingles to promote the need for sourcing verified information. Jingles could be produced to directly debunk rumors about COVID-19. However, it is recommended that message of the jingle be presented in simple

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

colleagues or influential users in their social media networks [15].

for the rapid dissemination of rumors, hoaxes and fake news.

use against its enemies in a bid to become the main world power [18].

news, which seriously puts lives at risk [20].

theorists in Nigeria to promote these stories.

Misinformation is a term that describes the dissemination of false and inaccurate

information. Examples of misinformation includes; rumor, spam, hoaxes, halftruths and fake news. Unlike the closely related term, disinformation; misinformation is often unintentionally propagated by its recipients. Recipients unintentionally spread misinformation merely due to existing trust for family members, friends,

The growing spread of misinformation globally, has been attributed to the proliferation of the internet and digital media channels. More than half of the world is digitally connected. This new information ecosystem has created a fertile ground

Misinformation has a particular advantage over factual information. This advantage informs its rapid spread, compared to the latter. Misinformation is not constrained by reality. It is usually very appealing and attention grabbing. Misinformation is often more memorable than factual information [16].

The rapid spread of misinformation about COVID-19 has been labeled an *infodemic* by the United Nations (UN). Misinformation has created public panic and led to dangerous practices which have worsened the spread of the corona virus and led to the loss of many lives in many countries [19]. Social media platforms constitute a serious threat to public health by allowing the promotion of medical fake

As in most countries, misinformation about COVID-19 has mostly circulated through social media channels in Nigeria. Social media is immensely popular in the country. Social media channels have provided citizens spaces for free expression with little or no government control [21]. With the proliferation of smart phones and lowering internet costs, Nigerian youths are increasingly participating in both national and international conversations. Sadly, these youths are also engaged in abetting the spread of rumors and other harmful content on social media plat-

The first rumor about COVID-19 emerged in January 2020. The rumor held that it was impossible for the corona virus to reach Africa or even survive in Nigeria, due to the generally warm climate. Stories of natural shielding by nature were circulated mostly through WhatsApp [23]. By February, the rumor that black people were immune to COVID19 due to melanin in their skin, reached Nigeria from the USA. This rumor widely circulated through Twitter, WhatsApp and Facebook. After news of the index case, another rumor emerged that COVID-19 could only affect rich and corrupt politicians, hence most poor Nigerians were safe from the virus [24]. At the same time were rumors that taking ample quantities of Vitamin C or bathing in warm water laced with ginger and garlic would kill the virus [25]. Several YouTube videos (all taken down) were made by pastors and several conspiracy

In April, the 5G theory emerged. This conspiracy theory held that 5G transmitters were responsible for the rapid escalation of COVID-19 infections in Europe and North America and were about to be installed across Africa. It was rumored that these transmitters will cause massive number of infections and deaths in Africa. At the forefront of promoting this conspiracy was Chris Oyakhilome the head pastor the Christ Embassy Church. In reaction, the UK government severely sanctioned his Loveworld News; a channel that broadcasts both from Nigeria and the UK [26].

Misinformation about COVID-19 has mostly proliferated through social media platforms, mainly in the form of rumors and conspiracy theories [17]. A notable example was that the corona virus was a biological weapon invented by China's for

**3. Misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria**

**176**

forms [22].

language, preferably, in an indigenous language or in Nigerian pidgin to enhance wider reach and better understanding due to the nature of the general populace.

Expert interviews provide great platforms for debunking misinformation through factual discourse. Radio stations could invite health experts and NGO officers directly working in COVID-19 portfolios for interviews during news broadcasts or talk shows. Interview questions could be designed to elicit responses on the current state of the pandemic and to address any misinformation. These expert interviews could feature call-in segments to allow listeners to directly pose questions to guests to clarify any doubts, rumors or misconceptions about COVID-19.

Combating misinformation is not an easy task. Radio stations will need to involve community. Radio stations could engage in community outreach activities that involve children and youths in efforts to stop the spread of misinformation. Children and youths are an important population group that needs to be protected in times of health pandemics. This group is also particularly vulnerable to COVID-19 if they have any underlying health conditions. Children and Youths have a strong information potential. However, due to their limited knowledge and experiences, children and youths are often engaged in spreading rumors in the playground and during discussions among peers. Radio stations need to tap into this potential by guiding the youths to channel their energies positively towards dispelling misinformation. For example, with the aid of appropriate sponsors, radio stations could organize poetry, essay or song writing competitions that will compel children and youths to do more research on the causes, symptoms, and safe practices of COVID-19. Through research, children and youths will gain a better understanding of COVID-19.

Dedicated segments during the news or program broadcasts are good avenues to dispel misinformation about COVID-19. Radio stations could dedicate ten to twenty percent of news time to informing listeners on the latest updates in the fight against the virus. Best practices for staying safe, could also be discussed in these segments. In Burkina Fasso for example, Radio Salaki dedicates the first five minutes at the beginning of each program to talk about COVID-19. During these dedicated segments, presenters talk about preventing transmission, symptoms and other important information [34]. Radio stations in Nigeria could emulate this strategy from Burkina Fasso.

Radio drama could also be employed as a tool in the fight against misinformation. Radio drama or radio play is a performance art that communicates through actors, music and sound effects. Radio drama is storytelling through sound [35]. Radio drama functions as a tool for entertaining and educating the public on various topical issues. An example could be producing a short drama or drama series to highlight the dangers unsafe practices as a result misinformation; something terrible happens to Mr./Mrs. X as a result of false information about COVID-19. Radio drama reflects what the public think about the corona virus. It helps to correct falsehood and highlight the importance of adhering to scientific fact.

#### **5. Conclusion**

Radio has strong potentials to reach ordinary citizens including people at the grass roots in Nigeria and across Africa. Radio remains a strong source for public information in times of health crisis. With widespread panic caused by misinformation about COVID-19, radio can play a huge role in combating the spread of false and misleading information.

This chapter advocates for the use of the traditional electronic medium of radio to tackle the menace of misinformation created and spread through social media

**179**

**Author details**

Philip Effiom Ephraim

The Masters Music Academy and Arts Foundation, Calabar, Nigeria

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: philipephraim@yahoo.com

provided the original work is properly cited.

*The Potentials of Radio in Combating Misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria*

effectively in Africa. Sadly, many radio stations are underfunded.

channels. Radio as a medium is not perfect, it has its shortcomings. However, unlike social media, radio has active gatekeepers; news editors that keep serious check on content before they are broadcast. The freedom, access and minimal gatekeeping of social media, make them particularly veritable spaces for spreading rumors and

Radio stations need to recognize that they have an important role to play in the fight to minimize misinformation in Nigeria and across Africa. News and program content need to be carefully sourced and tailored to ensure that listeners in cities and at the grassroots, receive updated and accurate information about COVID-19. Government and private sector support are also necessary for radio to function

The strategies outlined this chapter, could be viewed as the author's modest contribution to supporting the battle against growing misinformation about COVID-19. It is hoped that these strategies will be seriously considered, tested and adopted by

This chapter is advisory and futuristic. It did not seek to measure the effects of radio on misinformation. The author relied on direct observation and consulted primary sources comprising newspaper websites and news blogs to gain verified information on the extents of misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria. Future studies might want to test these strategies qualitatively or quantitatively to support or refute them. For example, what are the effects of radio drama in minimizing misinformation about COVID-19? Do the public pay attention to expert interviews? It will also be interesting for future studies to consider other strategies for utilizing radio resources to combat misinformation beyond Nigerian and African contexts.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93949*

radio stations in Nigeria and across Africa.

other falsehoods.

#### *The Potentials of Radio in Combating Misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93949*

channels. Radio as a medium is not perfect, it has its shortcomings. However, unlike social media, radio has active gatekeepers; news editors that keep serious check on content before they are broadcast. The freedom, access and minimal gatekeeping of social media, make them particularly veritable spaces for spreading rumors and other falsehoods.

Radio stations need to recognize that they have an important role to play in the fight to minimize misinformation in Nigeria and across Africa. News and program content need to be carefully sourced and tailored to ensure that listeners in cities and at the grassroots, receive updated and accurate information about COVID-19. Government and private sector support are also necessary for radio to function effectively in Africa. Sadly, many radio stations are underfunded.

The strategies outlined this chapter, could be viewed as the author's modest contribution to supporting the battle against growing misinformation about COVID-19. It is hoped that these strategies will be seriously considered, tested and adopted by radio stations in Nigeria and across Africa.

This chapter is advisory and futuristic. It did not seek to measure the effects of radio on misinformation. The author relied on direct observation and consulted primary sources comprising newspaper websites and news blogs to gain verified information on the extents of misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria. Future studies might want to test these strategies qualitatively or quantitatively to support or refute them. For example, what are the effects of radio drama in minimizing misinformation about COVID-19? Do the public pay attention to expert interviews? It will also be interesting for future studies to consider other strategies for utilizing radio resources to combat misinformation beyond Nigerian and African contexts.

#### **Author details**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

language, preferably, in an indigenous language or in Nigerian pidgin to enhance wider reach and better understanding due to the nature of the general populace. Expert interviews provide great platforms for debunking misinformation through factual discourse. Radio stations could invite health experts and NGO officers directly working in COVID-19 portfolios for interviews during news broadcasts or talk shows. Interview questions could be designed to elicit responses on the current state of the pandemic and to address any misinformation. These expert interviews could feature call-in segments to allow listeners to directly pose questions to guests to clarify any doubts, rumors or misconceptions about COVID-19. Combating misinformation is not an easy task. Radio stations will need to involve community. Radio stations could engage in community outreach activities that involve children and youths in efforts to stop the spread of misinformation. Children and youths are an important population group that needs to be protected in times of health pandemics. This group is also particularly vulnerable to COVID-19 if they have any underlying health conditions. Children and Youths have a strong information potential. However, due to their limited knowledge and experiences, children and youths are often engaged in spreading rumors in the playground and during discussions among peers. Radio stations need to tap into this potential by guiding the youths to channel their energies positively towards dispelling misinformation. For example, with the aid of appropriate sponsors, radio stations could organize poetry, essay or song writing competitions that will compel children and youths to do more research on the causes, symptoms, and safe practices of COVID-19. Through research, children and youths will gain a better understanding

Dedicated segments during the news or program broadcasts are good avenues to dispel misinformation about COVID-19. Radio stations could dedicate ten to twenty percent of news time to informing listeners on the latest updates in the fight against the virus. Best practices for staying safe, could also be discussed in these segments. In Burkina Fasso for example, Radio Salaki dedicates the first five minutes at the beginning of each program to talk about COVID-19. During these dedicated segments, presenters talk about preventing transmission, symptoms and other important information [34]. Radio stations in Nigeria could emulate this strategy

Radio drama could also be employed as a tool in the fight against misinformation. Radio drama or radio play is a performance art that communicates through actors, music and sound effects. Radio drama is storytelling through sound [35]. Radio drama functions as a tool for entertaining and educating the public on various topical issues. An example could be producing a short drama or drama series to highlight the dangers unsafe practices as a result misinformation; something terrible happens to Mr./Mrs. X as a result of false information about COVID-19. Radio drama reflects what the public think about the corona virus. It helps to correct

Radio has strong potentials to reach ordinary citizens including people at the grass roots in Nigeria and across Africa. Radio remains a strong source for public information in times of health crisis. With widespread panic caused by misinformation about COVID-19, radio can play a huge role in combating the spread of false

This chapter advocates for the use of the traditional electronic medium of radio to tackle the menace of misinformation created and spread through social media

falsehood and highlight the importance of adhering to scientific fact.

**178**

of COVID-19.

from Burkina Fasso.

**5. Conclusion**

and misleading information.

Philip Effiom Ephraim The Masters Music Academy and Arts Foundation, Calabar, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: philipephraim@yahoo.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

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[2] Stewart, D. (2018). Radio: revenue, reach resilience in *Technology, Media and Telecommunications Predictions 2019*. Sallomi Paul (ed.) 4 – 17 Deloitte Insights: USA

[3] Madamombe, I. (2005, July 25) Community Radio: A Voice for the Poor, Retrieved from: https://www.un.org/ africarenewal/magazine/july-2005/ community-radio-voice-poor

[4] Pate, U. & Abubakar, A. (2013) The Struggle for Community Broadcasting in Nigeria, *Malaysian Journal of Media Studies*, 15 (1) 1-19

[5] Akingbulu, A. & Bussiek, H. (2010). *Public Broadcasting in Africa Series: Nigeria*. Johannesburg: Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa

[6] Ajibade, O. & Alabi, S. (2017) Community Radio in Nigeria, Issues and Challenges, *Covenant Journal of Communication* 4 (1) 26 - 38

[7] Ikenwa, C. (2020) Full List of Radio Stations in Nigeria and Frequencies (2020). Retrieved from: https:// nigerianinfopedia.com.ng/full-list-ofradio-stations-in-nigeria-frequencies/

[8] Omoniyi, B. (2018) An examination of the causes of poverty on economic growth in Nigeria, *Africa's Public Service Delivery and Performance Review* 6 (1) 1 – 10 https://doi.org/10.4102/apsdpr. v6i1.175

[9] Akingbulu, A. (ed.) (2007). *Building community radio in Nigeria: issues and challenges*. Lagos: Imeso and PIWA

[10] Ephraim, P. (2020) #payusviaBVN: Social Media, Lockdowns and Social Welfare in Nigeria, in S. Ramasubramanian (Ed.) *Quarantined Across Borders Blog Series*. Media Rise. Texas A&M University, USA. Accessible at: https://www.mediarisenow.org/qab

[11] Adepoju, P. (2020, March 11) Nigeria responds to COVID-19; First Case Detected in Sub-Saharan Africa, Retrieved from: https://www.nature. com/articles/d41591-020-00004-2

[12] Odubanjo, D. (2020, March 26) The Biggest Threats to Nigeria Managing COVID-19; Panic, Politics and Indecision, Retrieved from: https:// theconversation.com/the-biggestthreats-to-nigeria-managing-covid-19 panic-politics-and-indecision-134756

[13] Obokoh, A. (2020, April 17). Misinformation, Fake News Remain Major Setback to Effectively Tackle COVID-19 Pandemic in Nigeria, Retrieved from: https:// businessday.ng/health/article/ misinformation-fake-news-remainmajor-setback-to-effectively-tacklecovid-19-pandemic-in-nigeria/

[14] Adelana, O. 2020 (2020, May 3) Nigeria, Radio Dramas are set to Burst Myths around COVID-19, Retrieved from: https://www.wsscc.org/media/ resources/nigeria-radio-dramas-are-setbust-myths-around-covid-19

[15] Wu, L., Morstatter, F., Carley, K. M., & Liu, H. (2019). Misinformation in Social Media. *ACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter*, 21(2), 80-90. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). Retrieved from https://doi.org/1 0.1145%2F3373464.3373475

[16] Acerbi, A. (2019) Cognitive attraction and online misinformation. *Palgrave Communications* 5 (15)

**181**

6.2016.1257861

*The Potentials of Radio in Combating Misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria*

*Technology* 15 (4) 275 – 284 https://doi. org/10.1007/s10676-013-9333-2

[23] Onapajo, H. & Adebiyi, J. (2020) 'COVID-19 is a Big Scam' Citizens' Distrust and the Challenge of Combating Coronavirus in Nigeria, Retrieved from: https://republic. com.ng/february-march-2020/ distrust-nigeria-coronavirus/

[24] BBC, (2020, April 23) Coronavirus: Why some Nigerians are gloating about Covid19, Retrieved from: https://www. bbc.com/news/world-africa-52372737

[25] Maclean & Dahil (2020) Nigeria Responds to First Coronavirus Case in Sub-Saharan Africa, Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/28/ world/africa/nigeria-coronavirus.html

[26] Egbuniwe, N. (2020, May 15) Nigerian pastor spreads COVID-19 conspiracies and disinformation, Retrieved from: https://globalvoices. org/2020/05/15/nigerian-pastorspreads-covid-19-conspiracies-and-

[27] Folorunsho-Francis, A. (2020, July 1) COVID-19 in Nigeria: A tale of denial and deaths, Retrieved from: https:// healthwise.punchng.com/covid-19-innigeria-a-tale-of-denial-and-deaths/

[28] Uchechukwu, I. (2020, May 22) COVID-19: Panic in Calabar over death of two suspected cases, Retrieved from: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/05/ covid-19-panic-in-calabar-over-death-

[29] Kapoor, A. (2020, June 13) Despite Battling COVID Misinformation, Community Radio News Still Seen as 'Security Threat', Retrieved from: https://thewire.in/media/communityradios-covid-19-misinformation

[30] UNESCO (2020, April 28) Credible Sources as a Vaccine against Fake News

of-two-suspected-cases/

disinformation/

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93949*

1 - 7 https://doi.org/10.1057/

[17] Frenkel, S., Alba, D., Zhong, R. (2020, March 8). Surge of virus misinformation stumps Facebook and Twitter. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.

com/2020/03/08/technology/ coronavirus-misinformation-social-

[19] Department of Global Communications (2020, March 31) UN Tackles 'Infodemic' of Misinformation and Cybercrime in COVID-19 Crisis, Retrieved from: https://www.un.org/en/un-coronaviruscommunications-team/un-tackling- %E2%80%98infodemic%E2%80%99 misinformation-and-cybercrime-

[20] Waszak, P., Kasprzycka-Waszak, W. & Kubanek, A. (2018) The spread of medical fake news in social media – The pilot quantitative study Author links open overlay panel, *Health Policy & Technology* 7 (2) 115-118 https://doi.

[21] Ephraim, P., Akter, T. and Gasinger, M. (2017) New media-new voices: satirical representations of Nigeria's socio-politics in Ogas at the Top, Critical Studies in Media Communication 34 (1) 44 – 57 https://doi.org/10.1080/1529503

[22] Ephraim, P. (2013) African Youths and the dangers of social networking: a cultured centered approach to using social media *Ethics and Information* 

org/10.1016/j.hlpt.2018.03.002

[18] Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G., & Rand, D. (2020). Fighting COVID-19 Misinformation on Social Media: Experimental Evidence for a Scalable Accuracy-Nudge Intervention. *Psychological Science*, *31*(7) 770-780. https://doi. org/10.1177/0956797620939054

s41599-019-0224-y

media.html

covid-19

*The Potentials of Radio in Combating Misinformation about COVID-19 in Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93949*

1 - 7 https://doi.org/10.1057/ s41599-019-0224-y

[17] Frenkel, S., Alba, D., Zhong, R. (2020, March 8). Surge of virus misinformation stumps Facebook and Twitter. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes. com/2020/03/08/technology/ coronavirus-misinformation-socialmedia.html

[18] Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G., & Rand, D. (2020). Fighting COVID-19 Misinformation on Social Media: Experimental Evidence for a Scalable Accuracy-Nudge Intervention. *Psychological Science*, *31*(7) 770-780. https://doi. org/10.1177/0956797620939054

[19] Department of Global Communications (2020, March 31) UN Tackles 'Infodemic' of Misinformation and Cybercrime in COVID-19 Crisis, Retrieved from: https://www.un.org/en/un-coronaviruscommunications-team/un-tackling- %E2%80%98infodemic%E2%80%99 misinformation-and-cybercrimecovid-19

[20] Waszak, P., Kasprzycka-Waszak, W. & Kubanek, A. (2018) The spread of medical fake news in social media – The pilot quantitative study Author links open overlay panel, *Health Policy & Technology* 7 (2) 115-118 https://doi. org/10.1016/j.hlpt.2018.03.002

[21] Ephraim, P., Akter, T. and Gasinger, M. (2017) New media-new voices: satirical representations of Nigeria's socio-politics in Ogas at the Top, Critical Studies in Media Communication 34 (1) 44 – 57 https://doi.org/10.1080/1529503 6.2016.1257861

[22] Ephraim, P. (2013) African Youths and the dangers of social networking: a cultured centered approach to using social media *Ethics and Information* 

*Technology* 15 (4) 275 – 284 https://doi. org/10.1007/s10676-013-9333-2

[23] Onapajo, H. & Adebiyi, J. (2020) 'COVID-19 is a Big Scam' Citizens' Distrust and the Challenge of Combating Coronavirus in Nigeria, Retrieved from: https://republic. com.ng/february-march-2020/ distrust-nigeria-coronavirus/

[24] BBC, (2020, April 23) Coronavirus: Why some Nigerians are gloating about Covid19, Retrieved from: https://www. bbc.com/news/world-africa-52372737

[25] Maclean & Dahil (2020) Nigeria Responds to First Coronavirus Case in Sub-Saharan Africa, Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/28/ world/africa/nigeria-coronavirus.html

[26] Egbuniwe, N. (2020, May 15) Nigerian pastor spreads COVID-19 conspiracies and disinformation, Retrieved from: https://globalvoices. org/2020/05/15/nigerian-pastorspreads-covid-19-conspiracies-anddisinformation/

[27] Folorunsho-Francis, A. (2020, July 1) COVID-19 in Nigeria: A tale of denial and deaths, Retrieved from: https:// healthwise.punchng.com/covid-19-innigeria-a-tale-of-denial-and-deaths/

[28] Uchechukwu, I. (2020, May 22) COVID-19: Panic in Calabar over death of two suspected cases, Retrieved from: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/05/ covid-19-panic-in-calabar-over-deathof-two-suspected-cases/

[29] Kapoor, A. (2020, June 13) Despite Battling COVID Misinformation, Community Radio News Still Seen as 'Security Threat', Retrieved from: https://thewire.in/media/communityradios-covid-19-misinformation

[30] UNESCO (2020, April 28) Credible Sources as a Vaccine against Fake News

**180**

v6i1.175

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

[10] Ephraim, P. (2020) #payusviaBVN:

Ramasubramanian (Ed.) *Quarantined Across Borders Blog Series*. Media Rise. Texas A&M University, USA. Accessible at: https://www.mediarisenow.org/qab

[11] Adepoju, P. (2020, March 11) Nigeria responds to COVID-19; First Case Detected in Sub-Saharan Africa, Retrieved from: https://www.nature. com/articles/d41591-020-00004-2

[12] Odubanjo, D. (2020, March 26) The Biggest Threats to Nigeria Managing COVID-19; Panic, Politics and Indecision, Retrieved from: https:// theconversation.com/the-biggestthreats-to-nigeria-managing-covid-19 panic-politics-and-indecision-134756

[13] Obokoh, A. (2020, April 17). Misinformation, Fake News Remain Major Setback to Effectively Tackle COVID-19 Pandemic in Nigeria, Retrieved from: https:// businessday.ng/health/article/ misinformation-fake-news-remainmajor-setback-to-effectively-tacklecovid-19-pandemic-in-nigeria/

[14] Adelana, O. 2020 (2020, May 3) Nigeria, Radio Dramas are set to Burst Myths around COVID-19, Retrieved from: https://www.wsscc.org/media/ resources/nigeria-radio-dramas-are-set-

[15] Wu, L., Morstatter, F., Carley, K. M., & Liu, H. (2019). Misinformation in Social Media. *ACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter*, 21(2), 80-90. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). Retrieved from https://doi.org/1

bust-myths-around-covid-19

0.1145%2F3373464.3373475

[16] Acerbi, A. (2019) Cognitive attraction and online misinformation. *Palgrave Communications* 5 (15)

Social Media, Lockdowns and Social Welfare in Nigeria, in S.

[1] Bazley, T. (2016). In the internet age radio still rules the world,

Retrieved from: https://www.aljazeera. com/news/2016/02/radio-worldmedia-primary-source-informat ion-2016-160213130238088.html

[2] Stewart, D. (2018). Radio: revenue, reach resilience in *Technology, Media and Telecommunications Predictions 2019*. Sallomi Paul (ed.) 4 – 17 Deloitte

[3] Madamombe, I. (2005, July 25) Community Radio: A Voice for the Poor, Retrieved from: https://www.un.org/ africarenewal/magazine/july-2005/ community-radio-voice-poor

[4] Pate, U. & Abubakar, A. (2013) The Struggle for Community Broadcasting in Nigeria, *Malaysian Journal of Media* 

[5] Akingbulu, A. & Bussiek, H. (2010). *Public Broadcasting in Africa Series: Nigeria*. Johannesburg: Open Society

Initiative for Southern Africa

*Communication* 4 (1) 26 - 38

[6] Ajibade, O. & Alabi, S. (2017) Community Radio in Nigeria, Issues and Challenges, *Covenant Journal of* 

[7] Ikenwa, C. (2020) Full List of Radio Stations in Nigeria and Frequencies (2020). Retrieved from: https:// nigerianinfopedia.com.ng/full-list-ofradio-stations-in-nigeria-frequencies/

[8] Omoniyi, B. (2018) An examination of the causes of poverty on economic growth in Nigeria, *Africa's Public Service Delivery and Performance Review* 6 (1) 1 – 10 https://doi.org/10.4102/apsdpr.

[9] Akingbulu, A. (ed.) (2007). *Building community radio in Nigeria: issues and challenges*. Lagos: Imeso and PIWA

Insights: USA

**References**

*Studies*, 15 (1) 1-19

on COVID-19, Retrieved from: https:// en.unesco.org/news/credible-sourcesvaccine-against-fake-news-covid-19

[31] Baskauf, C. (2020, May 26) How Statistics Are Helping Us Navigate The COVID-19 Pandemic, Retrieved from: https://www.wnpr.org/post/ how-statistics-are-helping-us-navigatecovid-19-pandemic

[32] Jain, P. & Jain, U. (2016). Study of the Effectiveness of Advertising Jingles, *Advances in Economics and Business Management* 3 (5) 596-505

[33] Wogu, J., Chukwu, C., Nwafor, K., Ugwuoke, J., & Ugwulor-Onyinyechi, C. (2020). Assessing the role of the media in the prevention and control of meningitis in Nigeria. *Journal of International Medical Research.* https:// doi.org/10.1177/0300060519841168

[34] Tellier, H. (2020) Bringing listeners on-air, keeping staff out of harm's way: How Radio Salaki is responding to COVID-19, Retrieved from: https:// farmradio.org/how-radio-salaki-isresponding-to-covid-19/

[35] Huwiler, E. (2005) Storytelling by Sound: A Theoretical Frame for Radio Drama Analysis, The Radio Journal International Studies in Broadcast and Audio Media 3 (1):45-59 DOI: 10.1386/ rajo.3.1.45/1

**183**

**Chapter 10**

**Abstract**

Venezuela

**1. Introduction**

in Venezuela

that engaging in fact checking.

Disinformation as a Society-Wide

*Andrés Cañizález, León Hernández and Luisa Torrealba*

In political systems restricting communication by means of official controls on information, the dissemination of fake news, as well as counterfeit content in general, increases. Audiences in such locations can be more vulnerable to misinformation, as there are no contrasting sources to check or confirm what is being misrepresented. Concurrently, the dynamics of social media also make fact checking difficult given the large volume of content that can be accessed almost instantly. This piece reviews both concepts surrounding the fake news phenomenon and an approach to citizens' perception of misinformation in their midst. The existence of a political regime hellbent on controlling information creates conditions for citizens to echo rumors and hoaxes. The – still tentative – answer, precisely in view of a system that generally encourages disinformation, hinges on journalism, particularly

**Keywords:** fake news, disinformation, misinformation, journalism, audiences,

were downloaded from Google Play and Apple Store [2].

what happened elsewhere in the world immediately.

By April 2020, cell phone coverage reached 66% of the planet's total population (5.16 billion users), internet coverage reached 59% (4.57 billion users), and the number of active users on social media reached 49% (3.81 billion users) [1]. Meanwhile, by March 2020, every 60 seconds, 4.7 million YouTube videos were viewed worldwide, 4.1 million Google searches were completed, 2.5 million Snapchat snaps were created, 2.5 million images were viewed on Imgur, and 1.3 million logins on Facebook were completed, 1.1 million e-commerce transactions were performed, 190 million emails were sent, 59 texts were sent on Facebook, Messenger, and WhatsApp messaging, 19 million SMS messages were sent, 694,444 people posted on Instagram, 194,444 people posted on Twitter, and 400,000 apps

Undoubtedly, in this age, the flood of information to which people are exposed has significantly marked the way they relate, interact, and access newsworthy information. By means of apps and social media, people receive a wealth of information in real time. The confines of time and space are no longer an obstacle to learning

Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy'

#### **Chapter 10**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

on COVID-19, Retrieved from: https:// en.unesco.org/news/credible-sourcesvaccine-against-fake-news-covid-19

[31] Baskauf, C. (2020, May 26) How Statistics Are Helping Us Navigate The COVID-19 Pandemic, Retrieved from: https://www.wnpr.org/post/ how-statistics-are-helping-us-navigate-

[32] Jain, P. & Jain, U. (2016). Study of the Effectiveness of Advertising Jingles, *Advances in Economics and Business* 

[33] Wogu, J., Chukwu, C., Nwafor, K., Ugwuoke, J., & Ugwulor-Onyinyechi, C. (2020). Assessing the role of the media in the prevention and control of meningitis in Nigeria. *Journal of International Medical Research.* https:// doi.org/10.1177/0300060519841168

[34] Tellier, H. (2020) Bringing listeners on-air, keeping staff out of harm's way: How Radio Salaki is responding to COVID-19, Retrieved from: https:// farmradio.org/how-radio-salaki-is-

[35] Huwiler, E. (2005) Storytelling by Sound: A Theoretical Frame for Radio Drama Analysis, The Radio Journal International Studies in Broadcast and Audio Media 3 (1):45-59 DOI: 10.1386/

covid-19-pandemic

*Management* 3 (5) 596-505

responding-to-covid-19/

rajo.3.1.45/1

**182**

## Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela

*Andrés Cañizález, León Hernández and Luisa Torrealba*

#### **Abstract**

In political systems restricting communication by means of official controls on information, the dissemination of fake news, as well as counterfeit content in general, increases. Audiences in such locations can be more vulnerable to misinformation, as there are no contrasting sources to check or confirm what is being misrepresented. Concurrently, the dynamics of social media also make fact checking difficult given the large volume of content that can be accessed almost instantly. This piece reviews both concepts surrounding the fake news phenomenon and an approach to citizens' perception of misinformation in their midst. The existence of a political regime hellbent on controlling information creates conditions for citizens to echo rumors and hoaxes. The – still tentative – answer, precisely in view of a system that generally encourages disinformation, hinges on journalism, particularly that engaging in fact checking.

**Keywords:** fake news, disinformation, misinformation, journalism, audiences, Venezuela

#### **1. Introduction**

By April 2020, cell phone coverage reached 66% of the planet's total population (5.16 billion users), internet coverage reached 59% (4.57 billion users), and the number of active users on social media reached 49% (3.81 billion users) [1].

Meanwhile, by March 2020, every 60 seconds, 4.7 million YouTube videos were viewed worldwide, 4.1 million Google searches were completed, 2.5 million Snapchat snaps were created, 2.5 million images were viewed on Imgur, and 1.3 million logins on Facebook were completed, 1.1 million e-commerce transactions were performed, 190 million emails were sent, 59 texts were sent on Facebook, Messenger, and WhatsApp messaging, 19 million SMS messages were sent, 694,444 people posted on Instagram, 194,444 people posted on Twitter, and 400,000 apps were downloaded from Google Play and Apple Store [2].

Undoubtedly, in this age, the flood of information to which people are exposed has significantly marked the way they relate, interact, and access newsworthy information. By means of apps and social media, people receive a wealth of information in real time. The confines of time and space are no longer an obstacle to learning what happened elsewhere in the world immediately.

The speed and amount of information exchanged is inversely proportional to users' ability to fact-check, filter, and prioritize it in an expeditious manner. This context sets the right conditions for rumors, misinformation, and fake news to play a major role.

#### **2. On the term 'fake news'**

Let us pause and consider the 'term fake news' from the perspective of its meaning in different languages, starting with Spanish, which is the mother tongue and primary language of academic production of the co-authors of this chapter.

In Spanish, the term 'fake news', untranslated, has gained momentum instead of its literal equivalent, *noticias falsas*.

How can this be *noticias falsas*? A news story can be false if a journalist has made mistakes and missed some information. It can be false if a government official lies on a public statement. It can also be false if a media outlet gives news showing only one side of reality for ideological reasons and shapes a news item after a conspiracy thesis, deviating from elements of accuracy in the treatment of information. Therefore, *per se*, *noticias falsas* seems to be a very broad term.

Spanish, unlike English, allows us to check whether the translation *noticias falsas* can have connotations that are more specific. In recent times, the use of the original English 'fake news' does not only refer to mere *noticias falsas* or a news item commonly associated with journalistic work. It seems that technology and the migration of human interaction to the digital realm has spawned new meanings that make 'fake news' seem incomplete or inaccurate.

In the first year of operations of the Venezuelan Observatory of Fake News (Observatorio Venezolano de Fake News, OVFN), founded by the authors and Professor Mariela Torrealba in July 2019, it has been noted that tampering with messages to manipulate the public opinion is linked to processes that, while reflecting the adjective 'fake' in their contents, pale in view of the tools that leave the mere 'fake' in a mild and insufficient description. This adjective becomes a robe that does not completely cover its wearer, and leaves out new ploys in the process of lying, creating confusion and misunderstanding, or seeking to control the belief systems of social media users.

When detecting the information units reviewed by the OVFN, dramatizations have constantly been found in audio messages, with voices of people weeping and crying alert on non-existent events. Additionally, a host of voice notes calling for protests that no groups have convened, making reckless statements to dupe the gullible in the troubled waters of distressing times, manipulating logos and screenshots with doctored graphic design, and using photos of children to make waves of false rumors regarding child abductions have been detected.

It has been noted that international writers and political figures have been misquoted in messages with criticism at certain regimes falsely attributed to them; messages have been forged by mixing half-truths with hoaxes to create confusion among retired persons regarding steps to collect their pension or discredit institutions. Also altered company logos have been used to deceive people into buying products, perform phishing of private banking information, harvest email accounts and send ads on Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, or other social media.

In the barrage of malicious intentions to confuse people, to attack someone's character in the perception of others, or make them believe a situation that has been blown out of proportion, the resourcefulness of players in the shadows has included the simple, inexpensive, and easiest item to alter: a simple audio file containing false information expressing pain or fear. This has been part of the perverse game of creating disinformation units that also circulate, which are outright false, flooding

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*Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela*

the web and thereby seeking to disrupt the meanings and constructs that make up

In summary, not only does the term 'fake news' refer to mere counterfeit content, but it also reaches beyond flat-out lying on mainstream media, a practice historically present since their inception. In their midst, intentional deception of leaders and sources has not escaped from public affairs, on issues regarding political

From the beginning of civilization to the present day, sometimes an official making a public statement on a certain subject lies. In that case, a journalist writes the note, quotes the statement, and the news is already false from its origin, from the communicational fact of the spokesperson's message, in an attempt at influencing beliefs of the society at which it is directed. In this case, it is a lie on a public statement, a hoax. The news is false because of the spokesperson's statement, not because the piece has been manipulated by its writer. In other words, in real life, it happens that officials lie and this is not considered fake news, although it is a component of misinformation. Hence the importance of the work done by those who check and detect lies and manipulation in public statements, contrasting them with evidence providing audiences with elements to assess whether something was

false or some government or interest group intended to manipulate them.

We insist: One thing is the originally false and deceitful, where a falsehood has been stated and, as a communicational fact, it exists and is real, and another thing is the fabrication that someone said something, that a nonexistent statement has been made by an institution. There, the source does not lie, but someone, with misleading intent, counterfeits reality, fabricating an item under the guise of news, in the form of an alleged statement, a voice note, a message from a neighbor, a photo altered by fiction. A content is out there, actually trying to persuade, perhaps by appealing to emotions so it will go viral, because it is desirable, appealing, feared, or disgusting – therefore, because it is conspicuous, it is shared, creating a snowball effect that goes viral, deceiving, falsifying, and disturbing people's belief system.

The fake element is a component of misinformation that could be depicted as a three-legged table: The first one contains ideological propaganda of any kind; the second one, a structured muzzle with censorship mechanisms; and the third one, counterfeit content farms. Fake news may well be the hypotenuse of the triangle. In turn, the word 'disinformation' can be illustrated with a geometric shape of three

The term 'fake news', or the one we have proposed to our Spanish-speaking colleagues, *contenidos falseados* (counterfeit content), cannot be replaced with 'misinformation'. Doing so would be to fall into a generalization that seeks to describe a part with the name of the whole. Fake news can cause misinformation, but they are not synonymous, and in that metonymy, inextricable aspects of each term, not

In many countries, the term 'fake news' has risen to prominence in the form a buzzword from the lips of government officials who often mention it to describe practices that they regard as "communicational attacks". This misuse of the term, in order to blame professional journalists with producing fake news simply because they are critical, has become popular in political circles. Additionally, in academic and journalistic realms, the term 'fake news' has begun to be rejected, and the word 'disinformation' is used to describe this phenomenon, despite the fact that this term also alludes to falsehood from government spokespersons and censorship mechanisms.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*

power, propaganda, and ideological differences.

what people consider to be reality.

**3. Misinformation and fake news**

vertices: a triangle of opacity, censorship, and manipulation.

necessarily equivalent to each other, go missing.

#### *Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*

the web and thereby seeking to disrupt the meanings and constructs that make up what people consider to be reality.

In summary, not only does the term 'fake news' refer to mere counterfeit content, but it also reaches beyond flat-out lying on mainstream media, a practice historically present since their inception. In their midst, intentional deception of leaders and sources has not escaped from public affairs, on issues regarding political power, propaganda, and ideological differences.

From the beginning of civilization to the present day, sometimes an official making a public statement on a certain subject lies. In that case, a journalist writes the note, quotes the statement, and the news is already false from its origin, from the communicational fact of the spokesperson's message, in an attempt at influencing beliefs of the society at which it is directed. In this case, it is a lie on a public statement, a hoax. The news is false because of the spokesperson's statement, not because the piece has been manipulated by its writer. In other words, in real life, it happens that officials lie and this is not considered fake news, although it is a component of misinformation. Hence the importance of the work done by those who check and detect lies and manipulation in public statements, contrasting them with evidence providing audiences with elements to assess whether something was false or some government or interest group intended to manipulate them.

We insist: One thing is the originally false and deceitful, where a falsehood has been stated and, as a communicational fact, it exists and is real, and another thing is the fabrication that someone said something, that a nonexistent statement has been made by an institution. There, the source does not lie, but someone, with misleading intent, counterfeits reality, fabricating an item under the guise of news, in the form of an alleged statement, a voice note, a message from a neighbor, a photo altered by fiction. A content is out there, actually trying to persuade, perhaps by appealing to emotions so it will go viral, because it is desirable, appealing, feared, or disgusting – therefore, because it is conspicuous, it is shared, creating a snowball effect that goes viral, deceiving, falsifying, and disturbing people's belief system.

#### **3. Misinformation and fake news**

The fake element is a component of misinformation that could be depicted as a three-legged table: The first one contains ideological propaganda of any kind; the second one, a structured muzzle with censorship mechanisms; and the third one, counterfeit content farms. Fake news may well be the hypotenuse of the triangle. In turn, the word 'disinformation' can be illustrated with a geometric shape of three vertices: a triangle of opacity, censorship, and manipulation.

The term 'fake news', or the one we have proposed to our Spanish-speaking colleagues, *contenidos falseados* (counterfeit content), cannot be replaced with 'misinformation'. Doing so would be to fall into a generalization that seeks to describe a part with the name of the whole. Fake news can cause misinformation, but they are not synonymous, and in that metonymy, inextricable aspects of each term, not necessarily equivalent to each other, go missing.

In many countries, the term 'fake news' has risen to prominence in the form a buzzword from the lips of government officials who often mention it to describe practices that they regard as "communicational attacks". This misuse of the term, in order to blame professional journalists with producing fake news simply because they are critical, has become popular in political circles. Additionally, in academic and journalistic realms, the term 'fake news' has begun to be rejected, and the word 'disinformation' is used to describe this phenomenon, despite the fact that this term also alludes to falsehood from government spokespersons and censorship mechanisms.

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

Therefore, *per se*, *noticias falsas* seems to be a very broad term.

**2. On the term 'fake news'**

its literal equivalent, *noticias falsas*.

'fake news' seem incomplete or inaccurate.

rumors regarding child abductions have been detected.

of social media users.

The speed and amount of information exchanged is inversely proportional to users' ability to fact-check, filter, and prioritize it in an expeditious manner. This context sets the right conditions for rumors, misinformation, and fake news to play a major role.

Let us pause and consider the 'term fake news' from the perspective of its meaning in different languages, starting with Spanish, which is the mother tongue and primary language of academic production of the co-authors of this chapter.

In Spanish, the term 'fake news', untranslated, has gained momentum instead of

How can this be *noticias falsas*? A news story can be false if a journalist has made mistakes and missed some information. It can be false if a government official lies on a public statement. It can also be false if a media outlet gives news showing only one side of reality for ideological reasons and shapes a news item after a conspiracy thesis, deviating from elements of accuracy in the treatment of information.

Spanish, unlike English, allows us to check whether the translation *noticias falsas* can have connotations that are more specific. In recent times, the use of the original English 'fake news' does not only refer to mere *noticias falsas* or a news item commonly associated with journalistic work. It seems that technology and the migration of human interaction to the digital realm has spawned new meanings that make

In the first year of operations of the Venezuelan Observatory of Fake News (Observatorio Venezolano de Fake News, OVFN), founded by the authors and Professor Mariela Torrealba in July 2019, it has been noted that tampering with messages to manipulate the public opinion is linked to processes that, while reflecting the adjective 'fake' in their contents, pale in view of the tools that leave the mere 'fake' in a mild and insufficient description. This adjective becomes a robe that does not completely cover its wearer, and leaves out new ploys in the process of lying, creating confusion and misunderstanding, or seeking to control the belief systems

When detecting the information units reviewed by the OVFN, dramatizations have constantly been found in audio messages, with voices of people weeping and crying alert on non-existent events. Additionally, a host of voice notes calling for protests that no groups have convened, making reckless statements to dupe the gullible in the troubled waters of distressing times, manipulating logos and screenshots with doctored graphic design, and using photos of children to make waves of false

It has been noted that international writers and political figures have been misquoted in messages with criticism at certain regimes falsely attributed to them; messages have been forged by mixing half-truths with hoaxes to create confusion among retired persons regarding steps to collect their pension or discredit institutions. Also altered company logos have been used to deceive people into buying products, perform phishing of private banking information, harvest email accounts and send ads on Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, or other social media. In the barrage of malicious intentions to confuse people, to attack someone's character in the perception of others, or make them believe a situation that has been blown out of proportion, the resourcefulness of players in the shadows has included the simple, inexpensive, and easiest item to alter: a simple audio file containing false information expressing pain or fear. This has been part of the perverse game of creating disinformation units that also circulate, which are outright false, flooding

**184**

Italian researcher, reporter, and teacher Simona Levi [3], an expert in the field of digital democracy, communication, and collective action against corruption, mentions the tendency to selectively omit the term 'fake news' in order to overlap it with the use of the dusty and once more household name 'disinformation'.

In certain circles, the term 'fake news' is rejected and 'disinformation' is preferred. As we will see, an underlying misinformation problem is certainly present. Not only does misinformation include false information, but also disinformation, i.e., the production of altered information in combination with facts or practices reaching far beyond anything resembling news, such as automated social media accounts (bots), doctored videos, or covert and targeted advertising [3].

The definition provided by the Spanish Royal Academy (Real Academia Española) in its Spanish Language Dictionary (Diccionario de la Lengua Española) for the literal verb form linked to 'disinformation' implies a deliberate intent:

*desinformar* (lit. "disinform")


In Spanish, there is not a morphologic or semantic equivalent to 'misinform/ misinformation'.

Thus, it coincides, in the deliberate trait, with the noun 'disinformation' in English, per Merriam-Webster Dictionary [4]:

disinformation: false information deliberately and often covertly spread (as by the planting of rumors) in order to influence the public opinion or obscure the truth.

In Spanish, the verb *desinformar* is used to refer to ways of publically stating falsehoods, to creating fake news on social media or to disseminating counterfeit content, whatever this may be. The word also refers to omitting or giving insufficient information, that is, it includes concealing or conveniently failing to inform the public, thereby also alluding to preventing access to public information.

Giving intentionally manipulated information does not exclusively imply the use of fake news, since there are also mechanisms of deception associated with propaganda, that is, the communicational defense of ideological positions of certain governments, or distortion of reality by government spokespersons in order to hide sensitive information, turning it into privileged data only available to small elite groups. Disinformation, then, encompasses more acts than fabricating fake news.

Let us look at the other side of the syllogism: Is every fake news story made with the clear intent to 'disinform', as befits the intrinsic motivation behind this action so defined? What happens when, by mishandling sensitive information, the content is falsified organically, seemingly in an unintentional manner or in a way that cannot be attributed to a disinformation farm? For Romero [5], theoreticians have tried to disassociate these errors. "American and French researchers have separated consequential or mistaken disinformation (misinformation, *mésinformation*) from that premeditatedly and maliciously produced (disinformation, *désinformation*), thereby delimiting two distinct fields of study whose difference is based on the prior intent by the disinformation agent.

Romero acknowledges that, by not including a mistaken and unintentional component in the term, disinformation elements are left out by appealing to their deliberate nature and not to their consequences. Ultimately, as for the sender, it implies a deontological assessment on the legitimate or illegitimate purpose of their communication. Notwithstanding, what goes through the mind of a receiver who

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*Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela*

protect the receiver from the effects of the message on their perception?

is unaware of the deception? Is the intent of the sender evident in the content as to

Levy [3] finds that separating the unintentional aspect from the premeditated one could be compromising in terms of shielding those who unwittingly issue a false content without premeditation. By excluding them because of their lack of intent to manipulate – the above expert points out – they are removed from a problem of which they are a significant part and, contradicting those who believe that disinformation only exists when it is intentional, Levi points out that it includes misleading, inaccurate information resulting from something premeditated, but also from

The term disinformation was used in the early 20th century by the Soviet regime (*dezinformatsiya*) to refer to activity linked to disseminating partially or completely false news, in an attempt to influence the public opinion, thereby disorienting it [6]. The Russians who migrated into France towards the end of World War I reported that the Bolshevik police used that term to refer to actions aimed at preventing the consolidation of the communist regime, hence its subsequent meaning, in 1944, per the Dictionary of the Russian Language, published in 1949, which defined disinformation as "the action of inducing error by means of deceitful information". In the Dictionary of the Russian Language, the ideological aspect included the meaning "the disinformation of the public opinion conducted in capitalist countries"; and in 1952, in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, it was considered "the distortion that the United States exercised over global public opinion, through its enormous informational potential" according to Jacquard, as quoted by Andrés Rodríguez [7]. In the late 1950s, Rodríguez states that it was the Russians themselves who, through their secret service, the KGB, established disinformation offices, which replicated during the 1960s in other nations such as East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Bulgaria, then in the Soviet orbit. Disinformation was considered an instrument to condition individuals.

In Venezuela, by January 2020, there were 20.5 million Internet users, 23.21 million active cell phone lines, and 12 million active social media users. Of these, 81% had access through mobile devices. There were 11 million Facebook users, 4.2

Data regarding Internet and cell phone coverage in Venezuela would seem to indicate that a large section of the population has online access and can get information from the varied choices available on the Internet. However, reality includes other variables: Broadband speed in the month of March 2020 was 2.83 Mbps for downloads and 1.47 Mbps for uploads [9], placing Venezuela in second to last place worldwide for its slow connection speed (175 of 176) [10]. On the other hand, in recent years, there has been recurrent and selective blocking on news websites and social media by state-owned Compañía Anónima Nacional Teléfonos de Venezuela, CANTV, the largest Internet service provider (ISP) in the country, as well as by

These controls on Internet content have increased in the last five years with the incorporation of bots and trolls [12] by the government, in order to distort public discussion in the digital realm by positioning certain topics and messages for

*The activity of SIBCI (Bolivarian System of Communication and Information [Sistema Bolivariano de Comunicación e Información]) officials and their bots positions, on a daily basis, hashtags that artificially rise to trending topics,* 

million Instagram users, and 1.3 million Twitter users [8].

propaganda purposes on such social media as Twitter.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*

inertia and malpractice.

**4. The context in Venezuela**

other privately owned ISPs [11].

#### *Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*

is unaware of the deception? Is the intent of the sender evident in the content as to protect the receiver from the effects of the message on their perception?

Levy [3] finds that separating the unintentional aspect from the premeditated one could be compromising in terms of shielding those who unwittingly issue a false content without premeditation. By excluding them because of their lack of intent to manipulate – the above expert points out – they are removed from a problem of which they are a significant part and, contradicting those who believe that disinformation only exists when it is intentional, Levi points out that it includes misleading, inaccurate information resulting from something premeditated, but also from inertia and malpractice.

The term disinformation was used in the early 20th century by the Soviet regime (*dezinformatsiya*) to refer to activity linked to disseminating partially or completely false news, in an attempt to influence the public opinion, thereby disorienting it [6]. The Russians who migrated into France towards the end of World War I reported that the Bolshevik police used that term to refer to actions aimed at preventing the consolidation of the communist regime, hence its subsequent meaning, in 1944, per the Dictionary of the Russian Language, published in 1949, which defined disinformation as "the action of inducing error by means of deceitful information". In the Dictionary of the Russian Language, the ideological aspect included the meaning "the disinformation of the public opinion conducted in capitalist countries"; and in 1952, in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, it was considered "the distortion that the United States exercised over global public opinion, through its enormous informational potential" according to Jacquard, as quoted by Andrés Rodríguez [7]. In the late 1950s, Rodríguez states that it was the Russians themselves who, through their secret service, the KGB, established disinformation offices, which replicated during the 1960s in other nations such as East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Bulgaria, then in the Soviet orbit. Disinformation was considered an instrument to condition individuals.

#### **4. The context in Venezuela**

In Venezuela, by January 2020, there were 20.5 million Internet users, 23.21 million active cell phone lines, and 12 million active social media users. Of these, 81% had access through mobile devices. There were 11 million Facebook users, 4.2 million Instagram users, and 1.3 million Twitter users [8].

Data regarding Internet and cell phone coverage in Venezuela would seem to indicate that a large section of the population has online access and can get information from the varied choices available on the Internet. However, reality includes other variables: Broadband speed in the month of March 2020 was 2.83 Mbps for downloads and 1.47 Mbps for uploads [9], placing Venezuela in second to last place worldwide for its slow connection speed (175 of 176) [10]. On the other hand, in recent years, there has been recurrent and selective blocking on news websites and social media by state-owned Compañía Anónima Nacional Teléfonos de Venezuela, CANTV, the largest Internet service provider (ISP) in the country, as well as by other privately owned ISPs [11].

These controls on Internet content have increased in the last five years with the incorporation of bots and trolls [12] by the government, in order to distort public discussion in the digital realm by positioning certain topics and messages for propaganda purposes on such social media as Twitter.

*The activity of SIBCI (Bolivarian System of Communication and Information [Sistema Bolivariano de Comunicación e Información]) officials and their bots positions, on a daily basis, hashtags that artificially rise to trending topics,* 

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

the use of the dusty and once more household name 'disinformation'.

accounts (bots), doctored videos, or covert and targeted advertising [3]. The definition provided by the Spanish Royal Academy (Real Academia Española) in its Spanish Language Dictionary (Diccionario de la Lengua Española) for the literal verb form linked to 'disinformation' implies a deliberate intent:

2. (transitive) to give insufficient information or to omit it.

*desinformar* (lit. "disinform")

English, per Merriam-Webster Dictionary [4]:

certain purposes.

misinformation'.

fake news.

by the disinformation agent.

Italian researcher, reporter, and teacher Simona Levi [3], an expert in the field of digital democracy, communication, and collective action against corruption, mentions the tendency to selectively omit the term 'fake news' in order to overlap it with

In certain circles, the term 'fake news' is rejected and 'disinformation' is preferred. As we will see, an underlying misinformation problem is certainly present. Not only does misinformation include false information, but also disinformation, i.e., the production of altered information in combination with facts or practices reaching far beyond anything resembling news, such as automated social media

1. (transitive) to give manipulated information intentionally in order to serve

In Spanish, there is not a morphologic or semantic equivalent to 'misinform/

Thus, it coincides, in the deliberate trait, with the noun 'disinformation' in

the public, thereby also alluding to preventing access to public information.

disinformation: false information deliberately and often covertly spread (as by the planting of rumors) in order to influence the public opinion or obscure the truth. In Spanish, the verb *desinformar* is used to refer to ways of publically stating falsehoods, to creating fake news on social media or to disseminating counterfeit content, whatever this may be. The word also refers to omitting or giving insufficient information, that is, it includes concealing or conveniently failing to inform

Giving intentionally manipulated information does not exclusively imply the use of fake news, since there are also mechanisms of deception associated with propaganda, that is, the communicational defense of ideological positions of certain governments, or distortion of reality by government spokespersons in order to hide sensitive information, turning it into privileged data only available to small elite groups. Disinformation, then, encompasses more acts than fabricating

Let us look at the other side of the syllogism: Is every fake news story made with the clear intent to 'disinform', as befits the intrinsic motivation behind this action so defined? What happens when, by mishandling sensitive information, the content is falsified organically, seemingly in an unintentional manner or in a way that cannot be attributed to a disinformation farm? For Romero [5], theoreticians have tried to disassociate these errors. "American and French researchers have separated consequential or mistaken disinformation (misinformation, *mésinformation*) from that premeditatedly and maliciously produced (disinformation, *désinformation*), thereby delimiting two distinct fields of study whose difference is based on the prior intent

Romero acknowledges that, by not including a mistaken and unintentional component in the term, disinformation elements are left out by appealing to their deliberate nature and not to their consequences. Ultimately, as for the sender, it implies a deontological assessment on the legitimate or illegitimate purpose of their communication. Notwithstanding, what goes through the mind of a receiver who

**186**

*consequently burying the topics that are actually being discussed by Twitter users in Venezuela. Social spamming and trolling mechanisms are used, including fabrication of pseudo-news based on controversial tweets by public officials and trending topics powered by the SIBCI. The fact that many public officials do not declare to journalists, but instead direct them to follow their Twitter handles to receive information, helps consolidate this one-way government communication. This tactic makes it easier to 'introduce talking points' on the media, directing them to follow pseudo-news, which would otherwise have no impact on the public opinion [12].*

As part of the conflicts encouraged by the government, networks of cyber-activists [12] linked to the propaganda machinery, were also established to promote the political and ideological values of the 'socialist' model. Among the purposes of these networks are criminalizing dissidence and concealing or making invisible misdeeds in public administration (such as acts of corruption or human rights violations, poorly functioning utilities, etc.).

A restrictive regulatory framework for the exercise of information freedoms and communication rights, recurrent bureaucratic actions against the media (administrative penalty proceedings, seizure of equipment from radio and television stations), court procedures (arbitrary detentions for exercising the right to freedom of expression in which due process is not respected, trials initiated against journalists or media executives potentially resulting in jail terms), economic pressure triggering media shutdowns, executive orders resulting in censorship, buyouts of independent media outlets seeking to change their editorial lines, among others, must be added to the restrictions in the virtual realm.

The choices to get news in Venezuela are steadily narrowing. Government information is wrapped in a shroud of opacity, along with severe restrictions on the freedom to seek, receive, and disseminate information in a free and pluralistic manner. The shrinking of the mainstream media ecosystem results in audiences migrating to the digital realm in order to try to get information, and they are thereby left exposed to the intrinsic risks and limitations of this space, already described above.

Media shutdown or buyout by investors with ties to the government, while reducing the menu of information choices, has encouraged the emergence of independent digital journalistic initiatives, characterized by quality information and the conduction of extensive journalistic research covering public interest issues and bringing to light hidden misdeeds that affect citizens. In reason of the impact of their work, they have regularly faced censorship measures and content blocking, as well as developed mechanisms to protect their publications, and encouraged using such tools as virtual private networks (VPNs), so that audiences can overcome the blocking and gain access to their content.

Concurrently, dozens of sites self-described as news services have emerged; but they do not do a rigorous job and rather work as news aggregators that, in many cases, take content from other media without appropriate attribution. Some include, among their practices, the dissemination of shocking content, without any type of sources or documentary basis.

On the other hand, the state-owned media system, which includes dozens of radio stations, TV channels, print media, and a news agency, has become a propaganda machine. From this system, a single view of what is happening in the country, which favors the ideology of its particular socialist model, is conveyed.

Since the Nicolás Maduro administration, another strategy making evident abuse of the ruling power has been devised: The use of the entire system of public and private radio and television media in Venezuela for simulcasting overtly propaganda-oriented addresses without purchasing airtime and on a mandatory basis, known as *cadenas* (lit. "chains"). This is how, in 2019, 116 mandatory addresses were

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*Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela*

ideologies, beliefs, or prejudices to the detriment of fact checking.

to confuse and encourage certain behaviors among the audience.

*The negativity of disinformation is based on the corruption of the reliable process of collecting and presenting facts. Thereby, those who produce it have an extensive menu of hybrid propositions, between the true and the false, in order to spawn doubt, fear, or controversy with the aim of biasing the perception and behavior of* 

In order to refer to government communications management based on lies in the digital era, we propose the term 'fakecracy'. It does not matter what ideology is adhered to by a given democratic or authoritarian government resorting to these communicational strategies. What matters is to denote, with this portmanteau, a recent phenomenon in political communications, powered by human interaction on social media by using tricks, ploys, to 'fakecratically' boost certain officials' popularity, set non-organic trends on Twitter, measure the reaction of the public opinion to potential policies through rumor campaigns, fuel fear of government sanctions, even if these are not overtly mentioned, in instances when social control against

A government with a 'fakecratic' profile is one that makes premeditated use of falsehoods in official public statements as the basis of its communicational and doctrinal apparatus. It is one that rules from the false, the counterfeit, by establishing restrictions – penalizing or suppressing communicational rights of newscasters and audiences – to avoid the circulation of critical information. Various media have

influence the "behavior" of individuals or groups.

*different social groups [14].*

**5. 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela**

protests of any kind is necessary.

broadcast on national radio and television *cadenas*, reaching 122 hours, 28 minutes and 54 seconds. Furthermore, the total number of hours of mandatory broadcasts since the regime's rise to power is 1161 hours, 46 minutes, and 10 seconds [13]. In addition, state-owned media have been used to criminalize dissidence and expose public opinion leaders, opposition political figures, human rights activists, and journalists to public scorn. Between 2013 and 2020, Maduro has appeared on the main state-owned television network, Venezolana de Televisión (VTV), for 1812 hours, 29 minutes, and 33 seconds. This complex outlook is the perfect seedbed for the use of disinformation as a strategy, whereby broadcasters spread their

Disinformation "consists of the intentional selection of biased, incomplete, or altered data," "all content fabricated and distributed" that is "false, inaccurate, or misleading […] intentionally designed, presented, and promoted to cause public harm or private gain" [14]. It is deceptive in order to modify the "perception" and

Disinformation processes are manifest among the public opinion "when information processes regarding important facts that in some way concern audiences are incomplete or non-existent" [15]. Disinformation can occur in circumstances such as those taking place worldwide today, under which citizens, via the Internet, are exposed to high doses of content that may result in "misinformation due to an excess of information", which occurs "when a wealth of information about an event is available, but it is provided in a partial, biased, contradictory, or confusing manner" [15]. It may occur as a result of "poor management of information" or as a result of "manipulation by sources, governments, interest groups, or the media themselves in order to prevent the public from clearly and fully perceiving the meaning of the facts" [15]. Unlike journalistic practices in which identification of sources and/or clarity regarding the source of news prevails, disinformation is based on the intent

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*

#### *Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*

broadcast on national radio and television *cadenas*, reaching 122 hours, 28 minutes and 54 seconds. Furthermore, the total number of hours of mandatory broadcasts since the regime's rise to power is 1161 hours, 46 minutes, and 10 seconds [13].

In addition, state-owned media have been used to criminalize dissidence and expose public opinion leaders, opposition political figures, human rights activists, and journalists to public scorn. Between 2013 and 2020, Maduro has appeared on the main state-owned television network, Venezolana de Televisión (VTV), for 1812 hours, 29 minutes, and 33 seconds. This complex outlook is the perfect seedbed for the use of disinformation as a strategy, whereby broadcasters spread their ideologies, beliefs, or prejudices to the detriment of fact checking.

Disinformation "consists of the intentional selection of biased, incomplete, or altered data," "all content fabricated and distributed" that is "false, inaccurate, or misleading […] intentionally designed, presented, and promoted to cause public harm or private gain" [14]. It is deceptive in order to modify the "perception" and influence the "behavior" of individuals or groups.

Disinformation processes are manifest among the public opinion "when information processes regarding important facts that in some way concern audiences are incomplete or non-existent" [15]. Disinformation can occur in circumstances such as those taking place worldwide today, under which citizens, via the Internet, are exposed to high doses of content that may result in "misinformation due to an excess of information", which occurs "when a wealth of information about an event is available, but it is provided in a partial, biased, contradictory, or confusing manner" [15].

It may occur as a result of "poor management of information" or as a result of "manipulation by sources, governments, interest groups, or the media themselves in order to prevent the public from clearly and fully perceiving the meaning of the facts" [15]. Unlike journalistic practices in which identification of sources and/or clarity regarding the source of news prevails, disinformation is based on the intent to confuse and encourage certain behaviors among the audience.

*The negativity of disinformation is based on the corruption of the reliable process of collecting and presenting facts. Thereby, those who produce it have an extensive menu of hybrid propositions, between the true and the false, in order to spawn doubt, fear, or controversy with the aim of biasing the perception and behavior of different social groups [14].*

#### **5. 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela**

In order to refer to government communications management based on lies in the digital era, we propose the term 'fakecracy'. It does not matter what ideology is adhered to by a given democratic or authoritarian government resorting to these communicational strategies. What matters is to denote, with this portmanteau, a recent phenomenon in political communications, powered by human interaction on social media by using tricks, ploys, to 'fakecratically' boost certain officials' popularity, set non-organic trends on Twitter, measure the reaction of the public opinion to potential policies through rumor campaigns, fuel fear of government sanctions, even if these are not overtly mentioned, in instances when social control against protests of any kind is necessary.

A government with a 'fakecratic' profile is one that makes premeditated use of falsehoods in official public statements as the basis of its communicational and doctrinal apparatus. It is one that rules from the false, the counterfeit, by establishing restrictions – penalizing or suppressing communicational rights of newscasters and audiences – to avoid the circulation of critical information. Various media have

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

poorly functioning utilities, etc.).

added to the restrictions in the virtual realm.

blocking and gain access to their content.

type of sources or documentary basis.

*consequently burying the topics that are actually being discussed by Twitter users in Venezuela. Social spamming and trolling mechanisms are used, including fabrication of pseudo-news based on controversial tweets by public officials and trending topics powered by the SIBCI. The fact that many public officials do not declare to journalists, but instead direct them to follow their Twitter handles to receive information, helps consolidate this one-way government communication. This tactic makes it easier to 'introduce talking points' on the media, directing them to follow pseudo-news, which would otherwise have no impact on the public opinion [12].*

As part of the conflicts encouraged by the government, networks of cyber-activists [12] linked to the propaganda machinery, were also established to promote the political and ideological values of the 'socialist' model. Among the purposes of these networks are criminalizing dissidence and concealing or making invisible misdeeds in public administration (such as acts of corruption or human rights violations,

A restrictive regulatory framework for the exercise of information freedoms and communication rights, recurrent bureaucratic actions against the media (administrative penalty proceedings, seizure of equipment from radio and television stations), court procedures (arbitrary detentions for exercising the right to freedom of expression in which due process is not respected, trials initiated against journalists or media executives potentially resulting in jail terms), economic pressure triggering media shutdowns, executive orders resulting in censorship, buyouts of independent media outlets seeking to change their editorial lines, among others, must be

The choices to get news in Venezuela are steadily narrowing. Government information is wrapped in a shroud of opacity, along with severe restrictions on the freedom to seek, receive, and disseminate information in a free and pluralistic manner. The shrinking of the mainstream media ecosystem results in audiences migrating to the digital realm in order to try to get information, and they are thereby left exposed to the intrinsic risks and limitations of this space, already described above. Media shutdown or buyout by investors with ties to the government, while reducing the menu of information choices, has encouraged the emergence of independent digital journalistic initiatives, characterized by quality information and the conduction of extensive journalistic research covering public interest issues and bringing to light hidden misdeeds that affect citizens. In reason of the impact of their work, they have regularly faced censorship measures and content blocking, as well as developed mechanisms to protect their publications, and encouraged using such tools as virtual private networks (VPNs), so that audiences can overcome the

Concurrently, dozens of sites self-described as news services have emerged; but they do not do a rigorous job and rather work as news aggregators that, in many cases, take content from other media without appropriate attribution. Some include, among their practices, the dissemination of shocking content, without any

On the other hand, the state-owned media system, which includes dozens of radio stations, TV channels, print media, and a news agency, has become a propaganda machine. From this system, a single view of what is happening in the country,

Since the Nicolás Maduro administration, another strategy making evident abuse of the ruling power has been devised: The use of the entire system of public and private radio and television media in Venezuela for simulcasting overtly propaganda-oriented addresses without purchasing airtime and on a mandatory basis, known as *cadenas* (lit. "chains"). This is how, in 2019, 116 mandatory addresses were

which favors the ideology of its particular socialist model, is conveyed.

**188**

kept track of lies told by leaders of their respective countries. This effort lays bare the intent of some actors in the Executive branch interested in manipulating the public opinion based on hoaxes or misdirection.

Fakecracy is directly linked to increasing the power of deception in public statements, when that power is enhanced by means of restrictions in the communicational sphere and non-transparent methods to boost trends on social media. What happens if anonymous fabrications are also made to damage the reputation of leaders of power factions not aligned to the official ideology? This is how, in practical terms, hoaxes undermine those "tolerated" spaces – broadcast media owned by the State and those allegiant to the government.

In an environment of fakecracy, criticism only occurs competitively in the digital realm, yet unequally, resulting from a less far-reaching and impactful internet coverage. The power of deception is fueled by censored mainstream media, since the consumption of information on the web is asynchronous. This diminishes the ability to organize social protest and mobilization, contrary to what would happen with criticism and synchronous coverage of certain events on broadcast media. It is managed by the power of media control in order to strip the social fabric of articulation options, of the knowledge product of a common cognitive experience from collective events.

The term fakecracy is suitable in these cases. Every time government officials evade their responsibility under claims that cannot be fact-checked, resulting from citizens and critical and independent press being denied access to public information; every time there is a communications environment where opacity clouds phenomena of great social impact from the public opinion, such as the status of the electric power infrastructure, epidemiological bulletins, or water quality; every time that transparency in government management is not possible because of the systematic failure of accountability regarding public investment, by making use of the media for propaganda and by means of omitting sensitive issues, by resorting to lies tailored by the government in service of the power elite in order to convince people of alleged conspiracies against the those in power, then we speak of fakecracy, of the power of lies, of what is false, counterfeit, used to cling to power.

The term fakecracy, as proposed, attempts at describing a government that links the political use of deception in official addresses, imposed as apparent truths unveiled by means of a communications apparatus also resorting to aligning and orchestrating statements from spokespersons along with counterfeit content circulating on the Internet and to forging non-organic pro-government trends on different social media. Consequently, fakecracies are regimes that resort to fake news in order to persecute dissidents.

We believe that Venezuela may be undergoing a fakecratic process. Part of the regime's communications policy has extolled the achievements of a socialist revolution providing "happiness", while blaming the American empire for the most severe socio-economic crisis in the nation's history. According to social indicators released by the National Survey on Living Conditions (Encuesta Nacional de Condiciones de Vida, ENCOVI) 2018, prepared by Andrés Bello Catholic University and published in 2019, 48% of the population lives in poverty and 94% without sufficient income to meet their basic needs [16].

The only way to counteract fakecratic schemes is freedom of communication, in the form of critical media that can be read, seen, or heard by the population. Therefore, fakecracy relies on citizens' vulnerability resulting from misinformation, rumor campaigns, non-organic trends fueled on social media, and the viralization of fake news.

Venezuelans are vulnerable to fakecracy because of a communicational environment characterized by:

**191**

*Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela*

• The inexistence of independent and critical print media, as a product of the government restrictions on newsprint imports, distributed at the discretion of

• The censorship of broadcast television channels. After the shutdown of flagship private network Radio Caracas Televisión (RCTV) in 2007, other private channels bowed to prior censorship. State-owned television maintained a propaganda machinery in favor of the regime, while some other outlets – El Universal daily, Globovisión news channel, Cadena Capriles publishing group – were acquired by

• The removal of independent news channels from pay TV systems by decisions of the National Telecommunications Commission (Comisión Nacional de Telecomunicaciones, CONATEL), a media regulatory agency used as a political

government cronies, consequently changing their editorial lines [17].

Individuals' vulnerability to fakecracy increases in restricted information environments marked by other disinformation strategies such as denial of access to

Prior fact checking, rigor in treatment, validation, clarity, cohesion, coherent speech, proper use of language (spelling and wording), and attribution of sources are fundamental conditions in journalism. Data search, on-site news coverage, time and space contextualization to assist in understanding events also are essential aspects. However, it is not a matter of reporting on just any event. Truly newsworthy information must possess such attributes as novelty, timeliness, social relevance, and human interest [15]. In order to be newsworthy, an event must have an impact on the community where it takes place. News, in its pure state, always arises from a surprising, shocking, paradoxical, or transcendental and, above all things,

It is important that journalistic work be done, as a starting point, under standards allowing guaranteeing the quality and rigor of its contents. "A news item, however, may lack some of these characteristics and be equally worthy of publication. But it will lose strength the further it moves away from such premises" [19]. Other elements, defined by Olga Dragnic as "news factors", are also relevant, conferring it informative value and serving as a guide in the process of informational hierarchization taking place within the media: immediacy, geographical proximity of the event, prominence of those involved in the news event (either in light of their social role or their performance in public office), connection of an event with a conflictive situation, effects or consequences thereof, suspension or absence of resolution, which is an indicator of a breakthrough (of economic, scientific, social, health, educational, or cultural nature), peculiarity, presence of

Journalism focuses on facts and goes beyond the obvious. "The knowledge of a concrete fact by the journalist should not be enough to conclude their work. Both they and the editor later reviewing their text must go beyond and search for consequences and repercussions, along with, of course, its background. Sometimes these

unusual aspects, involvement of women in an event [15].

can become very important regarding the news event" [19].

public information, censorship, and an official propaganda machinery.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*

state-owned Corporación Maneiro.

commissar.

recent event [19].

• Poor Internet coverage [18].

**6. Journalism v. disinformation**

*Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*


*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

public opinion based on hoaxes or misdirection.

the State and those allegiant to the government.

cognitive experience from collective events.

news in order to persecute dissidents.

to meet their basic needs [16].

ization of fake news.

ment characterized by:

kept track of lies told by leaders of their respective countries. This effort lays bare the intent of some actors in the Executive branch interested in manipulating the

Fakecracy is directly linked to increasing the power of deception in public statements, when that power is enhanced by means of restrictions in the communicational sphere and non-transparent methods to boost trends on social media. What happens if anonymous fabrications are also made to damage the reputation of leaders of power factions not aligned to the official ideology? This is how, in practical terms, hoaxes undermine those "tolerated" spaces – broadcast media owned by

In an environment of fakecracy, criticism only occurs competitively in the digital realm, yet unequally, resulting from a less far-reaching and impactful internet coverage. The power of deception is fueled by censored mainstream media, since the consumption of information on the web is asynchronous. This diminishes the ability to organize social protest and mobilization, contrary to what would happen with criticism and synchronous coverage of certain events on broadcast media. It is managed by the power of media control in order to strip the social fabric of articulation options, of the knowledge product of a common

The term fakecracy is suitable in these cases. Every time government officials evade their responsibility under claims that cannot be fact-checked, resulting from citizens and critical and independent press being denied access to public information; every time there is a communications environment where opacity clouds phenomena of great social impact from the public opinion, such as the status of the electric power infrastructure, epidemiological bulletins, or water quality; every time that transparency in government management is not possible because of the systematic failure of accountability regarding public investment, by making use of the media for propaganda and by means of omitting sensitive issues, by resorting to lies tailored by the government in service of the power elite in order to convince people of alleged conspiracies against the those in power, then we speak of fakecracy, of the power of lies, of what is false, counterfeit, used to cling to power. The term fakecracy, as proposed, attempts at describing a government that links the political use of deception in official addresses, imposed as apparent truths unveiled by means of a communications apparatus also resorting to aligning and orchestrating statements from spokespersons along with counterfeit content circulating on the Internet and to forging non-organic pro-government trends on different social media. Consequently, fakecracies are regimes that resort to fake

We believe that Venezuela may be undergoing a fakecratic process. Part of the regime's communications policy has extolled the achievements of a socialist revolution providing "happiness", while blaming the American empire for the most severe socio-economic crisis in the nation's history. According to social indicators released by the National Survey on Living Conditions (Encuesta Nacional de Condiciones de Vida, ENCOVI) 2018, prepared by Andrés Bello Catholic University and published in 2019, 48% of the population lives in poverty and 94% without sufficient income

The only way to counteract fakecratic schemes is freedom of communication, in the form of critical media that can be read, seen, or heard by the population. Therefore, fakecracy relies on citizens' vulnerability resulting from misinformation, rumor campaigns, non-organic trends fueled on social media, and the viral-

Venezuelans are vulnerable to fakecracy because of a communicational environ-

**190**

Individuals' vulnerability to fakecracy increases in restricted information environments marked by other disinformation strategies such as denial of access to public information, censorship, and an official propaganda machinery.

#### **6. Journalism v. disinformation**

Prior fact checking, rigor in treatment, validation, clarity, cohesion, coherent speech, proper use of language (spelling and wording), and attribution of sources are fundamental conditions in journalism. Data search, on-site news coverage, time and space contextualization to assist in understanding events also are essential aspects. However, it is not a matter of reporting on just any event. Truly newsworthy information must possess such attributes as novelty, timeliness, social relevance, and human interest [15]. In order to be newsworthy, an event must have an impact on the community where it takes place. News, in its pure state, always arises from a surprising, shocking, paradoxical, or transcendental and, above all things, recent event [19].

It is important that journalistic work be done, as a starting point, under standards allowing guaranteeing the quality and rigor of its contents. "A news item, however, may lack some of these characteristics and be equally worthy of publication. But it will lose strength the further it moves away from such premises" [19].

Other elements, defined by Olga Dragnic as "news factors", are also relevant, conferring it informative value and serving as a guide in the process of informational hierarchization taking place within the media: immediacy, geographical proximity of the event, prominence of those involved in the news event (either in light of their social role or their performance in public office), connection of an event with a conflictive situation, effects or consequences thereof, suspension or absence of resolution, which is an indicator of a breakthrough (of economic, scientific, social, health, educational, or cultural nature), peculiarity, presence of unusual aspects, involvement of women in an event [15].

Journalism focuses on facts and goes beyond the obvious. "The knowledge of a concrete fact by the journalist should not be enough to conclude their work. Both they and the editor later reviewing their text must go beyond and search for consequences and repercussions, along with, of course, its background. Sometimes these can become very important regarding the news event" [19].

#### **7. In closing: human rights standards**

Under international human rights law and doctrine, all persons have the right to freely express ideas and thoughts "of all kinds" through any medium. Furthermore, they have the right to seek, receive, and disseminate information of their interest, without any preconditions or censorship. Today we cannot speak of receivers or passive subjects amidst the information overflow that exists in the world. Any person who has a digital device and an Internet connection can become a newscaster in full exercise of their freedom of expression.

However, the media and journalists, through the exercise of their informative role, "materialize" this right, as stated by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in its Advisory Opinion AO-5/85 of November 13, 1985, regarding mandatory membership under the law in a professional association for the practice of journalism:

*If freedom of expression requires, in principle, that the communication media are potentially open to all without discrimination or, more precisely, that there be no individuals or groups that are excluded from access to such media, it must be recognized also that such media should be, in practice, true instruments of that freedom and not vehicles for its restriction. It is the mass media that make the exercise of freedom of expression a reality. This means that the conditions of its use must conform to the requirements of this freedom, with the result that there must be, inter alia, a plurality of means of communication, the barring of all monopolies thereof, in whatever form, and guarantees for the protection of the freedom and independence of journalists [20].*

This role of materializers of freedom of expression, recognized by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, is more than a privilege; it is a commitment made by the media and journalists to guarantee that societies can access information regarding matters of public interest. To the extent that a society is informed, in a free and pluralistic manner, citizens have the necessary input to join public debate and contribute to the defense and/or strengthening of democracy.

Consequently, as the Court has pointed out, plurality and independence of the media and journalists undoubtedly act as a counterweight to the powers-that-be. They contribute to balancing the distortions or manipulations exerted by such powers through after-truth and disinformation practices.

As the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has expressed therein, freedom of expression constitutes the "cornerstone of democracy":

*Freedom of expression is a cornerstone upon which the very existence of a democratic society rests. It is indispensable for the formation of public opinion. It is also a conditio sine qua non for the development of political parties, trade unions, scientific and cultural societies and, in general, those who wish to influence the public. It represents, in short, the means that enable the community, when exercising its options, to be sufficiently informed. Consequently, it can be said that a society that is not well informed is not a society that is truly free [20].*

Moreover, it grants journalism a privileged position in the defense of democracy and the rights to information and free expression by stating: "Journalism is the primary and principal manifestation of freedom of expression of thought" [20].

**193**

among others.

preservation of democracy.

**Conflict of interest**

*Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela*

Representative on Freedom of the Media, the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information. In their Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and "Fake News," Disinformation and Propaganda, they established that "It is the mass media that make the exercise of freedom of expression a reality. This means that the conditions of its use must conform to the requirements of this freedom" [20].

Similarly, the declaration warns that: "State actors should not make, sponsor, encourage or further disseminate statements which they know or reasonably should know to be false (disinformation) or which demonstrate a reckless disregard for

Practices such as the use of digital operators (trolls) to boost propaganda content and make other issues of citizen interest invisible, as documented by Puyosa [12],

It should be reminded that the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, in Principle 5 of its Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, states that "[…] the arbitrary imposition of information and the imposition of obstacles to the

"State actors should, in accordance with their domestic and international legal obligations and their public duties, take care to ensure that they disseminate reliable and trustworthy information, including about matters of public interest, such as the

This premise of the Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and "Fake News", Disinformation and Propaganda, is also repeatedly violated in Venezuela. Opacity of information is proven by the concealment and denial of access to documents essential for citizen control of public administration, such as reports and statistics of public agencies, epidemiological bulletins, and economic indicators (inflation and price indices), among others. Nevertheless, well-supported research, conducted by independent journalists and media, can contribute to breaking the siege and opacity on information, by providing citizens with fact-checked and

In spite of the restrictions to the informative freedoms, journalists of emerging digital media in Venezuela have organized in the last years, managing to do informative work, in which they have brought to public light facts that had been concealed regarding corruption, human rights violations, damage to utilities infrastructure,

The development of ethics-based journalism can generate essential sources of newsworthy information, with criteria for methodological rigor and fact-checked information, thereby contributing to rebuilding trust and credibility in what we read, see, or hear. If based on the tenets of what is considered and defined as authentic journalism, which we have reviewed in this chapter, and by making this authentic journalism a reference to obtain information, the risks posed by fake news and disinformation will be reduced. Citizens would be better and more adequately informed and equipped with useful tools to develop personally, exercise their rights, and participate in a free and pluralistic exchange of ideas, necessary for the

The authors are Venezuelan Fake News Observatory management.

free flow of information violate the right to freedom of expression" [22].

economy, public health, security and the environment" [21].

contrasted information on matters of public interest.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*

verifiable information (propaganda)" [21].

are contrary to the standards set by the declaration.

This status of journalism and the media as defenders of democracy is ratified by The United Nations (UN) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

#### *Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*

Representative on Freedom of the Media, the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information. In their Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and "Fake News," Disinformation and Propaganda, they established that "It is the mass media that make the exercise of freedom of expression a reality. This means that the conditions of its use must conform to the requirements of this freedom" [20].

Similarly, the declaration warns that: "State actors should not make, sponsor, encourage or further disseminate statements which they know or reasonably should know to be false (disinformation) or which demonstrate a reckless disregard for verifiable information (propaganda)" [21].

Practices such as the use of digital operators (trolls) to boost propaganda content and make other issues of citizen interest invisible, as documented by Puyosa [12], are contrary to the standards set by the declaration.

It should be reminded that the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, in Principle 5 of its Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, states that "[…] the arbitrary imposition of information and the imposition of obstacles to the free flow of information violate the right to freedom of expression" [22].

"State actors should, in accordance with their domestic and international legal obligations and their public duties, take care to ensure that they disseminate reliable and trustworthy information, including about matters of public interest, such as the economy, public health, security and the environment" [21].

This premise of the Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and "Fake News", Disinformation and Propaganda, is also repeatedly violated in Venezuela. Opacity of information is proven by the concealment and denial of access to documents essential for citizen control of public administration, such as reports and statistics of public agencies, epidemiological bulletins, and economic indicators (inflation and price indices), among others. Nevertheless, well-supported research, conducted by independent journalists and media, can contribute to breaking the siege and opacity on information, by providing citizens with fact-checked and contrasted information on matters of public interest.

In spite of the restrictions to the informative freedoms, journalists of emerging digital media in Venezuela have organized in the last years, managing to do informative work, in which they have brought to public light facts that had been concealed regarding corruption, human rights violations, damage to utilities infrastructure, among others.

The development of ethics-based journalism can generate essential sources of newsworthy information, with criteria for methodological rigor and fact-checked information, thereby contributing to rebuilding trust and credibility in what we read, see, or hear. If based on the tenets of what is considered and defined as authentic journalism, which we have reviewed in this chapter, and by making this authentic journalism a reference to obtain information, the risks posed by fake news and disinformation will be reduced. Citizens would be better and more adequately informed and equipped with useful tools to develop personally, exercise their rights, and participate in a free and pluralistic exchange of ideas, necessary for the preservation of democracy.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors are Venezuelan Fake News Observatory management.

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

Under international human rights law and doctrine, all persons have the right to freely express ideas and thoughts "of all kinds" through any medium. Furthermore, they have the right to seek, receive, and disseminate information of their interest, without any preconditions or censorship. Today we cannot speak of receivers or passive subjects amidst the information overflow that exists in the world. Any person who has a digital device and an Internet connection can become a newscaster in

However, the media and journalists, through the exercise of their informative role, "materialize" this right, as stated by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in its Advisory Opinion AO-5/85 of November 13, 1985, regarding mandatory membership under the law in a professional association for the practice of

*If freedom of expression requires, in principle, that the communication media are potentially open to all without discrimination or, more precisely, that there be no individuals or groups that are excluded from access to such media, it must be recognized also that such media should be, in practice, true instruments of that freedom and not vehicles for its restriction. It is the mass media that make the exercise of freedom of expression a reality. This means that the conditions of its use must conform to the requirements of this freedom, with the result that there must be, inter alia, a plurality of means of communication, the barring of all monopolies thereof, in whatever form, and guarantees for the protection of the freedom and* 

This role of materializers of freedom of expression, recognized by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, is more than a privilege; it is a commitment made by the media and journalists to guarantee that societies can access information regarding matters of public interest. To the extent that a society is informed, in a free and pluralistic manner, citizens have the necessary input to join public debate

Consequently, as the Court has pointed out, plurality and independence of the media and journalists undoubtedly act as a counterweight to the powers-that-be. They contribute to balancing the distortions or manipulations exerted by such pow-

As the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has expressed therein, freedom

Moreover, it grants journalism a privileged position in the defense of democracy

and the rights to information and free expression by stating: "Journalism is the primary and principal manifestation of freedom of expression of thought" [20]. This status of journalism and the media as defenders of democracy is ratified by The United Nations (UN) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

*Freedom of expression is a cornerstone upon which the very existence of a democratic society rests. It is indispensable for the formation of public opinion. It is also a conditio sine qua non for the development of political parties, trade unions, scientific and cultural societies and, in general, those who wish to influence the public. It represents, in short, the means that enable the community, when exercising its options, to be sufficiently informed. Consequently, it can be said that a society that* 

and contribute to the defense and/or strengthening of democracy.

ers through after-truth and disinformation practices.

of expression constitutes the "cornerstone of democracy":

*is not well informed is not a society that is truly free [20].*

**7. In closing: human rights standards**

full exercise of their freedom of expression.

*independence of journalists [20].*

journalism:

**192**

### **Author details**

Andrés Cañizález1 , León Hernández1 and Luisa Torrealba<sup>2</sup> \*

1 Andrés Bello Catholic University, Caracas, Venezuela

2 Institute for Communications Research at Central University of Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela

\*Address all correspondence to: torrealbamesa@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**195**

*Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela*

[8] Shum Y. Situación digital, Internet y medios interactivos Venezuela 2020. [Internet]. Caracas: Yi Min Shum Xie; 2020 [cited 2020 Apr 15]. Available from: https://yiminshum.com/ social-media-venezuela-2020/

[9] Speedtest. Venezuela March 2020: Fixed Broadband [Internet]. Seattle: Ookla LLC; 2020 [updated 2020 Apr 18; cited 2020 Apr 18]. Available from: https://www.speedtest.net/ global-index/venezuela#fixed

[10] Speedtest. Global Speeds March 2020: Fixed Broadband Global Average. [Internet]. Seattle: Ookla LLC; 2020 [updated 2020 Apr 18; cited 2020 Apr 18]. Available from: https://www. speedtest.net/global-index

[11] Freedom House. Freedom on the Net 2019: The Crisis of Social Media. Washington, DC: Freedom House; 2019. [cited 2020 Feb 7]. 29 p. Available from: https://www.freedomonthenet.org/ sites/default/files/2019-11/11042019\_ Report\_FH\_FOTN\_2019\_final\_Public\_

[12] Puyosa I. Political control on the Internet in the context of a hybrid regime. Venezuela 2007-2015. Teknokultura Journal of Digital Culture and Social Movements [Internet]. 2015 Sep-Dec [cited 2020 Apr 18]; 12(3):501-526. Available from: https:// revistas.ucm.es/index.php/TEKN/ article/view/50392/47838 doi: https:// doi.org/10.5209/rev\_TK.2015.v12.

[13] Monitoreo Ciudadano.

Cadenómetro: Contador de horas de Nicolás Maduro en Cadena Nacional de Radio y Televisión en Venezuela [Internet]. Caracas: CIC-UCAB; 2020 [updated 2020 Apr 07; cited 2020 Apr 07]. Available from: http://monitoreociudadano.org/

Download.pdf

n3.50392

cadenometro/

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*

[1] We Are Social. Digital around the world in April 2020 [Internet]. New York: We Are Social Inc.; 2020 Apr 23 [cited 2020 May 08]. Available from: https://wearesocial.com/blog/2020/04/ digital-around-the-world-in-april-

[2] Lewis L. What Happens in an Internet minute 2020 [Image on internet]. Malibu: All Access Music Group; 2020 [cited 2020 Apr 8]. Available from: https://www.allaccess. com/merge/archive/31294/infographicwhat-happens-in-an-internet-minute

[3] Levi S. #FakeYou, Fake News y Desinformación. 2nd ed. Barcelona (ES):

Rayo Verde Editorial; 2019. 224 p.

[4] Merriam-Webster Dictionary [Internet]. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Inc.; 2020. Disinformation; [cited 2020 Mar 02]; [1 screen]. Available from: https://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/disinformation

[5] Romero L. Pragmática de la desinformación: estratagemas e incidencia de la calidad informativa de los medios [Thesis - Internet]. Huelva: Universidad de Huelva; 2014 [cited 2020 Feb 10]. 349 p. Available from: http://rabida.uhu.es/dspace/bitstream/ handle/10272/9605/Pragmatica\_de\_la\_ desinformacion.pdf?sequence=2

[6] Zanacchi A. Opinione pubblica, mass media, propaganda. Rome: Editrice

[7] Rodríguez A. Basis of the concept of disinformation as a manipulative practice in political communication and international relations. Historia y Comunicación Social [Internet]. 2018 Apr [cited 2020 May 7]; 23(1):231- 244 Available from: https://revistas. ucm.es/index.php/HICS/article/

view/59843/4564456546924 doi: https://

doi.org/10.5209/HICS.59843

LAS; 2006. 503 p.

**References**

2020.

*Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy' in Venezuela DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93995*

#### **References**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

**194**

**Author details**

Andrés Cañizález1

Caracas, Venezuela

, León Hernández1

1 Andrés Bello Catholic University, Caracas, Venezuela

\*Address all correspondence to: torrealbamesa@gmail.com

provided the original work is properly cited.

and Luisa Torrealba<sup>2</sup>

2 Institute for Communications Research at Central University of Venezuela,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*

[1] We Are Social. Digital around the world in April 2020 [Internet]. New York: We Are Social Inc.; 2020 Apr 23 [cited 2020 May 08]. Available from: https://wearesocial.com/blog/2020/04/ digital-around-the-world-in-april-2020.

[2] Lewis L. What Happens in an Internet minute 2020 [Image on internet]. Malibu: All Access Music Group; 2020 [cited 2020 Apr 8]. Available from: https://www.allaccess. com/merge/archive/31294/infographicwhat-happens-in-an-internet-minute

[3] Levi S. #FakeYou, Fake News y Desinformación. 2nd ed. Barcelona (ES): Rayo Verde Editorial; 2019. 224 p.

[4] Merriam-Webster Dictionary [Internet]. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Inc.; 2020. Disinformation; [cited 2020 Mar 02]; [1 screen]. Available from: https://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/disinformation

[5] Romero L. Pragmática de la desinformación: estratagemas e incidencia de la calidad informativa de los medios [Thesis - Internet]. Huelva: Universidad de Huelva; 2014 [cited 2020 Feb 10]. 349 p. Available from: http://rabida.uhu.es/dspace/bitstream/ handle/10272/9605/Pragmatica\_de\_la\_ desinformacion.pdf?sequence=2

[6] Zanacchi A. Opinione pubblica, mass media, propaganda. Rome: Editrice LAS; 2006. 503 p.

[7] Rodríguez A. Basis of the concept of disinformation as a manipulative practice in political communication and international relations. Historia y Comunicación Social [Internet]. 2018 Apr [cited 2020 May 7]; 23(1):231- 244 Available from: https://revistas. ucm.es/index.php/HICS/article/ view/59843/4564456546924 doi: https:// doi.org/10.5209/HICS.59843

[8] Shum Y. Situación digital, Internet y medios interactivos Venezuela 2020. [Internet]. Caracas: Yi Min Shum Xie; 2020 [cited 2020 Apr 15]. Available from: https://yiminshum.com/ social-media-venezuela-2020/

[9] Speedtest. Venezuela March 2020: Fixed Broadband [Internet]. Seattle: Ookla LLC; 2020 [updated 2020 Apr 18; cited 2020 Apr 18]. Available from: https://www.speedtest.net/ global-index/venezuela#fixed

[10] Speedtest. Global Speeds March 2020: Fixed Broadband Global Average. [Internet]. Seattle: Ookla LLC; 2020 [updated 2020 Apr 18; cited 2020 Apr 18]. Available from: https://www. speedtest.net/global-index

[11] Freedom House. Freedom on the Net 2019: The Crisis of Social Media. Washington, DC: Freedom House; 2019. [cited 2020 Feb 7]. 29 p. Available from: https://www.freedomonthenet.org/ sites/default/files/2019-11/11042019\_ Report\_FH\_FOTN\_2019\_final\_Public\_ Download.pdf

[12] Puyosa I. Political control on the Internet in the context of a hybrid regime. Venezuela 2007-2015. Teknokultura Journal of Digital Culture and Social Movements [Internet]. 2015 Sep-Dec [cited 2020 Apr 18]; 12(3):501-526. Available from: https:// revistas.ucm.es/index.php/TEKN/ article/view/50392/47838 doi: https:// doi.org/10.5209/rev\_TK.2015.v12. n3.50392

[13] Monitoreo Ciudadano. Cadenómetro: Contador de horas de Nicolás Maduro en Cadena Nacional de Radio y Televisión en Venezuela [Internet]. Caracas: CIC-UCAB; 2020 [updated 2020 Apr 07; cited 2020 Apr 07]. Available from: http://monitoreociudadano.org/ cadenometro/

[14] Del Fresno M. Information disorders: Overexposed and underinformed in the post-truth era. El profesional de la información [Internet]. 2019 May [cited 2020 Mar 03]. 28(3):e280302. Available from: https:// recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/EPI/article/ view/epi.2019.may.02/43980 doi https:// doi.org/10.3145/epi.2019.may.02

[15] Dragnic O. Diccionario de Comunicación Social. 2nd ed. Caracas: Editorial Panapo; 2010. 296 p.

[16] Universidad Católica Andrés Bello. Se incrementa la pobreza en Venezuela, según resultados preliminares de ENCOVI 2018 [Internet]. Caracas: El Ucabista; 2018 Nov 30 [cited 2020 May 22]. Retrieved from: https://elucabista. com/2018/11/30/se-incrementa-lapobreza-venezuela-segun-resultadospreliminares-encovi-2018/

[17] Hernández L,

Cañizález A. La Pantalla Censurada. Caracas: Universidad Católica Andrés Bello; 2016. 257 p.

[18] Cañizález A, Hernández L, Bisbal M. Libertad de expresión y medios de comunicación. In: Alarcón B, Ramírez S. Coords. La consolidación de una transición democrática, el desafío venezolano III. Caracas: Universidad Católica Andrés Bello; 2018. p. 379-411.

[19] Grijelmo A. El estilo del periodista. Madrid: Grupo Editorial España; 1997. 600 p.

[20] Compulsory Membership in an Association Prescribed by Law for the Practice of Journalism (Arts. 13 and 29 American Convention on Human Rights). Advisory Opinion OC-5/85 of November 13, 1985. Series A No. 5 (I/A Court H.R.) [cited 2020 Feb 29]. Available from: https://www.corteidh. or.cr/docs/opiniones/seriea\_05\_ing.pdf

[21] Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and "Fake News",

Disinformation and Propaganda 2017 (OAS) [cited 2020 Feb 14]. Available from: http://www.oas.org/ en/iachr/expression/showarticle. asp?artID=1056&lID=1

[22] Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression 2020 (I/A Commission H.R.). [cited 2020 Feb 8]. Available from: http://www.oas. org/en/iachr/expression/showarticle. asp?artID=26&lID=1

**197**

**Chapter 11**

**Abstract**

fight the more.

**1. Introduction**

post-truth politics, Ambazonia

*Nanche Billa Robert*

The Scramble for Cyberspace:

of Genocide in the Southern

Cameroon-Ambazonia Crisis

The post-truth politics has been ascendant in Cameroon since the beginning of the Anglophone crisis. Consequently, the country's political culture has been influenced by appeals to emotion, usually ignoring factual rebuttals. We collected original data using Facebook accounts which are a preserved archive of the way hundreds of millions of Southern Cameroonians and other relate to one another and share genocidal information. The data indicate that the government's stance on bearing genocidal responsibility changes continuously when internal and external actors pressurize it to investigate crimes committed against humanity as it was the case in the 2020 Ngarbuh massacre and it either remains stagnant or the blames are shifted to the separatists when no serious pressure is exerted on it. The more the truth about crimes against humanity is hidden, the more tension increases, the more trust is destroyed and the more the war will prolong and widen the divide between Ambazonians and La Republique du Cameroon. Martial and cosmetic solutions only help to radicalize the population and instigate them to defy state institutions. Ambazonians' responses indicate that they did not have to rely on an international community but themselves and it prompted them to take arms and

**Keywords:** alternative media, Facebook, genocide, massacre, social movements, ICT,

Tensions between the English-speaking community which forms about one fifth of the national population have been high due to an ongoing separatist movement. It escalated considerably in October, 2017 with the unilateral proclamation of the Ambazonian Federal State by Sissiku Ayuk Tabe who was later on arrested in Nigeria with his Cabinet at the Nera hotel and transferred to Cameroon where he, is serving a life imprisonment term [1]. In 2016, lawyers, teachers and students in the two Anglophone regions initially carried out demonstrations and strikes which eventually engulfed a wider section of the population. This mobilization was due to their marginalization by the Francophone-dominated government in which they were highly under-represented in nearly all aspects of national life: political

Internet-Based Reporting

#### **Chapter 11**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

Disinformation and Propaganda 2017 (OAS) [cited 2020 Feb 14]. Available from: http://www.oas.org/ en/iachr/expression/showarticle.

[22] Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression 2020 (I/A Commission H.R.). [cited 2020 Feb 8]. Available from: http://www.oas. org/en/iachr/expression/showarticle.

asp?artID=1056&lID=1

asp?artID=26&lID=1

[14] Del Fresno M. Information disorders: Overexposed and

2019 May [cited 2020 Mar 03].

doi.org/10.3145/epi.2019.may.02

[15] Dragnic O. Diccionario de

Editorial Panapo; 2010. 296 p.

preliminares-encovi-2018/

Cañizález A. La Pantalla Censurada. Caracas: Universidad Católica Andrés

[19] Grijelmo A. El estilo del periodista. Madrid: Grupo Editorial España; 1997.

[20] Compulsory Membership in an Association Prescribed by Law for the Practice of Journalism (Arts. 13 and 29 American Convention on Human Rights). Advisory Opinion OC-5/85 of November 13, 1985. Series A No. 5 (I/A Court H.R.) [cited 2020 Feb 29]. Available from: https://www.corteidh. or.cr/docs/opiniones/seriea\_05\_ing.pdf

[21] Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and "Fake News",

[18] Cañizález A, Hernández L, Bisbal M. Libertad de expresión y medios de comunicación. In: Alarcón B, Ramírez S. Coords. La consolidación de una transición democrática, el desafío venezolano III. Caracas: Universidad Católica Andrés Bello; 2018. p. 379-411.

[17] Hernández L,

Bello; 2016. 257 p.

underinformed in the post-truth era. El profesional de la información [Internet].

28(3):e280302. Available from: https:// recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/EPI/article/ view/epi.2019.may.02/43980 doi https://

Comunicación Social. 2nd ed. Caracas:

[16] Universidad Católica Andrés Bello. Se incrementa la pobreza en Venezuela, según resultados preliminares de ENCOVI 2018 [Internet]. Caracas: El Ucabista; 2018 Nov 30 [cited 2020 May 22]. Retrieved from: https://elucabista. com/2018/11/30/se-incrementa-lapobreza-venezuela-segun-resultados-

**196**

600 p.

## The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon-Ambazonia Crisis

*Nanche Billa Robert*

### **Abstract**

The post-truth politics has been ascendant in Cameroon since the beginning of the Anglophone crisis. Consequently, the country's political culture has been influenced by appeals to emotion, usually ignoring factual rebuttals. We collected original data using Facebook accounts which are a preserved archive of the way hundreds of millions of Southern Cameroonians and other relate to one another and share genocidal information. The data indicate that the government's stance on bearing genocidal responsibility changes continuously when internal and external actors pressurize it to investigate crimes committed against humanity as it was the case in the 2020 Ngarbuh massacre and it either remains stagnant or the blames are shifted to the separatists when no serious pressure is exerted on it. The more the truth about crimes against humanity is hidden, the more tension increases, the more trust is destroyed and the more the war will prolong and widen the divide between Ambazonians and La Republique du Cameroon. Martial and cosmetic solutions only help to radicalize the population and instigate them to defy state institutions. Ambazonians' responses indicate that they did not have to rely on an international community but themselves and it prompted them to take arms and fight the more.

**Keywords:** alternative media, Facebook, genocide, massacre, social movements, ICT, post-truth politics, Ambazonia

#### **1. Introduction**

Tensions between the English-speaking community which forms about one fifth of the national population have been high due to an ongoing separatist movement. It escalated considerably in October, 2017 with the unilateral proclamation of the Ambazonian Federal State by Sissiku Ayuk Tabe who was later on arrested in Nigeria with his Cabinet at the Nera hotel and transferred to Cameroon where he, is serving a life imprisonment term [1]. In 2016, lawyers, teachers and students in the two Anglophone regions initially carried out demonstrations and strikes which eventually engulfed a wider section of the population. This mobilization was due to their marginalization by the Francophone-dominated government in which they were highly under-represented in nearly all aspects of national life: political

appointments and professional training and had been treated as second-class citizens since their reunification. They complained that their vibrant economic and political institutions had been completely wiped out, and their education and judicial systems had been neglected and degraded [2]. How did activists succeed to raise the awareness of the population? What were the reactions of the population to the various videos and posts sent?

Social movements are one of the main ways in which people collectively give voice to their grievances and concerns, and demand that something be done about it [3]. This has been facilitated recently by the media environment that has radically changed with the development of new media technologies which has helped activists to actively spread videos which exposed security forces abusing human rights (by suppressing peaceful gatherings, beating, harassing, arresting and killing protesters, burning their houses, schools and hospitals) in order to produce a counter-narrative to the 'official story' that main-stream media had been producing. The videos show appalling images not just of how French-speaking soldiers tortured Anglophones but also their inability to communicate with them adequately although they share the same country [2]. The various videos incriminated Cameroon security forces and therefore as a result, the Cameroon government shutdown the Internet in January 2017 for 93 days in the tension-ridden Anglophone zone. It was after the Anglophone teachers, lawyers, and students went on strike over alleged social bias in favor of Francophone. Education, financial, and healthcare institutions as well as businesses that depended on the Internet access were affected. International bodies pressurized the government to restore internet access.

Although Internet access was restored in April 2017, the network was very unstable. In October 2017, the government effected a second Internet blockade, targeting social media and apps such as WhatsApp and Facebook where activists sent videos incriminating the government. It continuously affected the country economically, and many citizens were forced to travel back and forth to regions with Internet access for business or information. It is worth-noting that Social media is important because it allows activists to get in contact with people locally, regionally, nationally and even internationally [4]. These activists mostly based in the western world understand the characteristics of their target audience (What they call the people at Ground Zero) and are able to personalize their messages to reflect the situation of their audience more appropriately on popular platforms. Facebook allows users to post, like and share content (pictures, videos, articles, etc) on sensitive issues with just the click of a button to a much large audience as much as possible.

Rather than referring to satirical material, fake news refer to the trend of Internet-based publications purporting to be genuine news sources which propagate inaccurate stories based on rumor or blatant untruths [5]. Our objective in this write-up is to examine how the social media is population-friendly by showing the reactions of the population to the Internet-based information. We equally made an effort to show how the activists and the government struggle to outsmart each other in promoting their narratives in the cyber-space. Our attention will be paid on the Ngarbuh massacre because of the struggle between the activists and the government each struggling to dominate the cyberspace by promoting its narratives.

#### **2. Literature review**

The rise and spread of new ICTs has transformed the way that society is organized, which of course include social movements. Internets and SMS messaging for examples have enabled activists to coordinate protest in record time, giving raise to the 'flash mob' phenomenon [6]. 'Flash mob' is a term that originally referred to social experiments,

**199**

really exists.

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon…*

and countercultural movements to reclaim 'public spaces' [5]. The Anglophone movement can be dubbed as the 'Twitter Revolution' or 'Facebook Revolution' emphasizing the role of social media in diffusing videos of human rights abuses and to organize

ICTs transform mainstream dominated media systems into multifaceted media environment. Media today are more diverse and offer more options for people to access political information. Social movement actors also communicate political messages through a wide range of interconnected outlets, and the advent of ICTs has not only broaden but has also changed some of the forms this communication

One of the key way social movements engage in cultural resistance is by means of the production and dissemination of multiple forms of media in order to mobilize support, to reach out for supports beyond those already in agreement with movement claims, and to increase the legitimacy of their claims and demands. Social movements operate at a considerable disadvantage when trying to influence news portrayals of

ICTs are unquestionably central to activists' repertoires of communication, moblisation, and deliberation processes and have been harnessed in many creative and strategic ways to increase the power and reach of social movement communication and action. Alternative media produces strong counter-narrative to the "official' story which in this case was that the separatist caused the atrocities. Communication flows from the mainstream media to activist alternative media which is then disseminated via listserves and telephone as people called each other to talk about what had happened and to question the official version of events. Information flew in this case from Rene Sadi and Atanga Nji from the mainstream media to the alternative media and the information was given quite a different

Activists in the Ambazonian crisis created a strategy which [7] considered as alternatives which is the creation of their own independent media or public forums of communication in order to communicate for a lack of interest or bias by established media. Alternatively, in the Ambazonian crisis, many videos were produced that facilitated the mobilization and production of a counter-narrative to the 'official story' which indicates that there is no Anglophone problem in Cameroon and the professionalism of the security forces. The Internet makes the process of sharing easier, faster and with a potentially larger audience than ever before. These messages in the videos from the alternative media environment have made their ways into mainstream mass media like the various reports carried by BBC, France

One of the concepts that has occupied the political area in Cameroon has been the Post-truth politics. This refers to a political culture wherein debate is more emotional and disconnected from the details of policy, and the ignoring of factual rebuttal. The most popular fake news stories during the Ambazonian crisis have been shared more widely than the most popular mainstream media reports. The impact of fake news on the construction of a post-truth media consumer's reality is profound. Post-truth differs from traditional contesting and falsifying of facts by relegating facts and expert opinions to be of secondary importance relative to appeal to emotion. This was less notable before the invention of the Internet and related social changes. Post-truth politics has been ascendant in Cameroon since the beginning of the Anglophone crisis. The Cameroonian government preaching one and indivisible Cameroon hardly makes reference to the cases where the majority Francophone-Cameroon abused the constitution to disfavor the English-speaking. They equally denied the existence of an anglophone problem which [2] shows that it

issues than do their better-funded opposing groups and organization [3].

protest mobilizations both at the local and international levels [3].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

has taken, its impact and its reach.

interpretation.

24, TV5 monde etc.

#### *The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

and countercultural movements to reclaim 'public spaces' [5]. The Anglophone movement can be dubbed as the 'Twitter Revolution' or 'Facebook Revolution' emphasizing the role of social media in diffusing videos of human rights abuses and to organize protest mobilizations both at the local and international levels [3].

ICTs transform mainstream dominated media systems into multifaceted media environment. Media today are more diverse and offer more options for people to access political information. Social movement actors also communicate political messages through a wide range of interconnected outlets, and the advent of ICTs has not only broaden but has also changed some of the forms this communication has taken, its impact and its reach.

One of the key way social movements engage in cultural resistance is by means of the production and dissemination of multiple forms of media in order to mobilize support, to reach out for supports beyond those already in agreement with movement claims, and to increase the legitimacy of their claims and demands. Social movements operate at a considerable disadvantage when trying to influence news portrayals of issues than do their better-funded opposing groups and organization [3].

ICTs are unquestionably central to activists' repertoires of communication, moblisation, and deliberation processes and have been harnessed in many creative and strategic ways to increase the power and reach of social movement communication and action. Alternative media produces strong counter-narrative to the "official' story which in this case was that the separatist caused the atrocities. Communication flows from the mainstream media to activist alternative media which is then disseminated via listserves and telephone as people called each other to talk about what had happened and to question the official version of events. Information flew in this case from Rene Sadi and Atanga Nji from the mainstream media to the alternative media and the information was given quite a different interpretation.

Activists in the Ambazonian crisis created a strategy which [7] considered as alternatives which is the creation of their own independent media or public forums of communication in order to communicate for a lack of interest or bias by established media. Alternatively, in the Ambazonian crisis, many videos were produced that facilitated the mobilization and production of a counter-narrative to the 'official story' which indicates that there is no Anglophone problem in Cameroon and the professionalism of the security forces. The Internet makes the process of sharing easier, faster and with a potentially larger audience than ever before. These messages in the videos from the alternative media environment have made their ways into mainstream mass media like the various reports carried by BBC, France 24, TV5 monde etc.

One of the concepts that has occupied the political area in Cameroon has been the Post-truth politics. This refers to a political culture wherein debate is more emotional and disconnected from the details of policy, and the ignoring of factual rebuttal. The most popular fake news stories during the Ambazonian crisis have been shared more widely than the most popular mainstream media reports. The impact of fake news on the construction of a post-truth media consumer's reality is profound. Post-truth differs from traditional contesting and falsifying of facts by relegating facts and expert opinions to be of secondary importance relative to appeal to emotion. This was less notable before the invention of the Internet and related social changes. Post-truth politics has been ascendant in Cameroon since the beginning of the Anglophone crisis. The Cameroonian government preaching one and indivisible Cameroon hardly makes reference to the cases where the majority Francophone-Cameroon abused the constitution to disfavor the English-speaking. They equally denied the existence of an anglophone problem which [2] shows that it really exists.

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

the various videos and posts sent?

appointments and professional training and had been treated as second-class citizens since their reunification. They complained that their vibrant economic and political institutions had been completely wiped out, and their education and judicial systems had been neglected and degraded [2]. How did activists succeed to raise the awareness of the population? What were the reactions of the population to

Social movements are one of the main ways in which people collectively give voice to their grievances and concerns, and demand that something be done about it [3]. This has been facilitated recently by the media environment that has radically changed with the development of new media technologies which has helped activists to actively spread videos which exposed security forces abusing human rights (by suppressing peaceful gatherings, beating, harassing, arresting and killing protesters, burning their houses, schools and hospitals) in order to produce a counter-narrative to the 'official story' that main-stream media had been producing. The videos show appalling images not just of how French-speaking soldiers tortured Anglophones but also their inability to communicate with them adequately

although they share the same country [2]. The various videos incriminated

just the click of a button to a much large audience as much as possible.

each struggling to dominate the cyberspace by promoting its narratives.

The rise and spread of new ICTs has transformed the way that society is organized, which of course include social movements. Internets and SMS messaging for examples have enabled activists to coordinate protest in record time, giving raise to the 'flash mob' phenomenon [6]. 'Flash mob' is a term that originally referred to social experiments,

Rather than referring to satirical material, fake news refer to the trend of Internet-based publications purporting to be genuine news sources which propagate inaccurate stories based on rumor or blatant untruths [5]. Our objective in this write-up is to examine how the social media is population-friendly by showing the reactions of the population to the Internet-based information. We equally made an effort to show how the activists and the government struggle to outsmart each other in promoting their narratives in the cyber-space. Our attention will be paid on the Ngarbuh massacre because of the struggle between the activists and the government

Cameroon security forces and therefore as a result, the Cameroon government shutdown the Internet in January 2017 for 93 days in the tension-ridden Anglophone zone. It was after the Anglophone teachers, lawyers, and students went on strike over alleged social bias in favor of Francophone. Education, financial, and healthcare institutions as well as businesses that depended on the Internet access were affected. International bodies pressurized the government to restore internet access. Although Internet access was restored in April 2017, the network was very unstable. In October 2017, the government effected a second Internet blockade, targeting social media and apps such as WhatsApp and Facebook where activists sent videos incriminating the government. It continuously affected the country economically, and many citizens were forced to travel back and forth to regions with Internet access for business or information. It is worth-noting that Social media is important because it allows activists to get in contact with people locally, regionally, nationally and even internationally [4]. These activists mostly based in the western world understand the characteristics of their target audience (What they call the people at Ground Zero) and are able to personalize their messages to reflect the situation of their audience more appropriately on popular platforms. Facebook allows users to post, like and share content (pictures, videos, articles, etc) on sensitive issues with

**198**

**2. Literature review**

#### **3. Methodology**

We collected the qualitative data of acts of genocide in Southern Cameroon used in this work from the Internet from seasoned activists' accounts who had sent out numerous posts on numerous issues to their targeted population. They served as a fertile ground of textual material: videos, blog posts, comments, social networking posts which are all as [8] puts it, are parts of the expanse of qualitative material online. It is described by [9] as "a new continent, rich in resources but in parts most perilous." which had "lain undiscovered, unmined and uninhabited" for the past 30 years.

Activists posted many materials online to awaken Southern Cameroonians' consciousness of the events of the War of independence, therefore Facebook was a fruitful site of the way as [10] puts it, hundreds of millions of Southern Cameroonians and other relate to one another and share genocidal information: it provide an entirely preserved archive of data featuring, write-up, friends' comments, pictures, about the Ambazonia war of independence. We judged the information as a true reflection of participants' minds, uses and behavior. Therefore, the participants were 'doing' things with their postings. As may be expected from our theoretical stance, our questions focused on how people talked and interacted on Facebook of events of massacres in the Southern Cameroon. The symbols of the posts to the public drew our as well as the people's reactions. We considered their comments in order to understand how their various posts either raise their awareness to the independence of Southern Cameroon as the activists promoted or to the concept of "one and indivisible Cameroon" as the government of Cameroon did everything to maintain the souvereignty of the nation. So the target population was the population of the Southern Cameroon who received information from both ends. How did they react to this information was our main point of focus.

#### **4. Internet-based posts on the Ngarbuh massacre**

On the 16th February, 2020 activists and other people inundated the cyberspace with the picture below which drew the attention of the entire world because it was a genocidal act that involved the massacre of children and pregnant women who were buried in a mass grave. The caption was:

"These are some of the Victims of the Ngarbuh Massacre, in Donga Mantung Division, in Cameroon's Northwest region. Locals have blamed the military and it's allied militias for the attack. The death toll now stands at 38" [11] (**Figure 1**).

On the 15th March, 2020, activists sent another post in order to prick the conscience of humanity which stated: "One month on…#NGARBUH still haunts me! Why did you kill our innocent children Biya1 ??? May this reminder prick the conscience of the world. 14th Feb #Massacre still on my mind. Sleep well Angels…".

On April 30th, activists sent a video showing the mass burial of pregnant women, children, and other women and men who were in Ngarbuh and asked a rhetorical question of what happened to the authors.<sup>2</sup> Another video showed clearly the wailing of people in the background which indicated that people had wounds in their hearts that would take time to heal [12].

Activists sent ceaselessly posts on the heartlessness of some of the elite of the region who celebrated the massacre. The following article was sent on the 1st June 2020 and the video had been deleted at the time we consulted it on Facebook:

**201**

received:

**Figure 1.**

human form! Beast" [13].

the hands of the heartless" [13].

**5. What really happened at Ngarbuh**

<sup>3</sup> Apigin phrase which mea nit is the end that matters.

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon…*

"This was 14th February 2020 at 7:10 am, when #GerardNgalla got news that the #NgarbuhMassacre went successfully as they had planned. In celebration Gerard had his breakfast live on Facebook. He was congratulated by many, I mean many from Donga-Mantung, at the moment that we were mourning our children and pregnant women killed by Gerard and BIR. All I have to say is, there

"How for market Gerald as heat dey come on for Ngarbuh gaz? Dat gaz dey smell so badly," "Dealer," and evn abused him saying: "pig-style eating! real wild animal in

Commentators were hard on him while relying on divine intervention and wishing the children a peaceful rest by saying, "God will protect them in Jesus name, Amen" "Lord God, have mercy!" "May they rest in peace" "Lord please help them…" "May God give them internal rest" "Heavenly rest is open unto them" "God is seeing everything," "God help," "May their souls rest in peace," "Chai JESUS, Follow up this incident for us. You are the only righteous to do this and liberate your children from

The others call for resistance by imploring on the people's feeling and pragmatism: "I asked the "amba camp" they said the Army should drop their guns. This is a Republic, the Army will never do that not even in the USA. Please please please for the sake of our junior ones I'm calling on you artist, musicians, bloggers, celebrities pleas for the sake of our junior ones. Just Imagine how these children were feeling, close your eyes and imagine. They would say our brothers and sisters abandoned us to die. Some will go to Ivory Coast and pay tribute to Arafat whereas he can go to

Mamfe his homeland and pay tribute to the lost souls. Fame is like a candle."

In accordance with the Post-truth politics, the government of Cameroon refutted the facts of the Ngarbuh massacre and even called those who had investigated it "bad angels" until they yielded to international pressure which

*.*" The following responses were

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

must be #Justice4Ngarbuh. *Na last time be time*<sup>3</sup>

*Picture of the slained children and their grave. Source: Atlantic Chronicles [11].*

<sup>1</sup> Meaning President Paul Biya: the President of the Republic of Cameroon.

<sup>2</sup> The soldiers who killed them.

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

**Figure 1.** *Picture of the slained children and their grave. Source: Atlantic Chronicles [11].*

"This was 14th February 2020 at 7:10 am, when #GerardNgalla got news that the #NgarbuhMassacre went successfully as they had planned. In celebration Gerard had his breakfast live on Facebook. He was congratulated by many, I mean many from Donga-Mantung, at the moment that we were mourning our children and pregnant women killed by Gerard and BIR. All I have to say is, there must be #Justice4Ngarbuh. *Na last time be time*<sup>3</sup> *.*" The following responses were received:

"How for market Gerald as heat dey come on for Ngarbuh gaz? Dat gaz dey smell so badly," "Dealer," and evn abused him saying: "pig-style eating! real wild animal in human form! Beast" [13].

Commentators were hard on him while relying on divine intervention and wishing the children a peaceful rest by saying, "God will protect them in Jesus name, Amen" "Lord God, have mercy!" "May they rest in peace" "Lord please help them…" "May God give them internal rest" "Heavenly rest is open unto them" "God is seeing everything," "God help," "May their souls rest in peace," "Chai JESUS, Follow up this incident for us. You are the only righteous to do this and liberate your children from the hands of the heartless" [13].

The others call for resistance by imploring on the people's feeling and pragmatism: "I asked the "amba camp" they said the Army should drop their guns. This is a Republic, the Army will never do that not even in the USA. Please please please for the sake of our junior ones I'm calling on you artist, musicians, bloggers, celebrities pleas for the sake of our junior ones. Just Imagine how these children were feeling, close your eyes and imagine. They would say our brothers and sisters abandoned us to die. Some will go to Ivory Coast and pay tribute to Arafat whereas he can go to Mamfe his homeland and pay tribute to the lost souls. Fame is like a candle."

#### **5. What really happened at Ngarbuh**

In accordance with the Post-truth politics, the government of Cameroon refutted the facts of the Ngarbuh massacre and even called those who had investigated it "bad angels" until they yielded to international pressure which

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

We collected the qualitative data of acts of genocide in Southern Cameroon used in this work from the Internet from seasoned activists' accounts who had sent out numerous posts on numerous issues to their targeted population. They served as a fertile ground of textual material: videos, blog posts, comments, social networking posts which are all as [8] puts it, are parts of the expanse of qualitative material online. It is described by [9] as "a new continent, rich in resources but in parts most perilous." which had "lain undiscovered, unmined and uninhabited" for the past

Activists posted many materials online to awaken Southern Cameroonians' consciousness of the events of the War of independence, therefore Facebook was a fruitful site of the way as [10] puts it, hundreds of millions of Southern Cameroonians and other relate to one another and share genocidal information: it provide an entirely preserved archive of data featuring, write-up, friends' comments, pictures, about the Ambazonia war of independence. We judged the information as a true reflection of participants' minds, uses and behavior. Therefore, the participants were 'doing' things with their postings. As may be expected from our theoretical stance, our questions focused on how people talked and interacted on Facebook of events of massacres in the Southern Cameroon. The symbols of the posts to the public drew our as well as the people's reactions. We considered their comments in order to understand how their various posts either raise their awareness to the independence of Southern Cameroon as the activists promoted or to the concept of "one and indivisible Cameroon" as the government of Cameroon did everything to maintain the souvereignty of the nation. So the target population was the population of the Southern Cameroon who received information from both

ends. How did they react to this information was our main point of focus.

On the 16th February, 2020 activists and other people inundated the cyberspace with the picture below which drew the attention of the entire world because it was a genocidal act that involved the massacre of children and pregnant women who were

"These are some of the Victims of the Ngarbuh Massacre, in Donga Mantung Division, in Cameroon's Northwest region. Locals have blamed the military and it's allied militias for the attack. The death toll now stands at 38" [11] (**Figure 1**). On the 15th March, 2020, activists sent another post in order to prick the conscience of humanity which stated: "One month on…#NGARBUH still haunts

conscience of the world. 14th Feb #Massacre still on my mind. Sleep well Angels…". On April 30th, activists sent a video showing the mass burial of pregnant women, children, and other women and men who were in Ngarbuh and asked a

the wailing of people in the background which indicated that people had wounds in

Activists sent ceaselessly posts on the heartlessness of some of the elite of the region who celebrated the massacre. The following article was sent on the 1st June 2020 and the video had been deleted at the time we consulted it on Facebook:

??? May this reminder prick the

Another video showed clearly

**4. Internet-based posts on the Ngarbuh massacre**

buried in a mass grave. The caption was:

me! Why did you kill our innocent children Biya1

their hearts that would take time to heal [12].

rhetorical question of what happened to the authors.<sup>2</sup>

<sup>1</sup> Meaning President Paul Biya: the President of the Republic of Cameroon.

**3. Methodology**

30 years.

**200**

<sup>2</sup> The soldiers who killed them.

<sup>3</sup> Apigin phrase which mea nit is the end that matters.

demanded them to investigate it. After the investigation, they acknowledged that their military carried out the massacre.

#### **5.1 Government defense minister**

Cameroon's defense minister made two statements: on February 17, he first announced that the government had opened an investigation and that its results would be made public. In a second statement he said the results of the investigation "may be made public at the appropriate time". In both statements, he claimed that armed "terrorists" attacked government security forces and that the clash resulted in the explosion of fuel tanks, which destroyed several homes and killed a woman and four children. This statement was reiterated on February 18, in a press release, by the Minister of Communication [14, 15].

#### **5.2 The minister of communication**

After several days of accusations regarding the Ngarbuh Massacre, communication minister, René Emmanuel Sadi has finally broken the silence [16]. Despite high numbers from the UN, media reports and witnesses, minister Sadi confirmed the story of the army spokesperson in a statement on Monday February 17, saying only five civilian lives were lost, one woman and four children. The minister questioned: "How can one believe for a moment that an army as disciplined and civic-minded as ours can loot civilian properties and kill the people whose protection and security is their mission?" He reiterated that "under no circumstances have our defence and security forces deliberately undertaken to perpetrate abuses of any kind against the civilian populations at the service of whom they are assigned." Minister Sadi ascertained that the situation in the North West and South West regions is gradually improving because the Head of State was implementing the recommendations of the Major National Dialog.

It was not the first time the government had refused any wrong doing; the government had made similar statements of atrocities that soldiers had committed against civilians in the Northern Region of Cameroon where military killed a woman and her child. In several occasions, government had placed the blame for crimes committed against civilians on Ambazonian separatists, even in cases of lack of evidence. The UN, USA, rights groups and politicians have asked for an investigation into the massacre, demanding thatwitnesses be protected.

#### **5.3 Human right watch**

Government forces [16] and armed members of the Fulani ethnic group killed at least 21 civilians, including 13 children and a pregnant woman, on February 14, 2020 in the village of Ngarbuh in Cameroon. They also set fire on five houses, looted many other property and beat residents. The corpses of some of the victims were found charred in their homes. The government denies that its troops have deliberately committed crimes. "The murders of civilians, including children, committed under horrific conditions, are heinous crimes that should be effectively and independently investigated and those responsible brought to justice," said Ilaria Allegrozzi, researcher senior on Africa at Human Rights Watch. They stressed that, the denial of the military involvement in the crimes would further traumatize the survivors and would only encourage the government troops to commit further atrocities.

They reported that, witnesses assured them that between 10 and 15 soldiers, including members of the Rapid Intervention Battalion (BIR), an elite unit of the Cameroonian army, and at least 30 armed Fulani first entered on foot in Ngarbuh 1,

**203**

**Figure 2.**

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon…*

a district of Ngarbuh, on February 13 at around 11:00 p.m. and looted many houses. Some members of these forces then continued towards the Ngarbuh 2 neighborhood, looting houses and beating residents. At around 5:00 a.m. on February 14, a group of soldiers and armed Fulani attacked the Ngarbuh 3 neighborhood. They killed and burnt 21 civilians in four houses. Using satellite images taken on February 14 at 10:24, results indicated that several houses in Ngarbuh had been damage possibly with fire. They narrated the story of a man who hid himself and saw the killing of his entire family as they tried to escape and set their house on fire. Residents affirmed that there was no confrontation between the armed separatists and the security forces and they did not hear any explosion so the killings were deliberate. It was aimed at punishing civilians suspected for harboring separatist fighters and were threatened not to harbor separatist fighters warning them that their village would

In the state television, the minister of Territorial Administration responded to Human Right Watch by calling them "misguided angels" who were out to destroy the image of the Cameroonian defense forces who were doing a wonderful work. He called on them to rather condemn the atrocities of separatist fighters whom he called terrorists and threatened ending the activities of Human Watch Right because their report was erroneous. He added that they had given money to private

On Friday 14th of February 2020, at around 3 a.m., an attack was launched in the village of Ngar 3 from Fiiru by a joint military operation consisting of six soldiers, three armed men belonging to ex-combatants of the restoration forces of the Virtual State of Ambazonia and numerous herdsmen. The operation burnt and shot everywhere. The joint mission was led to Ngarbuh by the former separatist fighter: Nfor Marcel called "Bullet" alongside two other ex-combatants who had left the war of independence and had joined the National Disarmament, Demobilization, and

The attack was bloody, no one was spared, some villagers were burned alive and those who could not find shelter were shot, as shown by the bodies of the victims scattered in the bushes. Pregnant women and children who escaped gunfire and machete sheltered in a house were all of them were burnt alive. Some survivors attested that a total of 13 houses and many villages were burnt beyond recognition. Among the 35 corpses discovered were three (3) pregnant women, three (3) children including a

*Picture of persons the military killed in Ngarbuh. Source: Human Rights Report [16].*

be destroyed if they continued to harbor separatists (**Figure 2**).

media to weaken the institutions of the state [17, 18].

**5.4 Coalition of civil society**

Reintegration Committee.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

#### *The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

a district of Ngarbuh, on February 13 at around 11:00 p.m. and looted many houses. Some members of these forces then continued towards the Ngarbuh 2 neighborhood, looting houses and beating residents. At around 5:00 a.m. on February 14, a group of soldiers and armed Fulani attacked the Ngarbuh 3 neighborhood. They killed and burnt 21 civilians in four houses. Using satellite images taken on February 14 at 10:24, results indicated that several houses in Ngarbuh had been damage possibly with fire.

They narrated the story of a man who hid himself and saw the killing of his entire family as they tried to escape and set their house on fire. Residents affirmed that there was no confrontation between the armed separatists and the security forces and they did not hear any explosion so the killings were deliberate. It was aimed at punishing civilians suspected for harboring separatist fighters and were threatened not to harbor separatist fighters warning them that their village would be destroyed if they continued to harbor separatists (**Figure 2**).

In the state television, the minister of Territorial Administration responded to Human Right Watch by calling them "misguided angels" who were out to destroy the image of the Cameroonian defense forces who were doing a wonderful work. He called on them to rather condemn the atrocities of separatist fighters whom he called terrorists and threatened ending the activities of Human Watch Right because their report was erroneous. He added that they had given money to private media to weaken the institutions of the state [17, 18].

#### **5.4 Coalition of civil society**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

their military carried out the massacre.

by the Minister of Communication [14, 15].

tion into the massacre, demanding thatwitnesses be protected.

**5.2 The minister of communication**

**5.3 Human right watch**

**5.1 Government defense minister**

demanded them to investigate it. After the investigation, they acknowledged that

Cameroon's defense minister made two statements: on February 17, he first announced that the government had opened an investigation and that its results would be made public. In a second statement he said the results of the investigation "may be made public at the appropriate time". In both statements, he claimed that armed "terrorists" attacked government security forces and that the clash resulted in the explosion of fuel tanks, which destroyed several homes and killed a woman and four children. This statement was reiterated on February 18, in a press release,

After several days of accusations regarding the Ngarbuh Massacre, communication minister, René Emmanuel Sadi has finally broken the silence [16]. Despite high numbers from the UN, media reports and witnesses, minister Sadi confirmed the story of the army spokesperson in a statement on Monday February 17, saying only five civilian lives were lost, one woman and four children. The minister questioned: "How can one believe for a moment that an army as disciplined and civic-minded as ours can loot civilian properties and kill the people whose protection and security is their mission?" He reiterated that "under no circumstances have our defence and security forces deliberately undertaken to perpetrate abuses of any kind against the civilian populations at the service of whom they are assigned." Minister Sadi ascertained that the situation in the North West and South West regions is gradually improving because the Head of State was implementing the recommendations of the Major National Dialog. It was not the first time the government had refused any wrong doing; the government had made similar statements of atrocities that soldiers had committed against civilians in the Northern Region of Cameroon where military killed a woman and her child. In several occasions, government had placed the blame for crimes committed against civilians on Ambazonian separatists, even in cases of lack of evidence. The UN, USA, rights groups and politicians have asked for an investiga-

Government forces [16] and armed members of the Fulani ethnic group killed at least 21 civilians, including 13 children and a pregnant woman, on February 14, 2020 in the village of Ngarbuh in Cameroon. They also set fire on five houses, looted many other property and beat residents. The corpses of some of the victims were found charred in their homes. The government denies that its troops have deliberately committed crimes. "The murders of civilians, including children, committed under horrific conditions, are heinous crimes that should be effectively and independently investigated and those responsible brought to justice," said Ilaria Allegrozzi, researcher senior on Africa at Human Rights Watch. They stressed that, the denial of the military involvement in the crimes would further traumatize the survivors and would only encourage the government troops to commit further

They reported that, witnesses assured them that between 10 and 15 soldiers, including members of the Rapid Intervention Battalion (BIR), an elite unit of the Cameroonian army, and at least 30 armed Fulani first entered on foot in Ngarbuh 1,

**202**

atrocities.

On Friday 14th of February 2020, at around 3 a.m., an attack was launched in the village of Ngar 3 from Fiiru by a joint military operation consisting of six soldiers, three armed men belonging to ex-combatants of the restoration forces of the Virtual State of Ambazonia and numerous herdsmen. The operation burnt and shot everywhere. The joint mission was led to Ngarbuh by the former separatist fighter: Nfor Marcel called "Bullet" alongside two other ex-combatants who had left the war of independence and had joined the National Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration Committee.

The attack was bloody, no one was spared, some villagers were burned alive and those who could not find shelter were shot, as shown by the bodies of the victims scattered in the bushes. Pregnant women and children who escaped gunfire and machete sheltered in a house were all of them were burnt alive. Some survivors attested that a total of 13 houses and many villages were burnt beyond recognition. Among the 35 corpses discovered were three (3) pregnant women, three (3) children including a

**Figure 2.** *Picture of persons the military killed in Ngarbuh. Source: Human Rights Report [16].*

**Figure 3.** *Mass grave of massacred civilians. Source: Mimi Mefo Info [19].*

family of about 9 persons and other men and women. The victims consisted of about 9 men, 6 women, and 14 children. After the departure of the soldiers, some villagers, pastors and Ambazonian fighters, buried the victims on Saturday February 15, 2020 in numerous mass graves [19] (**Figure 3**).

#### **6. The Government's admittance of genocide**

This was after the works of a commission which Paul Biya sanctioned February 17 to investigate the killings, following incessant national and international pressure across the board. The commission was headed by Divine Chemutah Banda, Chairperson of the National Commission of Human Rights and Freedoms, Bishop George Nkuo of the Kumbo Diocese and Imam Ahmadou Baba Sale, among others as members [20].

The government of Cameroon admitted a mixed Battalion commissioned by the Commander of the 52nd Motorized Infantry Battalion in Nkambe of Nangono Ze Charles Eric orchestrated the extrajudicial killings headed by Sergeant Baba Guiba mixed group of Ntubaw. Villagers narrated that three military elements and two Gendarme left Ntubaw at 10 pm on February 13, while the the head of them took along 17 members of the vigilantist group. At the entrance to Ngarbuh, they split in two to "take care" of Ngarbuh 1 & 2. At Ngarbuh 3 the site of the massacre, Sergeant Baba Guiba and 10 members of the vigilante waged an attack. The report shows that five terrorists were killed and arms were seized, and three women plus ten children were also killed. Due to panic, the soldiers and the members of the vigilante group covered the facts by burning houses. Sergeant Baba Guiba then returned to Ntubaw and deliberately sent a biased report to his hierarchy which the Government used for its communication. The report indicates that the corpses were actually exhumed in order to establish their facts and that disciplinary sanction were charted.

The following post went viral when the report was released "The Ngarbuh report by LRC is fake. Names of soldiers and military people mentioned in it do not exist. What a scam!"

Even most of the comments considered it to be a lie: "When you make lies part of you, there will come a time when the lies will turn to lie to you", "It is no surprising issue to me. That is their best arts, lies telling. The report is just powder in the eye!, "Even some are fake not all are fake because sergeant Baba guida I know him personally", "What to expect from endemic dysfunction? Without a verifiable system of records and accounting - anywhere in the world - it is impossible to implement Truth while so-called "civilized" cultures create all kinds of tools/instruments to enforce Truth", "Could never be a true list, have they mentioned the DOs ,Governor, and ministers who were the real commanders,those names could be late soldiers or fake."

**205**

attended.

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon…*

The data indicate firstly that the government's stance on bearing genocidal responsibility changes continuously when internal and external pressures are exerted on it to investigate crimes committed against humanity as it was the case in Ngarbuh and it remains stagnant or the blames are shifted to the separatists when no serious pressure is exerted on it as it was the cases of the Ofen-Tiben massacre, Menka-Pinyin massacre, Bakweri town massacre, Buea Town massacre, Muyuka massacre, Ekona massacre, Munyenge massacre, Kwa-Kwa massacre, Wum massacre, Weh massacre, Esu massacre, the killing of the baby Martha, the beheading of

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

Sam Soya, the burning of mami Appih etc.

**7.1 Internal reactions**

make an omelette" [21].

*7.1.2 The catholic church*

**7. Internet-based reactions to the Ngarbuh massacre**

*7.1.1 National committee for disarmament, demobilization and reintegration*

Program, the National Committee for Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (NCDDR) on 16th February, sent out a post which stated: "Amba want their kids to die so that they cry for genocide and that in so far as Ambazonian

fighters continue to exist every body including children shall continue to be targeted'". The same Facebook page attributed the killings of the Ambazonians and what happened as "collateral damage." "For as long as Amba boys exist in your communities, there will be casualties, and some of them will be children. It is called collateral damage. AmbaFools sit abroad and say, we have to break eggs to

On the 21st of February, Aaron Yancho Kaah and other sent a post entitled: "Kumbo diocese mourns the victims of the Ngarbuh massacre today". He said the eucharistic prayer at the kumbo cathedral was in honor of the 35 slained innocent peasant farmers and children by Cameroun soldiers at the Ngarbuh village on the 14th February [22] Thousands of Catholic faithful around kumbo attended the solemn mass "which left many la Republique Cameroonian loyalists grumbling". Prayers were offered for the bereaved families and they called on God to forgive the perpetrators of such a hate crime. His Eminence Christian Cardinal Tumi also

However, it left many unanswered questions in the minds of Ambazonian and the the following comments were made: "Cameroon is Two and Very Divisible. We Ambazonian keep saying this yet Francophone think its a joke. Why is it the Catholic Church and not the government leading these proceedings if truly the region was peaceful? Why is there no official delegation from Yaounde in Kumbo for this funeral? Why did Paul Biya not declare a national day of mourning for the victims if truly it was a collateral damage? In Bafoussam the Prime Minister was there after the landslide right? Why are Anglophone hated so much by Francophone? We shall continue to fight until we achieve the Restoration of our lost Independence." Other considered Cardinal Tumi as a hypocrite, "What did Tumi go to do there after he had claimed that normalcy was returning and forcing evil special status on us which has embolden the ememy to kill us for his sports,", "God is always on the throne", "Silence means", guilty", "Chaaaaiiiiiiiii Ambazonians have suffered", "The only thing that disturb me is what Cardina Tumi went there to do,", "Adieu little

The Facebook page of the Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

The data indicate firstly that the government's stance on bearing genocidal responsibility changes continuously when internal and external pressures are exerted on it to investigate crimes committed against humanity as it was the case in Ngarbuh and it remains stagnant or the blames are shifted to the separatists when no serious pressure is exerted on it as it was the cases of the Ofen-Tiben massacre, Menka-Pinyin massacre, Bakweri town massacre, Buea Town massacre, Muyuka massacre, Ekona massacre, Munyenge massacre, Kwa-Kwa massacre, Wum massacre, Weh massacre, Esu massacre, the killing of the baby Martha, the beheading of Sam Soya, the burning of mami Appih etc.

#### **7. Internet-based reactions to the Ngarbuh massacre**

#### **7.1 Internal reactions**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

family of about 9 persons and other men and women. The victims consisted of about 9 men, 6 women, and 14 children. After the departure of the soldiers, some villagers, pastors and Ambazonian fighters, buried the victims on Saturday February 15, 2020

This was after the works of a commission which Paul Biya sanctioned February 17 to investigate the killings, following incessant national and international pressure across the board. The commission was headed by Divine Chemutah Banda, Chairperson of the National Commission of Human Rights and Freedoms, Bishop George Nkuo of the Kumbo Diocese and Imam Ahmadou Baba Sale, among others

The government of Cameroon admitted a mixed Battalion commissioned by the Commander of the 52nd Motorized Infantry Battalion in Nkambe of Nangono Ze Charles Eric orchestrated the extrajudicial killings headed by Sergeant Baba Guiba mixed group of Ntubaw. Villagers narrated that three military elements and two Gendarme left Ntubaw at 10 pm on February 13, while the the head of them took along 17 members of the vigilantist group. At the entrance to Ngarbuh, they split in two to "take care" of Ngarbuh 1 & 2. At Ngarbuh 3 the site of the massacre, Sergeant Baba Guiba and 10 members of the vigilante waged an attack. The report shows that five terrorists were killed and arms were seized, and three women plus ten children were also killed. Due to panic, the soldiers and the members of the vigilante group covered the facts by burning houses. Sergeant Baba Guiba then returned to Ntubaw and deliberately sent a biased report to his hierarchy which the Government used for its communication. The report indicates that the corpses were actually exhumed

in order to establish their facts and that disciplinary sanction were charted.

The following post went viral when the report was released "The Ngarbuh report by LRC is fake. Names of soldiers and military people mentioned in it do not exist.

Even most of the comments considered it to be a lie: "When you make lies part of you, there will come a time when the lies will turn to lie to you", "It is no surprising issue to me. That is their best arts, lies telling. The report is just powder in the eye!, "Even some are fake not all are fake because sergeant Baba guida I know him personally", "What to expect from endemic dysfunction? Without a verifiable system of records and accounting - anywhere in the world - it is impossible to implement Truth while so-called "civilized" cultures create all kinds of tools/instruments to enforce Truth", "Could never be a true list, have they mentioned the DOs ,Governor, and ministers who were the real commanders,those names could be late soldiers

in numerous mass graves [19] (**Figure 3**).

as members [20].

**Figure 3.**

What a scam!"

**6. The Government's admittance of genocide**

*Mass grave of massacred civilians. Source: Mimi Mefo Info [19].*

**204**

or fake."

#### *7.1.1 National committee for disarmament, demobilization and reintegration*

The Facebook page of the Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Program, the National Committee for Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (NCDDR) on 16th February, sent out a post which stated: "Amba want their kids to die so that they cry for genocide and that in so far as Ambazonian fighters continue to exist every body including children shall continue to be targeted'". The same Facebook page attributed the killings of the Ambazonians and what happened as "collateral damage." "For as long as Amba boys exist in your communities, there will be casualties, and some of them will be children. It is called collateral damage. AmbaFools sit abroad and say, we have to break eggs to make an omelette" [21].

#### *7.1.2 The catholic church*

On the 21st of February, Aaron Yancho Kaah and other sent a post entitled: "Kumbo diocese mourns the victims of the Ngarbuh massacre today". He said the eucharistic prayer at the kumbo cathedral was in honor of the 35 slained innocent peasant farmers and children by Cameroun soldiers at the Ngarbuh village on the 14th February [22] Thousands of Catholic faithful around kumbo attended the solemn mass "which left many la Republique Cameroonian loyalists grumbling". Prayers were offered for the bereaved families and they called on God to forgive the perpetrators of such a hate crime. His Eminence Christian Cardinal Tumi also attended.

However, it left many unanswered questions in the minds of Ambazonian and the the following comments were made: "Cameroon is Two and Very Divisible. We Ambazonian keep saying this yet Francophone think its a joke. Why is it the Catholic Church and not the government leading these proceedings if truly the region was peaceful? Why is there no official delegation from Yaounde in Kumbo for this funeral? Why did Paul Biya not declare a national day of mourning for the victims if truly it was a collateral damage? In Bafoussam the Prime Minister was there after the landslide right? Why are Anglophone hated so much by Francophone? We shall continue to fight until we achieve the Restoration of our lost Independence."

Other considered Cardinal Tumi as a hypocrite, "What did Tumi go to do there after he had claimed that normalcy was returning and forcing evil special status on us which has embolden the ememy to kill us for his sports,", "God is always on the throne", "Silence means", guilty", "Chaaaaiiiiiiiii Ambazonians have suffered", "The only thing that disturb me is what Cardina Tumi went there to do,", "Adieu little

friends, parents et al.", "Rest well…", "Make dem all go massa", "I doubt whether God can forgive the perpetrators of this massacre. If He can forgive them, I think He goes wrong ---- He should deal with them squarely and nothing like forgiveness."

#### **8. Ambazonians' expression of anger and frustration**

Post-truth politics is more emotional and consequently the most popular fake news stories during the Ambazonian crisis have been shared more widely than the most popular mainstream media reports. This permitted friends to share their emotions with others. This part treats the categorization of the comments of people who received the posts either from activists and people. The fact that the Cameroon government tried by all means to falsify the happenings in Ngarbuh provoked an outpour of emotion from Southern Cameroonians. They express their helplessness by calling for resistance till the last man standing, labeling political actors negatively, unearthing the wickedness and inhumanity of the military forces, expressing the need for divine intervention, showing optimism for independence, indicating how the state has failed to protect its citizens, considering international bodies as being unfair and powerless etc.

No Facebook posts received as many comments as the one which carried the reaction of the minister of communication in which he styled the military as professionals and the separatist fighters as terrorists [15]. Ambazonians knew the truth which other Cameroonians did not know. After the killings and burning of houses, the separatist fighters buried the dead. The more the truth is hidden, the more the wound widens, the more tension increases, the more trust is destroyed and the more the war will prolong and which may probably end up widening the divide between the two peoples. Martial solutions only help to radicalize the population and encourage them to defy state institutions.

Their comments were a call for rebellion because the state considered everyone of them as Amba so they had to carry gun and fight. They wondered how the government could refuse to acknowledge such genocidal acts and they were determined to pick up arms against the government and to force the Francophone out of their land. They question the trust of the government and the government thought it could only regain it through intimidation. They felt helpless in front of international organization.

"Today I'll be picking up my own arm against this government, it's too much", "Sometimes shame di hold me for this pipo their chance.4 How can this he-goat deny this. So it's no more petrol accident", "Is high time we all pick up guns, since we are all ambas in the eyes of military, anyhow any one left behind will tell me if those children were ambas", "Operation Frogs to leave Ambaland has been activated and shall soon enter full gear. All frogs should leave Ambaland5 for their own safety. A word to a wise na sophi ei sense.6 "The earlier you kill all of us, the better. We shall not sit and watch our country eaten up by vampires. Enough of these jokes. Kill us all if you care…You cannot silence this generation. We've seen more than what any other generation had ever seen. Non…", "Professional Army huh…I reserve my comment", "This photo was automatically covered so you can.", "Does it mean no one in the world has power in this world to stop this barbarism in Cameroon. Even UN, AU, EU US?", "How can people be lying like this and are asked to do investigations?

**207**

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon…*

What will be the outcome?", "Even in the North the Force of law and order did not

In reactions to the post on Facebook, the Ambazonian people poured frightful curses on them and wish them dead mysteriously. They labeled the minister a wizard and wished him mad and they thought they are demon possessed. They mocked

"Thunder will strike all of you someday idiet. It happens in Mali", "I've never cursed but this time around I release dementia to that Rene of a human.", "Either this man's brain is short or he is just possessed. We all saw the Cameroonian military people killing…executing…some women carrying their kids on their backs", "You will excrete clotted blood after a prolonged painful incurable ailment for saying this! People have lost everything. ..I mean everything they have reason to be alive for, in the most dreadful manner, and you say this???", "Thanks very much in the days of appointment we celebrate we never knew you were the witchcraft behind our back," "The demons that lives in you will surely one day consume you all," "This country will never change if people like you remain in power. Please change from your wicked ways for judgement awaits us all", "It shall never be well with you Mr man for the blood of those children is on your head", "May thunder strike him where ever he is right now and may the spirits of everyone killed haunt every soul involved in this massacre", All the ministers and service heads in Cameroon need to be given mass burial for a new country to emerge. *Chai* what has come over them or its really that the devil is at work? The bloody money u eat and talk nonsense shall one day prevail on your life and the life of your family members. You shall not

The comments also exposed the wickedness and inhumanity of the government and the Francophone community, labelling them as devils and terrorists, and vampires as people suffering from mental problem: "These Devils still lie even when captured on camera. Our people in that community were living in peace, they didn't ask Cameroon military to come and protect them. Boko haram is slaughtering their citizens in the North, they wouldn't go for their protection,", "Terrorists like him ..They want to suck more blood", "The paradox of doing the will of it's master contradicts the ethics of good soldierhood. Your advocacy would have been harnessing if you had an iota of feelings towards the victims, their families, friends and relations, but is rather unfortunate that …", "I used to think Devils have some funny looks but its like they're some of these human faces we see everyday", "This man i curse you and your entire generation to come. You have drunk just too much blood that even if you are found carrying a big mess on you, you will claim to be clean you vampire and

Another aspect of the comments dwelled on divine reliance or intervention, truth and divine justice. They thought the government supported the military and promoted them to fight against them. That is why they relied on divine intervention They reminded them that God exists and He is awake and protects those who fights for the truth and He will punish those who murder the innocent people at Ngarbuh. They were certain that God will exhaust their prayer and a time will arrive when those killing them would be unable to continue doing so. Not only did they wish them deadly diseases but also that God would punish them from one generation to

<sup>8</sup> When the military was accused in a video that went viral, the government said it took place in Mali

They think that they will be consumed by their

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

them by saying it happened in Mali.8

"

your entire clan will all pay for just wait and see".

another. They ask on God to protect them.

<sup>7</sup> It is a mockery because the military killed a woman and her child.

before later on accepting that actually it was in Cameroon.

kill women and children.7

own evils.

see route".

<sup>4</sup> I am ashame of this people.

<sup>5</sup> Operation Francophone to leave Ambaland.

<sup>6</sup> Sufficient.

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

What will be the outcome?", "Even in the North the Force of law and order did not kill women and children.7 "

In reactions to the post on Facebook, the Ambazonian people poured frightful curses on them and wish them dead mysteriously. They labeled the minister a wizard and wished him mad and they thought they are demon possessed. They mocked them by saying it happened in Mali.8 They think that they will be consumed by their own evils.

"Thunder will strike all of you someday idiet. It happens in Mali", "I've never cursed but this time around I release dementia to that Rene of a human.", "Either this man's brain is short or he is just possessed. We all saw the Cameroonian military people killing…executing…some women carrying their kids on their backs", "You will excrete clotted blood after a prolonged painful incurable ailment for saying this! People have lost everything. ..I mean everything they have reason to be alive for, in the most dreadful manner, and you say this???", "Thanks very much in the days of appointment we celebrate we never knew you were the witchcraft behind our back," "The demons that lives in you will surely one day consume you all," "This country will never change if people like you remain in power. Please change from your wicked ways for judgement awaits us all", "It shall never be well with you Mr man for the blood of those children is on your head", "May thunder strike him where ever he is right now and may the spirits of everyone killed haunt every soul involved in this massacre", All the ministers and service heads in Cameroon need to be given mass burial for a new country to emerge. *Chai* what has come over them or its really that the devil is at work? The bloody money u eat and talk nonsense shall one day prevail on your life and the life of your family members. You shall not see route".

The comments also exposed the wickedness and inhumanity of the government and the Francophone community, labelling them as devils and terrorists, and vampires as people suffering from mental problem: "These Devils still lie even when captured on camera. Our people in that community were living in peace, they didn't ask Cameroon military to come and protect them. Boko haram is slaughtering their citizens in the North, they wouldn't go for their protection,", "Terrorists like him ..They want to suck more blood", "The paradox of doing the will of it's master contradicts the ethics of good soldierhood. Your advocacy would have been harnessing if you had an iota of feelings towards the victims, their families, friends and relations, but is rather unfortunate that …", "I used to think Devils have some funny looks but its like they're some of these human faces we see everyday", "This man i curse you and your entire generation to come. You have drunk just too much blood that even if you are found carrying a big mess on you, you will claim to be clean you vampire and your entire clan will all pay for just wait and see".

Another aspect of the comments dwelled on divine reliance or intervention, truth and divine justice. They thought the government supported the military and promoted them to fight against them. That is why they relied on divine intervention They reminded them that God exists and He is awake and protects those who fights for the truth and He will punish those who murder the innocent people at Ngarbuh. They were certain that God will exhaust their prayer and a time will arrive when those killing them would be unable to continue doing so. Not only did they wish them deadly diseases but also that God would punish them from one generation to another. They ask on God to protect them.

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

**8. Ambazonians' expression of anger and frustration**

being unfair and powerless etc.

tional organization.

word to a wise na sophi ei sense.6

<sup>4</sup> I am ashame of this people.

<sup>5</sup> Operation Francophone to leave Ambaland.

and encourage them to defy state institutions.

"Sometimes shame di hold me for this pipo their chance.4

shall soon enter full gear. All frogs should leave Ambaland5

friends, parents et al.", "Rest well…", "Make dem all go massa", "I doubt whether God can forgive the perpetrators of this massacre. If He can forgive them, I think He goes

Post-truth politics is more emotional and consequently the most popular fake news stories during the Ambazonian crisis have been shared more widely than the most popular mainstream media reports. This permitted friends to share their emotions with others. This part treats the categorization of the comments of people who received the posts either from activists and people. The fact that the Cameroon government tried by all means to falsify the happenings in Ngarbuh provoked an outpour of emotion from Southern Cameroonians. They express their helplessness by calling for resistance till the last man standing, labeling political actors negatively, unearthing the wickedness and inhumanity of the military forces, expressing the need for divine intervention, showing optimism for independence, indicating how the state has failed to protect its citizens, considering international bodies as

No Facebook posts received as many comments as the one which carried the reaction of the minister of communication in which he styled the military as professionals and the separatist fighters as terrorists [15]. Ambazonians knew the truth which other Cameroonians did not know. After the killings and burning of houses, the separatist fighters buried the dead. The more the truth is hidden, the more the wound widens, the more tension increases, the more trust is destroyed and the more the war will prolong and which may probably end up widening the divide between the two peoples. Martial solutions only help to radicalize the population

Their comments were a call for rebellion because the state considered everyone

"Today I'll be picking up my own arm against this government, it's too much",

deny this. So it's no more petrol accident", "Is high time we all pick up guns, since we are all ambas in the eyes of military, anyhow any one left behind will tell me if those children were ambas", "Operation Frogs to leave Ambaland has been activated and

not sit and watch our country eaten up by vampires. Enough of these jokes. Kill us all if you care…You cannot silence this generation. We've seen more than what any other generation had ever seen. Non…", "Professional Army huh…I reserve my comment", "This photo was automatically covered so you can.", "Does it mean no one in the world has power in this world to stop this barbarism in Cameroon. Even UN, AU, EU US?", "How can people be lying like this and are asked to do investigations?

How can this he-goat

for their own safety. A

"The earlier you kill all of us, the better. We shall

of them as Amba so they had to carry gun and fight. They wondered how the government could refuse to acknowledge such genocidal acts and they were determined to pick up arms against the government and to force the Francophone out of their land. They question the trust of the government and the government thought it could only regain it through intimidation. They felt helpless in front of interna-

wrong ---- He should deal with them squarely and nothing like forgiveness."

**206**

<sup>6</sup> Sufficient.

<sup>7</sup> It is a mockery because the military killed a woman and her child.

<sup>8</sup> When the military was accused in a video that went viral, the government said it took place in Mali before later on accepting that actually it was in Cameroon.

"*Chai!!!!Chai!!!!!* There's God oooo, *chai chai chai,* there's God ooooooooo" "They should keep on with their lies only only the truth will save us, Happy are the people who are fighting for the truth, Lord protect us from Every danger and restore peace in our hearts", "René or whatever you are called, God will take away your children same way you took ours. He is awake. Our cries won't go unheard. We trust in him. It's just a matter of time," "May God expose all these lies you keep telling everyday and. may your generation never find happiness. May God punish your family and generation with deadly diseases forever in the name of Jesus!As the spirits of those dead watch u in tear tell lies f…", "A season is coming their way, when they wouldn't be able to go further. Jesus is the beginning & the end."

They were optimistic considering the present as temporal which means that they were going to be triumphant because according to them God is on the throne and He is a God of justice and would disgrace the wicked they believed. They invited their brothers in Ngarbuh to wait on the Lord because evil has never prevailed and God is for the helpless. Therefore their messages gave solace to those who were affected.

"The mid-way race doesn't matter. It's the end that matters…All fingers crossed. God is seated on His Throne…", "The one that the military did in Bamenda….that's in the city, they still deny it …. God of Justice visit our enemies they are too strong for us…my people keeps living in pain everyday. "Praise God for them. God is on His throne laughing at them. For He will make them a public disgrace in the days ahead. (Ps. 2:1-8). Dear Ngarbuh brothers wait on the Lord, His is coming and He is here. He is the Lord for the helpless. Evil has never prevailed", "One day you will cry and shed tears only for the words you used over innocent souls. May God give you another Chance to Change else, you will be consumed by the wrath of the angry Almighty."

They even offer a prayer and waited on the time of God: "Lord Jesus, help us to have a heavenly view and a heavenly perspective. Help us to understand that we all have an eternity which will supersede our temporal existence here on earth. Help us to shape our acts and our words to fit our eternal reality. We…",

They said if death were not weak, the militarymen would have all been dead and reminded them that they would equally be killed, the same way they were murdering them because he who kills using the sword die by the sword. They said the acts of the military would bring them nightmares, sleepless night and curses on them and their families:

"Just that the death is as weak as the word weak if not you guys won't see no peace", "He who fights with a sword will virtually die by the sword.as you jubilate and feast over the blood of the innocent, be rest assured, all you perpetrators of this evil, your day of reckoning is just by the corner", "We are waiting now for Mr "buried the bereaved9 " to come and say his own nonsense", "A fallen hero once said that how long shall they kill our prophets while we stands aside and look. We need to be emancipated. Set the captive free", They have created their own hell, nightmares, sleeplessnights, curses upon their families from generation to generation, God is alive", Jesus is lord, only with this—I do not want to say that God is sleeping but rather the right time is coming", "God is slow to anger and has given ample warnings that he will destroy those who oppose him and threaten his people (ex 34:6-7) don't continue to provoke God for you will not be able to contain his wrath."

They also showed that the state had failed in its duty to protect the population. It was quite perplexing for them to understand why an army should kill instead

**209**

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon…*

of protecting the population, why those who criticized the army are tracked and punished. They concluded that the army was there to satisfy the government and

"I don't know whether this article is a joke or something serious. To whoever is talking, it is truly unbelievable that our protectors have turned against their duty. Whether the mind believes it or not, it is just the ideal. The reality lies in evidence!", "How can one believe for a moment that an army as disciplined and civic-minded as ours can loot civilian properties and kill the people whose protection and security is their mission?" But they are doing it so maybe they want to set the government hope…", "How can one believe for a moment that a corrupt government like that of Cameroon can attest for something they've done that could lead to more investigations?", "We understand. If you dare criticize the army, they can decide to bring you down. Every life is important in Cameroon and deserves protection", "That's why the military keeps causing their havoc because they would be protected by their boss….", "Rene Sadi I pity you. You are a diplomat by profession. You want to please your master and creator Biya. My advice to you is to fear

One also clearly sees the feeling of impartiality in their write-ups: A situation where conclusions are drawn without full knowledge of the situation, a situation in which a third party is lacking: "I only laugh at those asking people like him to investigate the massacre, this already tells us the outcome of the investigation. God have mercy on us all", "Has this man, in his capacity as minister of communications, ever gone down to the field to examine the situation first-hand before making any declarations? Please, somebody should help me understand. Maybe I'm not current,", "In the face of it all, adversity, pressure, oppression is the only breeding ground for critical thinking, inventions and innovations! Keep pushing us. Maybe

They made a mockery of the system and the use of military force for survival and said it was a system without trust and were kept in power by the military: "I understand Issa Tchiroma11 better now. What a professional army indeed! This professionalism must be in hell where rape, looting and killing is the norm. *Ahhh*, go and sit down", "The regime has lost the confidence of the population. It is not a surprise. Sample the opinion of 90% of francophone, they will say the same thing", There's only one thing keeping the regime in power: the military", The only people standing on the way for Cameroon potentials is the military. When military becomes electorate, judiciary and administration… the old and incompetent can stay in power…", "It was crossfire between the military and infrastructures12…to be continued", "A General admitted on record that the military deliberately burn

"How can we imagine that ministers can embezzle state funds and they are allowed to live like kings", "The devil has no shame", "Where on earth can a notorious thief caught red handed quickly and simply confess and admits his criminal acts just like that, he prefers to be hang", "Short sightedness is really killing this octogenarian regime", "What I see here is idolization of some incarnates in the name of humans", "Preparing to take over your land if the last person falls. The Ngarbuh inccidence has really motivated you and now you are thinking of other ways to completely eliminate every body in Ambazonia, that

<sup>11</sup> The former minister of communication who used to consider the military as being professional.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

GOD ALMIGHTY."

their creator10 and not the population and God.

this is why we needed to think outside the box."

houses! Can you comment on that Mr Minister?"

why you are thanking the head of state, Paul Biya.…

<sup>10</sup> The president of the Republic who had appointed them.

<sup>12</sup> Meaning the military burnt houses.

<sup>9</sup> Mocking the Minister of territorial Administration who once erroneously made this statement. Instead of saying bury the dead, he said buried the bereaved.

#### *The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

of protecting the population, why those who criticized the army are tracked and punished. They concluded that the army was there to satisfy the government and their creator10 and not the population and God.

"I don't know whether this article is a joke or something serious. To whoever is talking, it is truly unbelievable that our protectors have turned against their duty. Whether the mind believes it or not, it is just the ideal. The reality lies in evidence!", "How can one believe for a moment that an army as disciplined and civic-minded as ours can loot civilian properties and kill the people whose protection and security is their mission?" But they are doing it so maybe they want to set the government hope…", "How can one believe for a moment that a corrupt government like that of Cameroon can attest for something they've done that could lead to more investigations?", "We understand. If you dare criticize the army, they can decide to bring you down. Every life is important in Cameroon and deserves protection", "That's why the military keeps causing their havoc because they would be protected by their boss….", "Rene Sadi I pity you. You are a diplomat by profession. You want to please your master and creator Biya. My advice to you is to fear GOD ALMIGHTY."

One also clearly sees the feeling of impartiality in their write-ups: A situation where conclusions are drawn without full knowledge of the situation, a situation in which a third party is lacking: "I only laugh at those asking people like him to investigate the massacre, this already tells us the outcome of the investigation. God have mercy on us all", "Has this man, in his capacity as minister of communications, ever gone down to the field to examine the situation first-hand before making any declarations? Please, somebody should help me understand. Maybe I'm not current,", "In the face of it all, adversity, pressure, oppression is the only breeding ground for critical thinking, inventions and innovations! Keep pushing us. Maybe this is why we needed to think outside the box."

They made a mockery of the system and the use of military force for survival and said it was a system without trust and were kept in power by the military: "I understand Issa Tchiroma11 better now. What a professional army indeed! This professionalism must be in hell where rape, looting and killing is the norm. *Ahhh*, go and sit down", "The regime has lost the confidence of the population. It is not a surprise. Sample the opinion of 90% of francophone, they will say the same thing", There's only one thing keeping the regime in power: the military", The only people standing on the way for Cameroon potentials is the military. When military becomes electorate, judiciary and administration… the old and incompetent can stay in power…", "It was crossfire between the military and infrastructures12…to be continued", "A General admitted on record that the military deliberately burn houses! Can you comment on that Mr Minister?"

"How can we imagine that ministers can embezzle state funds and they are allowed to live like kings", "The devil has no shame", "Where on earth can a notorious thief caught red handed quickly and simply confess and admits his criminal acts just like that, he prefers to be hang", "Short sightedness is really killing this octogenarian regime", "What I see here is idolization of some incarnates in the name of humans", "Preparing to take over your land if the last person falls. The Ngarbuh inccidence has really motivated you and now you are thinking of other ways to completely eliminate every body in Ambazonia, that why you are thanking the head of state, Paul Biya.…

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

they wouldn't be able to go further. Jesus is the beginning & the end."

who were affected.

Almighty."

them and their families:

"buried the bereaved9

"*Chai!!!!Chai!!!!!* There's God oooo, *chai chai chai,* there's God ooooooooo" "They should keep on with their lies only only the truth will save us, Happy are the people who are fighting for the truth, Lord protect us from Every danger and restore peace in our hearts", "René or whatever you are called, God will take away your children same way you took ours. He is awake. Our cries won't go unheard. We trust in him. It's just a matter of time," "May God expose all these lies you keep telling everyday and. may your generation never find happiness. May God punish your family and generation with deadly diseases forever in the name of Jesus!As the spirits of those dead watch u in tear tell lies f…", "A season is coming their way, when

They were optimistic considering the present as temporal which means that they were going to be triumphant because according to them God is on the throne and He is a God of justice and would disgrace the wicked they believed. They invited their brothers in Ngarbuh to wait on the Lord because evil has never prevailed and God is for the helpless. Therefore their messages gave solace to those

"The mid-way race doesn't matter. It's the end that matters…All fingers crossed. God is seated on His Throne…", "The one that the military did in Bamenda….that's in the city, they still deny it …. God of Justice visit our enemies they are too strong for us…my people keeps living in pain everyday. "Praise God for them. God is on His throne laughing at them. For He will make them a public disgrace in the days ahead. (Ps. 2:1-8). Dear Ngarbuh brothers wait on the Lord, His is coming and He is here. He is the Lord for the helpless. Evil has never prevailed", "One day you will cry and shed tears only for the words you used over innocent souls. May God give you another Chance to Change else, you will be consumed by the wrath of the angry

They even offer a prayer and waited on the time of God: "Lord Jesus, help us to have a heavenly view and a heavenly perspective. Help us to understand that we all have an eternity which will supersede our temporal existence here on earth. Help us

They said if death were not weak, the militarymen would have all been dead and reminded them that they would equally be killed, the same way they were murdering them because he who kills using the sword die by the sword. They said the acts of the military would bring them nightmares, sleepless night and curses on

"Just that the death is as weak as the word weak if not you guys won't see no peace", "He who fights with a sword will virtually die by the sword.as you jubilate and feast over the blood of the innocent, be rest assured, all you perpetrators of this evil, your day of reckoning is just by the corner", "We are waiting now for Mr

that how long shall they kill our prophets while we stands aside and look. We need to be emancipated. Set the captive free", They have created their own hell, nightmares, sleeplessnights, curses upon their families from generation to generation, God is alive", Jesus is lord, only with this—I do not want to say that God is sleeping but rather the right time is coming", "God is slow to anger and has given ample warnings that he will destroy those who oppose him and threaten his people (ex 34:6-7) don't

They also showed that the state had failed in its duty to protect the population. It was quite perplexing for them to understand why an army should kill instead

<sup>9</sup> Mocking the Minister of territorial Administration who once erroneously made this statement. Instead

continue to provoke God for you will not be able to contain his wrath."

of saying bury the dead, he said buried the bereaved.

" to come and say his own nonsense", "A fallen hero once said

to shape our acts and our words to fit our eternal reality. We…",

**208**

<sup>10</sup> The president of the Republic who had appointed them.

<sup>11</sup> The former minister of communication who used to consider the military as being professional.

<sup>12</sup> Meaning the military burnt houses.

#### **9. The government of Cameroon's reaction**

#### **9.1 The senior divisional officer**

On the 19th February, 2020, [23] sent out the post below: "SDO for Nkambe, if separatist did the massacre in Ngarbuh why you people reduced the number of deaths to only 5".

This means that all the government officers were liars and were not working for the interest of the population but for the government. They did everything to maintain the regime in power against the people's will: The people had this to say: "What a simple nice question? SDO,oya. Answer the question", "He is still working on the report", "God has a way of exposing these barbarians by simply making them confess their crimes directly or indirectly", "A very good question", "Shame to Cameroon government, a country where all authorities are liars", "Admission of guilt, they killed 32-5=27 people, acquiescence is not acceptable, it simply means, they know they did commit the genocide but want to share little of it with the Separatists. They failed to see that they started the war which is still ongoing and they cannot fault the defenders in anyway, whatsoever.", "God has a way of exposing these barbarians by simply making them confess their crimes directly or indirectly", "Tens of people have been killed. We all see them excluding those who have died in the bushes after sustaining gun shots. If LRC gov't were honest about their claim, the exact figures would have been published but by the simple act of downplaying the numbers is telling enough of their guilt. They are trying to conceal their crimes, and in so doing they naively exposed themselves", "God will see us through. It's ordained",

#### **9.2 Government criticism of human rights' report**

Human Right condemned the massacre and called for an independent investigation: "The murders of civilians, including children, committed under horrific conditions, are heinous crimes that should be effectively and independently investigated and those responsible brought to justice," said Ilaria Allegrozzi, senior researcher on Africa at Human Rights Watch. "To deny that these crimes were committed adds further trauma to survivors and will only encourage government troops to commit further atrocities."

According to [18], the minister of Communication hit back at a recent report published by Human Rights Watch over the Camerron's military involvement in the Ngarbuh massacre and burning of houses. Reacting to the report during a press briefing on Thursday in Yaounde, Communication Minister Rene Emmanuel Sadi described the report as overtly biased and rejectted all accusations. He stressed that the Head of State has ordered for a commission of inquiry which will publish its findings soon and there was no need for organizations to go ahead and publish what he described as false information on the incident without having gone to the scene to carry out investigations. He said Human Rights Watch has no material evidence to support their assertion and denounced their approach which to him is an attempt to undermine the image of Cameroon and the stability of the institution.

Ambazonians expressed optimism stating that La Republique needed not to deceive themselves because they did not cover the truth of what happened at Ngarbuh on 14th February forever. They also added La Republique's thugs were panicking already because no amount of distraction and obfuscation could save them. They equally expressed the hope that they would be dragged to the International Court of Justice for their crimes against Ambazonians. They equally wished there had been satellite images to uncover the truth of Ngarbuh. However,

**211**

quest for independence.

<sup>14</sup> Internally Deplaced Persons. <sup>15</sup> Members of Parliament.

<sup>13</sup> We only cry everyday until our tears have dried off.

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon…*

they depended on God because they believe He is awake. They said no matter what they would get freed one day and reiterated that they were their own enemies

Facebook reports had it that two angry Cameroonians attempted burning themselves up with fuel in front of the Cameroonian Embassy in London, in protest against the Ngarbuh massacre. The two victims were rescued by the British police and administered medical care. The writer commented that the Ngarbuh massacre was yet to be over in the minds of many people world-wide and the worst case scenario in retaliation to that incident was expected in the coming days as southern Cameroonians looked forward to having black Friday that week. This post by Aeron

The martyr was considered as a BAS UK member. They asked for Divine intervention and complained that they have cried a lot until their tears could no longer flow because they were living in a painful moment and environment: "God of mercy protect us,", "God have mercy on us. Oh look at your beautiful children", "God Almighty is watching", "Ohhh God, please help us for the pain is tooo much" "Everyday ooh na so so cry ooh,13 water don finish for my eyes. God have u become an IDP14 too?? Come to our rescue", "My fellow Ambazonian please hold yourselves together, don't add more pains on us please we know that it hates my brothers take heart LRC government and its allies shall never go unpunished", "That's a good move hope I could be found where I could as well burn myself rather than shamelessly being alive while innocent children are roasted without any sympathy", "The ngarbuh messacre is so painful it calls us all whether you belong to which political party," "This shall continue until the international community does something. Even if they don't want to listen to Ambazonia, let there be Justice for ngarbuh". According to [25] in a post entitled: We must not sleep, emphasized that, they too shall not sleep as our children and our unborn Ambazonians are being burnt alive by a beast. He said President Rawlings called Biya a "beast" after the Ngarbuh massacre. He called on his fellow Ambazonians in the UK to follow up the African Bar letter they had sent to their MPs15 in the United Kingdom. He called on them to contact commonwealth countries via their respective embassies in London, to shame them and question their loyalty to Africans since they were mute following the Ngarbuh massacre, and to remind Namibia that she was a South African colony that was rescued from the hands of apartheid colonial master (South Africa). They were offered their independence because Ethiopia and Liberia had taken their case to the International Court of Justice. Despite this, Namibians had ignored their

Kenya which was the Chair of the commonwealth and ought to have called for action against Cameroon had remained indifferent. Ghana's President who gave the impression that he was a moderate and could not be influenced by the west had said nothing about the genocide in Southern Cameroons despite the calls for actions to be taken against Biya from his fellow statesman: Rawlings. He concluded that those African leaders were still puppets to Britain but they had to give them tough

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

because of their their "divide and rule fallacy".

**10.1 United Kingdom and the commonwealth**

Kaah was widely shared and commented [24].

**10. Resistance and internalization of the massacre**

they depended on God because they believe He is awake. They said no matter what they would get freed one day and reiterated that they were their own enemies because of their their "divide and rule fallacy".

#### **10. Resistance and internalization of the massacre**

#### **10.1 United Kingdom and the commonwealth**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

On the 19th February, 2020, [23] sent out the post below: "SDO for Nkambe, if separatist did the massacre in Ngarbuh why you people reduced the number of

This means that all the government officers were liars and were not working for the interest of the population but for the government. They did everything to maintain the regime in power against the people's will: The people had this to say: "What a simple nice question? SDO,oya. Answer the question", "He is still working on the report", "God has a way of exposing these barbarians by simply making them confess their crimes directly or indirectly", "A very good question", "Shame to Cameroon government, a country where all authorities are liars", "Admission of guilt, they killed 32-5=27 people, acquiescence is not acceptable, it simply means, they know they did commit the genocide but want to share little of it with the Separatists. They failed to see that they started the war which is still ongoing and they cannot fault the defenders in anyway, whatsoever.", "God has a way of exposing these barbarians by simply making them confess their crimes directly or indirectly", "Tens of people have been killed. We all see them excluding those who have died in the bushes after sustaining gun shots. If LRC gov't were honest about their claim, the exact figures would have been published but by the simple act of downplaying the numbers is telling enough of their guilt. They are trying to conceal their crimes, and in so doing they naively exposed themselves", "God will

Human Right condemned the massacre and called for an independent investigation: "The murders of civilians, including children, committed under horrific conditions, are heinous crimes that should be effectively and independently investigated and those responsible brought to justice," said Ilaria Allegrozzi, senior researcher on Africa at Human Rights Watch. "To deny that these crimes were committed adds further trauma to survivors and will only encourage government

According to [18], the minister of Communication hit back at a recent report published by Human Rights Watch over the Camerron's military involvement in the Ngarbuh massacre and burning of houses. Reacting to the report during a press briefing on Thursday in Yaounde, Communication Minister Rene Emmanuel Sadi described the report as overtly biased and rejectted all accusations. He stressed that the Head of State has ordered for a commission of inquiry which will publish its findings soon and there was no need for organizations to go ahead and publish what he described as false information on the incident without having gone to the scene to carry out investigations. He said Human Rights Watch has no material evidence to support their assertion and denounced their approach which to him is an attempt to

undermine the image of Cameroon and the stability of the institution.

Ambazonians expressed optimism stating that La Republique needed not to deceive themselves because they did not cover the truth of what happened at Ngarbuh on 14th February forever. They also added La Republique's thugs were panicking already because no amount of distraction and obfuscation could save them. They equally expressed the hope that they would be dragged to the International Court of Justice for their crimes against Ambazonians. They equally wished there had been satellite images to uncover the truth of Ngarbuh. However,

**9. The government of Cameroon's reaction**

**9.1 The senior divisional officer**

see us through. It's ordained",

troops to commit further atrocities."

**9.2 Government criticism of human rights' report**

deaths to only 5".

**210**

Facebook reports had it that two angry Cameroonians attempted burning themselves up with fuel in front of the Cameroonian Embassy in London, in protest against the Ngarbuh massacre. The two victims were rescued by the British police and administered medical care. The writer commented that the Ngarbuh massacre was yet to be over in the minds of many people world-wide and the worst case scenario in retaliation to that incident was expected in the coming days as southern Cameroonians looked forward to having black Friday that week. This post by Aeron Kaah was widely shared and commented [24].

The martyr was considered as a BAS UK member. They asked for Divine intervention and complained that they have cried a lot until their tears could no longer flow because they were living in a painful moment and environment: "God of mercy protect us,", "God have mercy on us. Oh look at your beautiful children", "God Almighty is watching", "Ohhh God, please help us for the pain is tooo much" "Everyday ooh na so so cry ooh,13 water don finish for my eyes. God have u become an IDP14 too?? Come to our rescue", "My fellow Ambazonian please hold yourselves together, don't add more pains on us please we know that it hates my brothers take heart LRC government and its allies shall never go unpunished", "That's a good move hope I could be found where I could as well burn myself rather than shamelessly being alive while innocent children are roasted without any sympathy", "The ngarbuh messacre is so painful it calls us all whether you belong to which political party," "This shall continue until the international community does something. Even if they don't want to listen to Ambazonia, let there be Justice for ngarbuh".

According to [25] in a post entitled: We must not sleep, emphasized that, they too shall not sleep as our children and our unborn Ambazonians are being burnt alive by a beast. He said President Rawlings called Biya a "beast" after the Ngarbuh massacre. He called on his fellow Ambazonians in the UK to follow up the African Bar letter they had sent to their MPs15 in the United Kingdom. He called on them to contact commonwealth countries via their respective embassies in London, to shame them and question their loyalty to Africans since they were mute following the Ngarbuh massacre, and to remind Namibia that she was a South African colony that was rescued from the hands of apartheid colonial master (South Africa). They were offered their independence because Ethiopia and Liberia had taken their case to the International Court of Justice. Despite this, Namibians had ignored their quest for independence.

Kenya which was the Chair of the commonwealth and ought to have called for action against Cameroon had remained indifferent. Ghana's President who gave the impression that he was a moderate and could not be influenced by the west had said nothing about the genocide in Southern Cameroons despite the calls for actions to be taken against Biya from his fellow statesman: Rawlings. He concluded that those African leaders were still puppets to Britain but they had to give them tough

<sup>13</sup> We only cry everyday until our tears have dried off.

<sup>14</sup> Internally Deplaced Persons.

<sup>15</sup> Members of Parliament.

time and tell them what they thought about them. They had to hold them responsible for the genocide in the Southern Cameroons. Ambazonians had to ask them to DISMISS Cameroon from the Commonwealth for failing to respect the values and principles of the organization or those countries themselves should leave the Commonwealth. He gave them the numbers of the various embassies for them to talk with their ambassadors to let them know that they had failed African children in order to please colonial powers.

This post was widely shared and it received some of the comments below: "We have to be very serious here because UK is the heartbeat and focal point in this our case of Southern Cameroons due to their colonial role. More pressure should be mounted on them to stand up at once", "Oh my God! Can u imagine Namibia ignoring us when I can remember way back in the primary school, our class six madame never allowed us rest with one song with opening lines..

"Namibia….. Oh oh Namibia…

Namibia… Your woe is our woe…".

"If we make like this it will be as if we are begging them let us arm our RFS and see how the professional military will beg us", "Great job bro and thanks for the sharing", "Only God will do what no man can do. Ambazonian be strong for the almighty is with you", "Good one comrade", "Good strategy".

#### **10.2 Commonwealth secretary-general's reaction**

Gina Informs shared the Commonwealth Secretary-General Patricia Scotland's reaction after the Ngarbuh Maasacre [26]: "I strongly condemn the recent killings of civilians, including women and children in the North-West of Cameroon on 14 February 2020. We noted the Government announcement that there would be a full investigation into the incident. We encourage the Government to conduct an impartial investigation, for perpetrators to be held accountable and for results to be made public. The Commonwealth strongly condemns all forms of violence, and in particular, the loss of lives of innocent civilians including women and children.

Cameroon is a noted member of the Human Rights Council and as such we are minded of General Comment 13 to the Convention on the Rights of the Child to freedom from all forms of violence which is underscored by the understanding that no violence against children is justifiable, all violence against children is preventable."

Southern Cameroonians blamed her for not helping them enough and that she had collected a gift from the Government in order to be quiet and labeled her as a noise-maker and a pretender: "When this Scotland or Poland Woman came to Cameroon, what did she say and collect? After corruption sealed your lips, you can now blow grammar from that end. God is watching", "After receiving a Golden statue she is acting up. Corruption knows no shame. She should be ashamed", "All this useless noise makers. Are they not fueling people with hate instead?", "If she was serious she would have suspended Cameroon from the CW16 long ago but she enjoys the statues she gets from yde,17" "man tell that lady to shut up. She should stop playing holy."

#### **10.3 The United Nations**

On the 16th February, Aaron Yancho Kaah sent a post entitled: Ngarbuh massacre. 'The UN visit to this village is a Non-event' cries an insider. [27] The post

**213**

Donga today.

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon…*

stated that, more than a dozen UN field staff had arrived to Ngarbuh: a farming community, to investigate the massacre of the more than 35 peasant farmers who were mostly children by trained Cameroun soldiers on Valentine's day and that there was an infiltration of LRC's agents in that mission and that some people loyal to the Biya's regime in those communities had been brainwashed and paid to testify that they saw Amba fighters committing those acts. The post noted that those communities were gripped by fear and would say anything henceforth to secure their lives and freedoms. The post concluded that, it was inconsequential and a non-event that nothing should be expected out of it and that the Southern Cameroons civil society consortium had called for an independent thorough investigation into these killings

The following were the reactions: "What are we doing with an investigation? Total Retaliatory plan is what we needs….. take out the traitors. Simple", "UN has first hand information my bro. They don't work on propaganda, so there are under agents", "If you were tagging the UN and US congress members that would have reached power eyes and ears", "My brother was shot at Ichim on the 14th Feburary by amba and he died in hospital with reason that he voted, meanwhile he did not vote. What have you got to say about this?", "wickedness in the both camp's."

On the 25th February Aaron Yancho Kaah sent another post which went viral

Information reaching us this morning confirms that Danjuma popularly known as DJ the good Samaritan who helped the UN and Human Right Watch to access vital pieces of information about the Ngarbuh Massacre is under going severe torture and assault after been kidnapped by cameroun soldiers at gun point yesterday. There concerns he may have been killed today as the Biya regime

with about 176 shares on the entitled "Look Here please.." [24]. He wrote.

struggles to conceal the story behind the Ngarbuh attacks. There is a commanding demand for the UN to give it's witnesses protection unless they want to discourage everyone from telling the truth. "The intimidation of villagers and eyes witnesses of the Ngarbuh massacre is scary and many of the victims are on the run to Nigeria with their families" reported an insider on thr line to

According to [28] UN SG Antonio Gutteres through spokesman reacts to the Ngarbuh Massacre. The Secretary-General is deeply concerned over reports about the killing of civilians, including children, in an attack on the village of Ngarbuh in the North-West Region of Cameroon on 14 February. He extends his deepest condolences to the families and calls on the Government of Cameroon to conduct an investigation and to ensure that those responsible are held accountable. The Secretary-General calls on armed actors to refrain from attacks against civilians and to respect international humanitarian and international human rights law. He reiterates the readiness of the United Nations to work with stakeholders towards a political solution to the crisis in the North-West and South-West Regions of

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

that had left Southern Cameroonians in tears world-wide.

**10.4 United Nations secretary general's reaction**

Cameroon through meaningful dialog.

They considered Cameroon an unsaved zone.

**11. Ambazonians' reactions against the United Nations**

The people responses to the killing of Danjuma and the United Nations' Secretary General reaction indicate they did not have to rely on an international community but themselves and it instigated them to take arms and fight the more.

<sup>16</sup> Commonwealth.

<sup>17</sup> Yaounde.

#### *The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

stated that, more than a dozen UN field staff had arrived to Ngarbuh: a farming community, to investigate the massacre of the more than 35 peasant farmers who were mostly children by trained Cameroun soldiers on Valentine's day and that there was an infiltration of LRC's agents in that mission and that some people loyal to the Biya's regime in those communities had been brainwashed and paid to testify that they saw Amba fighters committing those acts. The post noted that those communities were gripped by fear and would say anything henceforth to secure their lives and freedoms. The post concluded that, it was inconsequential and a non-event that nothing should be expected out of it and that the Southern Cameroons civil society consortium had called for an independent thorough investigation into these killings that had left Southern Cameroonians in tears world-wide.

The following were the reactions: "What are we doing with an investigation? Total Retaliatory plan is what we needs….. take out the traitors. Simple", "UN has first hand information my bro. They don't work on propaganda, so there are under agents", "If you were tagging the UN and US congress members that would have reached power eyes and ears", "My brother was shot at Ichim on the 14th Feburary by amba and he died in hospital with reason that he voted, meanwhile he did not vote. What have you got to say about this?", "wickedness in the both camp's."

On the 25th February Aaron Yancho Kaah sent another post which went viral with about 176 shares on the entitled "Look Here please.." [24]. He wrote.

Information reaching us this morning confirms that Danjuma popularly known as DJ the good Samaritan who helped the UN and Human Right Watch to access vital pieces of information about the Ngarbuh Massacre is under going severe torture and assault after been kidnapped by cameroun soldiers at gun point yesterday. There concerns he may have been killed today as the Biya regime struggles to conceal the story behind the Ngarbuh attacks. There is a commanding demand for the UN to give it's witnesses protection unless they want to discourage everyone from telling the truth. "The intimidation of villagers and eyes witnesses of the Ngarbuh massacre is scary and many of the victims are on the run to Nigeria with their families" reported an insider on thr line to Donga today.

#### **10.4 United Nations secretary general's reaction**

According to [28] UN SG Antonio Gutteres through spokesman reacts to the Ngarbuh Massacre. The Secretary-General is deeply concerned over reports about the killing of civilians, including children, in an attack on the village of Ngarbuh in the North-West Region of Cameroon on 14 February. He extends his deepest condolences to the families and calls on the Government of Cameroon to conduct an investigation and to ensure that those responsible are held accountable. The Secretary-General calls on armed actors to refrain from attacks against civilians and to respect international humanitarian and international human rights law. He reiterates the readiness of the United Nations to work with stakeholders towards a political solution to the crisis in the North-West and South-West Regions of Cameroon through meaningful dialog.

#### **11. Ambazonians' reactions against the United Nations**

The people responses to the killing of Danjuma and the United Nations' Secretary General reaction indicate they did not have to rely on an international community but themselves and it instigated them to take arms and fight the more. They considered Cameroon an unsaved zone.

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

in order to please colonial powers.

"Namibia….. Oh oh Namibia… Namibia… Your woe is our woe…".

never allowed us rest with one song with opening lines..

almighty is with you", "Good one comrade", "Good strategy".

**10.2 Commonwealth secretary-general's reaction**

time and tell them what they thought about them. They had to hold them responsible for the genocide in the Southern Cameroons. Ambazonians had to ask them to DISMISS Cameroon from the Commonwealth for failing to respect the values and principles of the organization or those countries themselves should leave the Commonwealth. He gave them the numbers of the various embassies for them to talk with their ambassadors to let them know that they had failed African children

This post was widely shared and it received some of the comments below: "We have to be very serious here because UK is the heartbeat and focal point in this our case of Southern Cameroons due to their colonial role. More pressure should be mounted on them to stand up at once", "Oh my God! Can u imagine Namibia ignoring us when I can remember way back in the primary school, our class six madame

"If we make like this it will be as if we are begging them let us arm our RFS and see how the professional military will beg us", "Great job bro and thanks for the sharing", "Only God will do what no man can do. Ambazonian be strong for the

Gina Informs shared the Commonwealth Secretary-General Patricia Scotland's reaction after the Ngarbuh Maasacre [26]: "I strongly condemn the recent killings of civilians, including women and children in the North-West of Cameroon on 14 February 2020. We noted the Government announcement that there would be a full investigation into the incident. We encourage the Government to conduct an impartial investigation, for perpetrators to be held accountable and for results to be made public. The Commonwealth strongly condemns all forms of violence, and in particular, the loss of lives of innocent civilians including women and children. Cameroon is a noted member of the Human Rights Council and as such we are minded of General Comment 13 to the Convention on the Rights of the Child to freedom from all forms of violence which is underscored by the understanding that no violence against children is justifiable, all violence against children is

Southern Cameroonians blamed her for not helping them enough and that she had collected a gift from the Government in order to be quiet and labeled her as a noise-maker and a pretender: "When this Scotland or Poland Woman came to Cameroon, what did she say and collect? After corruption sealed your lips, you can now blow grammar from that end. God is watching", "After receiving a Golden statue she is acting up. Corruption knows no shame. She should be ashamed", "All this useless noise makers. Are they not fueling people with hate instead?", "If she was serious she would have suspended Cameroon from the CW16 long ago but she enjoys the statues she gets from yde,17" "man tell that lady to shut up. She should

On the 16th February, Aaron Yancho Kaah sent a post entitled: Ngarbuh massacre. 'The UN visit to this village is a Non-event' cries an insider. [27] The post

**212**

preventable."

stop playing holy."

<sup>16</sup> Commonwealth. <sup>17</sup> Yaounde.

**10.3 The United Nations**

"Terrible", "This is sad. More reason why UN must take serious measures.", "Why did the UN allow him unsaved???????", "God safe him from these wicked people", "Hi Camemeroon Na Danger Zone", "Wondering where this world is heading to", "Oh JESUS", "Truth always surface (LRC will never succeed in Jesus name Amen)", "They should share this and even to that UN office to let them know what's happening after they left", "Where is the UN. Why is the UN afraid of Biya?"

They considered the UN SG as being evil, a nincompoop, and being unfair in their decision because according to the commentators, a person who has committed a crime cannot investigate himself. They called on him to leave a legacy by thinking of his being a father too to children like those massacred at Ngarbuh. His non-action was considered as a disgrace.

"Look at his face! Traces of evil all around it", "You ask the person who burnt houses for bi firefighter and again at the same time arson investigator. Wandas", "Tell him I said that he is a nincompoop ", "Mr S/G what legacy will you keep behind after your turn of office is over? Sir you are a disgrace to mankind and to father-hood", "I wonder who he is sending condolences to….; Is he speaking with dead people?" "If I understand well, the UN is insinuating that arm groups are attacking civilians and may have committed the crime. All anglophones have been sold into slavery by the UN", "I see to refrain attacks against civilians and do what? Continue killing themselves? Why are these people this wicked?", "I wander who brought this man as secretary general at the UNITED Nations. I know America regret this very man",

They considered the United Nation as being powerless comparing it to a toothless bull dog and that actions were better than comments. Since he could not use his office to right the wrongs committed during independence, they then consider him as a noise-maker. They considered him as someone prone to corruption than justice and also as the worst UN SG ever. Guterres was considered as a criminal, an accomplice and a collaborator to dictators and repressive governments. They are labeled as blood-suckers who were happy when people are killed. They show their hatred to the UN because according to them, it is a useless organization.

"Toothless bull dog" you are the father of all nations, when your children are bloodily fighting, you look for means to forcefully call them to order and for negotiation, you do not sit in your comfortable chair and said u're ready to welcome the protagonists", "Mr.S/G! You need to act. The time has come for ur organisation to act. no more time for comments and condemnations. Or are waiting to see all of Southern Cameroonians in graves before u wld know things are not getting better over here.", "Two sides Cutlass condolences, and to think that this folk can use the office given him to solve the errors of the UN, in the 60s make me sick", "Nonsense noise-maker. We need actions and not your usual noise Mr. SG", "It is now very clear to us that ever the UN have been both over with money what shame. But we will never so render because you will killed time to last man standing", "Antonio Guteres the worst UN Secretary General ever. You are waiting for a full blown war before you act? Shameless!",

"Forget about them, all of them are blood suckers AU, UN and what so ever, these are occultic groups, when innocent babes are killed, they are happy, how can you be asking the perpetrators to investigate, what is he investigating, the government profession…", "Time to dissolve this Divided Nations bullshit. It's sickening, how eat and fart doing nothing. Is LRC and Southern Cameroon such a complicated equation to solve? Put this case in court for God's sake!", "Empty man who only have increased on his own organization while many are dying, is it today that they see our people dying in their numbers", "What in any of those lines is new?", "Is it calling on the government to investigate or respect human rights?, "Useless organization. Let them keep asking Cameroon Government to investigate untill every one is killed. Toothless bull. I hate UN. Useless organization",

**215**

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon…*

They considered the UN SG evil because he was trying to cover up the situation in the Southern Cameroons because according to them, President Paul Biya was not

"The UN is a useless organization. A toothless bulldog. It should be dissolved. Its serves no purposes", "Same useless song", "Pls ask dem to stay quite, we dis generation demands action or dere should stay quite forever.!!!", "The same language every day, "Which Dialogue again?, How many times will the UN claim innocence that they never know Biya can never be sincere about q meaningful political settlement or are they buying time enough to enable the entire anglophones be destroyed?, "He and his UN are always and ever concern about worsening situations around the world. Rubbish", "Cameroon is one and indivisible no one have a right on this fighting", "Clowns!", "Anthem", "Bullshit", "Nonsense," "Shame", "Talk is cheap!", "Papa get out", "Politics dirtiest Game ever", "Fuck them all. They keep on talking but can't do anything. Demonic organization, "See face,", "Cowards UN they are not even brave enough to come to southern Cameroon", "Toothless bulldogs, fuck", "Hypocrites",

Nelborg Steve on a post entitle:, DEVELOPING NEWS initiatially posted by Jenifer DK, indicated that the UN had called for an independent international investigation into the Ngarbuh massacre including: Ofen-Tiben massacre., Menka-Pinyin massacre, Bakweri town massacre., Buea Town massacre, Muyuka massacre., Ekona massacre., Munyenge massacre, Kwa-Kwa massacre, Wum massacre, Weh massacre, Esu massacre, The killing of baby Martha, The beheading of Sam Soya, the burning

Southern Cameroonians appreciated the move by saying: it was "Spirit-lifting", "The sleeping UN is gradually getting up from sleep", 'And Florence Ayafor's case, I was shocked to see that Video from a Catalonian activist page", "Let the investigation only be done thoroughly. Other killings be done for it's a genocidal act", "Good news", "Why have they not included this imam that they used and failed to protect", "Excellent! But what about the Guzang Massacre, the beheading of Ayafor Florence, the Krugwe Massacre? Ok ooh", "Better late than never", "GOOD NEWS", "just the beginning", "Matters arising from the minutes. Slowly but surely the world is

When the military burnt houses, rape women, massacre people as they did in Ngarbuh, the government labeled them as professional and disciplined soldiers while the separatists who defended themselves against the outslaught of the soldiers are considered terrorists. On the other hand, the separatist also labeled the military as terrorists. Who then is a terrorist? In the perspective of the government which is struggling to maintain the territorial integrity of the country, it is the separatists

Therefore, the labelling theory is very applicable in this work. It is an attempt to explain deviance as a social process by which some people who commit deviant acts come to be known as deviants and the others do not. Deviance is seen as a consequence of society's decision to apply that term to a person. Therefore, deviant behavior is what a decision labels as deviant. The critical point here is not the behavior itself but why the behavior was labeled as deviant. Not all who engage in deviant

who are trying to cut off themselves from La Republique Cameroon.

activities are labeled deviant but some are [29].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

**12. The United Nations call for investigation**

going to investigate the massacre.

of mami Appih.

awakening from the stupor."

**13. Theoretical implication**

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

They considered the UN SG evil because he was trying to cover up the situation in the Southern Cameroons because according to them, President Paul Biya was not going to investigate the massacre.

"The UN is a useless organization. A toothless bulldog. It should be dissolved. Its serves no purposes", "Same useless song", "Pls ask dem to stay quite, we dis generation demands action or dere should stay quite forever.!!!", "The same language every day, "Which Dialogue again?, How many times will the UN claim innocence that they never know Biya can never be sincere about q meaningful political settlement or are they buying time enough to enable the entire anglophones be destroyed?, "He and his UN are always and ever concern about worsening situations around the world. Rubbish", "Cameroon is one and indivisible no one have a right on this fighting", "Clowns!", "Anthem", "Bullshit", "Nonsense," "Shame", "Talk is cheap!", "Papa get out", "Politics dirtiest Game ever", "Fuck them all. They keep on talking but can't do anything. Demonic organization, "See face,", "Cowards UN they are not even brave enough to come to southern Cameroon", "Toothless bulldogs, fuck", "Hypocrites",

#### **12. The United Nations call for investigation**

Nelborg Steve on a post entitle:, DEVELOPING NEWS initiatially posted by Jenifer DK, indicated that the UN had called for an independent international investigation into the Ngarbuh massacre including: Ofen-Tiben massacre., Menka-Pinyin massacre, Bakweri town massacre., Buea Town massacre, Muyuka massacre., Ekona massacre., Munyenge massacre, Kwa-Kwa massacre, Wum massacre, Weh massacre, Esu massacre, The killing of baby Martha, The beheading of Sam Soya, the burning of mami Appih.

Southern Cameroonians appreciated the move by saying: it was "Spirit-lifting", "The sleeping UN is gradually getting up from sleep", 'And Florence Ayafor's case, I was shocked to see that Video from a Catalonian activist page", "Let the investigation only be done thoroughly. Other killings be done for it's a genocidal act", "Good news", "Why have they not included this imam that they used and failed to protect", "Excellent! But what about the Guzang Massacre, the beheading of Ayafor Florence, the Krugwe Massacre? Ok ooh", "Better late than never", "GOOD NEWS", "just the beginning", "Matters arising from the minutes. Slowly but surely the world is awakening from the stupor."

#### **13. Theoretical implication**

When the military burnt houses, rape women, massacre people as they did in Ngarbuh, the government labeled them as professional and disciplined soldiers while the separatists who defended themselves against the outslaught of the soldiers are considered terrorists. On the other hand, the separatist also labeled the military as terrorists. Who then is a terrorist? In the perspective of the government which is struggling to maintain the territorial integrity of the country, it is the separatists who are trying to cut off themselves from La Republique Cameroon.

Therefore, the labelling theory is very applicable in this work. It is an attempt to explain deviance as a social process by which some people who commit deviant acts come to be known as deviants and the others do not. Deviance is seen as a consequence of society's decision to apply that term to a person. Therefore, deviant behavior is what a decision labels as deviant. The critical point here is not the behavior itself but why the behavior was labeled as deviant. Not all who engage in deviant activities are labeled deviant but some are [29].

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

was considered as a disgrace.

regret this very man",

"Terrible", "This is sad. More reason why UN must take serious measures.", "Why did the UN allow him unsaved???????", "God safe him from these wicked people", "Hi Camemeroon Na Danger Zone", "Wondering where this world is heading to", "Oh JESUS", "Truth always surface (LRC will never succeed in Jesus name Amen)", "They should share this and even to that UN office to let them know what's happening after they left", "Where is the UN. Why is the UN afraid of Biya?" They considered the UN SG as being evil, a nincompoop, and being unfair in their decision because according to the commentators, a person who has committed a crime cannot investigate himself. They called on him to leave a legacy by thinking of his being a father too to children like those massacred at Ngarbuh. His non-action

"Look at his face! Traces of evil all around it", "You ask the person who burnt houses for bi firefighter and again at the same time arson investigator. Wandas", "Tell him I said that he is a nincompoop ", "Mr S/G what legacy will you keep behind after your turn of office is over? Sir you are a disgrace to mankind and to father-hood", "I wonder who he is sending condolences to….; Is he speaking with dead people?" "If I understand well, the UN is insinuating that arm groups are attacking civilians and may have committed the crime. All anglophones have been sold into slavery by the UN", "I see to refrain attacks against civilians and do what? Continue killing themselves? Why are these people this wicked?", "I wander who brought this man as secretary general at the UNITED Nations. I know America

They considered the United Nation as being powerless comparing it to a toothless bull dog and that actions were better than comments. Since he could not use his office to right the wrongs committed during independence, they then consider him as a noise-maker. They considered him as someone prone to corruption than justice and also as the worst UN SG ever. Guterres was considered as a criminal, an accomplice and a collaborator to dictators and repressive governments. They are labeled as blood-suckers who were happy when people are killed. They show their hatred to

"Toothless bull dog" you are the father of all nations, when your children are bloodily fighting, you look for means to forcefully call them to order and for negotiation, you do not sit in your comfortable chair and said u're ready to welcome the protagonists", "Mr.S/G! You need to act. The time has come for ur organisation to act. no more time for comments and condemnations. Or are waiting to see all of Southern Cameroonians in graves before u wld know things are not getting better over here.", "Two sides Cutlass condolences, and to think that this folk can use the office given him to solve the errors of the UN, in the 60s make me sick", "Nonsense noise-maker. We need actions and not your usual noise Mr. SG", "It is now very clear to us that ever the UN have been both over with money what shame. But we will never so render because you will killed time to last man standing", "Antonio Guteres the worst UN Secretary General ever. You are waiting for a full blown war before you act? Shameless!", "Forget about them, all of them are blood suckers AU, UN and what so ever, these are occultic groups, when innocent babes are killed, they are happy, how can you be asking the perpetrators to investigate, what is he investigating, the government profession…", "Time to dissolve this Divided Nations bullshit. It's sickening, how eat and fart doing nothing. Is LRC and Southern Cameroon such a complicated equation to solve? Put this case in court for God's sake!", "Empty man who only have increased on his own organization while many are dying, is it today that they see our people dying in their numbers", "What in any of those lines is new?", "Is it calling on the government to investigate or respect human rights?, "Useless organization. Let them keep asking Cameroon Government to investigate untill every one is killed.

the UN because according to them, it is a useless organization.

Toothless bull. I hate UN. Useless organization",

**214**

Patrick Ekema who fought against the separatist movement was given a medal for patriotism wheras the separatists considered him as him as their worst enemy. He did the worst of thing sealing business people's shop and was even accused of murder. All senior government workers are labeled by Southern Cameroon separatists as enablers because they did all they could to disrupt the revolution by cooperating with the government. They are labeled as good people by the government not because what they do is good but that their actions help the government to maintain territorial intergrity. They are very insensitive to the cries of their people, they do not denounce the military atrocities but instead help the military to fight against their people. Therefore, the people labeled them as devils, terrorists, vampires, as people suffering from mental problem etc.

They labeled the United Nation as powerless comparing it to a toothless bull dog, a noise-maker, criminal, an accomplice and a collaborator to dictators and repressive governments, blood-suckers who were happy when people are killed, a useless organization because of its inability to take action and to listen to them.

#### **14. Conclusions**

The rise and spread of new ICTs has transformed the way that society is organized, which of course include social movements. As a result, satirical material, fake news which are Internet-based publications purporting to be genuine news sources which propagate inaccurate stories based on rumor or blatant untruths have come to stay. This is enshrined in the post-truth politics which refers to a political culture wherein debate is more emotional and contrary ideas are hardly welcomed. The most popular fake news stories during the Ambazonian crisis have been shared more widely than the most popular mainstream media reports and it provoked a lot of reactions.

No Facebook posts received as many comments as the one which carried the reaction of the minister of communication in which he styled the military as professionals and the separatist fighters as terrorists. Ambazonians knew the truth which other Cameroonians did not know. After the killings and burning of houses, the separatist fighters buried the dead. The more the truth is hidden, the more the wound widen, the more tension increases, the more trust is destroyed and the more the war will prolong and which may probably end up widening the divide between the two peoples. Martial solutions only help to radicalize the population and encourage them to defy state institutions.

Their comments were a call for rebellion because the state considered everyone of them as Amba so they had to carry gun and fight. They wondered how the government could refuse to acknowledge such genocidal acts and were determined to pick up arms against the government and to force the Francophone out of their land. The people question the trust of the government and the government thinks it can only regain it through intimidation. They felt helpless in front of international organization.

In reactions to the post on Facebook, the Ambazonian people poured frightful curses on government officials and wish they mysteriously died. They labeled them as wizards and wished them mad and they thought they were demon possessed. They mocked them by saying it happened in Mali. They think that they will be consumed by their own evils. The comments also exposed the wickedness and inhumanity of the government and the Francophone community, labelling them as devils and terrorists, and vampires as people suffering from mental problem.

Another aspect of the comments dwelled on divine reliance or intervention, truth and divine justice. They thought the government supported the military and

**217**

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon…*

promoted them to fight against them. That is why they relied on divine intervention They reminded them that God exists and He is awake and protects those who fights for the truth and He will punish those who murder the innocent people. They were certain that God will exhaust their prayer and a time would arrive when those killing them will be unable to continue doing so. Not only did they wish them deadly diseases but that God would punish them from one generation to another. They ask

They were optimistic considering the present as temporal which means that they were going to be triumphant because according to them God is on the throne and He is a God of justice and would disgrace the wicked they believed. They invited their brothers in Ngarbuh to wait on the Lord because evil has never prevailed and God is for the helpless. Therefore their messages gave solace to those who were affected. They also showed that the state had failed in its duty to protect the population. It was quite perplexing for them to understand why an army should kill instead of protecting the population, why those who criticized the army are tracked and punished. They concluded that the army was there to satisfy the government and their creator and not the population and God. One also clearly sees the feeling of impartiality in their write-ups: A situation where conclusions are drawn without full knowledge of the situation, a situation in which a third party is lacking: They made a mockery of the system and the use of military force for survival and said it was a system without trust and were kept in

They considered the UN SG as being evil, a nincompoop, and being unfair in their decision because according to the commentators, a person who has committed a crime cannot investigate himself. They called on him to leave a legacy by thinking of his being a father too to children like those massacred at Ngarbuh. His non-action

They considered the United Nation as being powerless comparing it to a toothless bull dog and that actions were better than comments. Since he could not use his office to right the wrongs committed during independence, they then consider him as a noise-maker. They considered him as someone prone to corruption than justice and also as the worst UN SG ever. According to them, he was a criminal, an accomplice and a collaborator to dictators and repressive governments. They are labeled as blood-suckers who were happy when people are killed. They show their hatred to

Therefore Internet-based news is people-friendly because it helps them to

express their feeling which is in cossonance with the post-truth politics.

the UN because according to them, it is a useless organization.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

on God to protect them.

power by the military.

was considered as a disgrace.

#### *The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

promoted them to fight against them. That is why they relied on divine intervention They reminded them that God exists and He is awake and protects those who fights for the truth and He will punish those who murder the innocent people. They were certain that God will exhaust their prayer and a time would arrive when those killing them will be unable to continue doing so. Not only did they wish them deadly diseases but that God would punish them from one generation to another. They ask on God to protect them.

They were optimistic considering the present as temporal which means that they were going to be triumphant because according to them God is on the throne and He is a God of justice and would disgrace the wicked they believed. They invited their brothers in Ngarbuh to wait on the Lord because evil has never prevailed and God is for the helpless. Therefore their messages gave solace to those who were affected. They also showed that the state had failed in its duty to protect the population. It was quite perplexing for them to understand why an army should kill instead of protecting the population, why those who criticized the army are tracked and punished. They concluded that the army was there to satisfy the government and their creator and not the population and God. One also clearly sees the feeling of impartiality in their write-ups: A situation where conclusions are drawn without full knowledge of the situation, a situation in which a third party is lacking: They made a mockery of the system and the use of military force for survival and said it was a system without trust and were kept in power by the military.

They considered the UN SG as being evil, a nincompoop, and being unfair in their decision because according to the commentators, a person who has committed a crime cannot investigate himself. They called on him to leave a legacy by thinking of his being a father too to children like those massacred at Ngarbuh. His non-action was considered as a disgrace.

They considered the United Nation as being powerless comparing it to a toothless bull dog and that actions were better than comments. Since he could not use his office to right the wrongs committed during independence, they then consider him as a noise-maker. They considered him as someone prone to corruption than justice and also as the worst UN SG ever. According to them, he was a criminal, an accomplice and a collaborator to dictators and repressive governments. They are labeled as blood-suckers who were happy when people are killed. They show their hatred to the UN because according to them, it is a useless organization.

Therefore Internet-based news is people-friendly because it helps them to express their feeling which is in cossonance with the post-truth politics.

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

people suffering from mental problem etc.

encourage them to defy state institutions.

**14. Conclusions**

of reactions.

organization.

Patrick Ekema who fought against the separatist movement was given a medal for patriotism wheras the separatists considered him as him as their worst enemy. He did the worst of thing sealing business people's shop and was even accused of murder. All senior government workers are labeled by Southern Cameroon separatists as enablers because they did all they could to disrupt the revolution by cooperating with the government. They are labeled as good people by the government not because what they do is good but that their actions help the government to maintain territorial intergrity. They are very insensitive to the cries of their people, they do not denounce the military atrocities but instead help the military to fight against their people. Therefore, the people labeled them as devils, terrorists, vampires, as

They labeled the United Nation as powerless comparing it to a toothless bull dog, a noise-maker, criminal, an accomplice and a collaborator to dictators and repressive governments, blood-suckers who were happy when people are killed, a useless

The rise and spread of new ICTs has transformed the way that society is organized, which of course include social movements. As a result, satirical material, fake news which are Internet-based publications purporting to be genuine news sources which propagate inaccurate stories based on rumor or blatant untruths have come to stay. This is enshrined in the post-truth politics which refers to a political culture wherein debate is more emotional and contrary ideas are hardly welcomed. The most popular fake news stories during the Ambazonian crisis have been shared more widely than the most popular mainstream media reports and it provoked a lot

No Facebook posts received as many comments as the one which carried the reaction of the minister of communication in which he styled the military as professionals and the separatist fighters as terrorists. Ambazonians knew the truth which other Cameroonians did not know. After the killings and burning of houses, the separatist fighters buried the dead. The more the truth is hidden, the more the wound widen, the more tension increases, the more trust is destroyed and the more the war will prolong and which may probably end up widening the divide between the two peoples. Martial solutions only help to radicalize the population and

Their comments were a call for rebellion because the state considered everyone

In reactions to the post on Facebook, the Ambazonian people poured frightful curses on government officials and wish they mysteriously died. They labeled them as wizards and wished them mad and they thought they were demon possessed. They mocked them by saying it happened in Mali. They think that they will be consumed by their own evils. The comments also exposed the wickedness and inhumanity of the government and the Francophone community, labelling them as devils and terrorists, and vampires as people suffering from mental problem. Another aspect of the comments dwelled on divine reliance or intervention, truth and divine justice. They thought the government supported the military and

of them as Amba so they had to carry gun and fight. They wondered how the government could refuse to acknowledge such genocidal acts and were determined to pick up arms against the government and to force the Francophone out of their land. The people question the trust of the government and the government thinks it can only regain it through intimidation. They felt helpless in front of international

organization because of its inability to take action and to listen to them.

**216**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

#### **Author details**

Nanche Billa Robert

Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Social Sciences for Development, Faculty of Arts, Letters and Social Sciences, University of Maroua, Cameroon

\*Address all correspondence to: nanchefile@yahoo.co.uk

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**219**

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon…*

Analysis Conference, Valencia Wilson, R.E., Gosling, S.D., and Graham, L.T. (2012) 'A review of Facebook research in the social sciences.

Perspectives on Psychological Science.

Perspectives on Psychological Science.

[11] Atlantic Chronicles (16th February) https://web.facebook.com/acnewsline/

[9] Misha G. States embark on a scramble for cyberspace. Financial Times. 2010 available at https://www. ft.com/content/05be0df8-3205-11df-

[10] Wilson RE, Gosling SD, Graham LT. A review of Facebook research in the social sciences.

2015;**7**(3):203-220

a8d1-00144feabdc0

2012;**7**(3):203-220

posts/498570354085713

posts/10216593600533943

[13] Konfor Confort https:// web.facebook.com/permalink. php?story\_fbid=2591366207854019

allegations-against-military/

[14] CRTV (19th February 2020) NW/ SW: Minister of Communication Refutes allegations against military. http://www.crtv.cm/2020/02/nw-swminister-of-communication-refutes-

[15] Mimi Info, (19th February 2020) NW Ngarbuh Massacre: Government Praises Military, Encourages More Raids. https://mimimefoinfos.com/ ngarbuh-massacre-government-praisesmilitary-encourages-more-raids/

[16] Human Rights Report (25th

February 2020): Cameroun: Massacre de

&id=100009419968478

[12] Aaron Yancho Kaah (April 29) Unbelievable! This is part of the unseen and unheard images on the Ngarbuh massacre. https:// web.facebook.com/nanche.robert/

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

[1] Journaldu Cameroun. Cameroon: Sentencing Ambazonia leaders will harden separatists stance, Agbor Balla's CHARDA Says: Retrieved on 8th June, 2020. https://www. journalducameroun.com/en/ cameroon-sentencing-ambazonialeaders-will-harden-separatist-stance-

[2] Nanche R. Uprising and Human Rights Abuses in Southern Cameroon-Ambazonia [Online First], IntechOpen,

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.91053. 2020. Available from: https://www. intechopen.com/online-first/uprisingand-human-rights-abuses-in-southern-

Societies: Social Movements and Globalisation – How Protests,

the World. New York: Palgrave

[4] Normoyle A., Social Media Importance: 5 Reasons Your Brand Needs to Embrace It (2019)available at https://www.business2community.com/ social-media/social-media-importance-5-reasons-your-brand-needs-toembraceit02245735#:~:text=Social%20 media%20is%20important%20 because,with%20that%20

audience%20more%20appropriately

[5] Bandurski D. Garden of Falsehood. Index on Censorship. 2008;**37**(2):45-54

[7] Mattoni, A. (2012) Media Practices and Protest Politics, Burlington: Ashgate

[8] Herring S. The co-evolution of computer mediated discourse analysis and CMC', paper presented at the Approaches to Digital Discourse

[6] Salmond, M. 'The Power of Momentary Communities', Aether

90-100; 2010

[3] Christina F. Sociology for Globalising

Occupations and Uprising Are Changing

agbor-ballas-chrda-says/

cameroon-ambazonia

Macmillan; 2014

**References**

*The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide in the Southern Cameroon… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94458*

#### **References**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Social Sciences for Development, Faculty of Arts, Letters and Social Sciences, University of Maroua, Cameroon

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: nanchefile@yahoo.co.uk

provided the original work is properly cited.

**218**

**Author details**

Nanche Billa Robert

[1] Journaldu Cameroun. Cameroon: Sentencing Ambazonia leaders will harden separatists stance, Agbor Balla's CHARDA Says: Retrieved on 8th June, 2020. https://www. journalducameroun.com/en/ cameroon-sentencing-ambazonialeaders-will-harden-separatist-stanceagbor-ballas-chrda-says/

[2] Nanche R. Uprising and Human Rights Abuses in Southern Cameroon-Ambazonia [Online First], IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.91053. 2020. Available from: https://www. intechopen.com/online-first/uprisingand-human-rights-abuses-in-southerncameroon-ambazonia

[3] Christina F. Sociology for Globalising Societies: Social Movements and Globalisation – How Protests, Occupations and Uprising Are Changing the World. New York: Palgrave Macmillan; 2014

[4] Normoyle A., Social Media Importance: 5 Reasons Your Brand Needs to Embrace It (2019)available at https://www.business2community.com/ social-media/social-media-importance-5-reasons-your-brand-needs-toembraceit02245735#:~:text=Social%20 media%20is%20important%20 because,with%20that%20 audience%20more%20appropriately

[5] Bandurski D. Garden of Falsehood. Index on Censorship. 2008;**37**(2):45-54

[6] Salmond, M. 'The Power of Momentary Communities', Aether 90-100; 2010

[7] Mattoni, A. (2012) Media Practices and Protest Politics, Burlington: Ashgate

[8] Herring S. The co-evolution of computer mediated discourse analysis and CMC', paper presented at the Approaches to Digital Discourse

Analysis Conference, Valencia Wilson, R.E., Gosling, S.D., and Graham, L.T. (2012) 'A review of Facebook research in the social sciences. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2015;**7**(3):203-220

[9] Misha G. States embark on a scramble for cyberspace. Financial Times. 2010 available at https://www. ft.com/content/05be0df8-3205-11dfa8d1-00144feabdc0

[10] Wilson RE, Gosling SD, Graham LT. A review of Facebook research in the social sciences. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2012;**7**(3):203-220

[11] Atlantic Chronicles (16th February) https://web.facebook.com/acnewsline/ posts/498570354085713

[12] Aaron Yancho Kaah (April 29) Unbelievable! This is part of the unseen and unheard images on the Ngarbuh massacre. https:// web.facebook.com/nanche.robert/ posts/10216593600533943

[13] Konfor Confort https:// web.facebook.com/permalink. php?story\_fbid=2591366207854019 &id=100009419968478

[14] CRTV (19th February 2020) NW/ SW: Minister of Communication Refutes allegations against military. http://www.crtv.cm/2020/02/nw-swminister-of-communication-refutesallegations-against-military/

[15] Mimi Info, (19th February 2020) NW Ngarbuh Massacre: Government Praises Military, Encourages More Raids. https://mimimefoinfos.com/ ngarbuh-massacre-government-praisesmilitary-encourages-more-raids/

[16] Human Rights Report (25th February 2020): Cameroun: Massacre de Civils dans la région séparatiste, https:// www.hrw.org/fr/news/2020/02/25/ cameroun-massacre-de-civils-dans-laregion-separatiste

[17] JournalduCameroun.COM (April 22) https://www.journalducameroun. com/massacre-de-ngarbuh-quandatanga-nji-accusait-equinoxe-tv-le-jourde-comploter-contre-le-cameroun/

[18] JournalduCameroun, (28 February, 2020) Cameroon: Gov"t hits out at Human Rights Watch Over Ngarbuh Killings available at https://www. journalducameroun.com/en/cameroongovt-hits-out-at-human-rights-watchover-ngarbuh-killings/

[19] Mimi Mefo Info (25th February 2020): https://web. facebook.com/MimiMefoInfo/ posts/2993055000739057

[20] Mwalimu McMua Kum Paul April 22 YAOUNDE REGIME ADMITS NGARBUH MASSACRE https:// web.facebook.com/nanche.robert/ posts/10215849155243276

[21] Aaron Yancho Kaah (19th February 2020) https://web. facebook.com/aaronyancho.kaah/ posts/504181560527143

[22] Aaron Yancho Kaah, Kumbo diocese mourns the victims of the Ngarbuh massacre today https://web. facebook.com/aaronyancho.kaah/ posts/507539100191389

[23] TownCryer Mehmood https:// web.facebook.com/permalink. php?story\_fbid=2591366207854019 &id=100009419968478

[24] Aaron Yancho Kaah 25th February, "Look Here please..". https://web. facebook.com/search/top?q=aaron%20 yancho%20kaah%20danjuma%20un

[25] Nellborg Steve (3 March 2020) Ambazonians in the UK: We must

not sleep. https://web.facebook.com/ akop.s.agbor/posts/10220198164557351

[26] Gina Informs shared The Commonwealth Secretary-General Patricia Scotland's reaction after the #NgarbuhMassacre available at https://thecnews/secretary-generalstatement-ommonwealth.org/media/ cameroon-deaths

[27] Aaron Yancho Kaah (16th February), Ngarbuh massacre. 'The UN visit to this village is a Non event' cries an insider. https://web. facebook.com/aaronyancho.kaah/ posts/507539100191389

[28] Gina Informs, https://web. facebook.com/ginainforms.17/ posts/2935773319778099@ ginainforms.17

[29] Reid, T. Crime and Criminology 9th Edition; Mcgraw Hill:Boston.

**221**

**Chapter 12**

South Africa

*Emeka Umejei*

reprisal attacks, tensions

**1. Introduction**

**Abstract**

Framing Xenophobia on Social

Attacks on Nigerians Living in

Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic

This study examines mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa in 2017 and 2019. The study uses narrative theories and netnograhpy involving thematic content analysis and focus group discussions with undergraduate university students, youths and adults across the three dominant regions of Nigeria. The study answers the question: what motivates Nigerians to share mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa on social media? The findings of this study suggest that national solidarity is an overriding motivation for sharing mis-and disinformation about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa on social media.

**Keywords:** Xenophobia, national solidarity, social media, Nigeria, South Africa,

The Nigerian rumour mill is usually on overdrive. It is an industry that is resilient and immune from the vagaries of the Nigerian political and economic climate (Odunfa [1]). The affordances of digital technology have, in no small measure, contributed in weaponizing the Nigerian rumour mill. Now, rumours, misinformation, disinformation and half-truths travel at the speed of light and reach a wider audience. This is the case of xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa in 2017 and 2019 in which rumours, mis-and disinformation resulted in reprisal attacks on South African businesses in Nigeria. A typical example of how the Nigerian rumour mill works is the story of a Nigerian, who was among those that attacked South African-owned Shoprite at The Palms Mall in Lagos, Nigeria. When the young man was asked why he joined others to attack Shoprite and other South African businesses in Nigeria, he responded that xenophobia, a Nigerian living in South Africa had been killed by South Africans. Hence, attacking South African businesses was the only way he could get even with the death of xenophobia in South Africa. Even though this story has not been verified, it goes to show the potency of mis-and disinformation and how it could have adverse impact on the government-to-government as well as people-to-people relations between two countries. For instance, mis-and disinformation has been identified as factors

#### **Chapter 12**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

not sleep. https://web.facebook.com/ akop.s.agbor/posts/10220198164557351

[26] Gina Informs shared The Commonwealth Secretary-General Patricia Scotland's reaction after the #NgarbuhMassacre available at https://thecnews/secretary-generalstatement-ommonwealth.org/media/

[27] Aaron Yancho Kaah (16th February), Ngarbuh massacre. 'The UN visit to this village is a Non event' cries an insider. https://web. facebook.com/aaronyancho.kaah/

[28] Gina Informs, https://web. facebook.com/ginainforms.17/ posts/2935773319778099@

Edition; Mcgraw Hill:Boston.

[29] Reid, T. Crime and Criminology 9th

posts/507539100191389

ginainforms.17

cameroon-deaths

Civils dans la région séparatiste, https:// www.hrw.org/fr/news/2020/02/25/ cameroun-massacre-de-civils-dans-la-

[17] JournalduCameroun.COM (April 22) https://www.journalducameroun. com/massacre-de-ngarbuh-quandatanga-nji-accusait-equinoxe-tv-le-jourde-comploter-contre-le-cameroun/

[18] JournalduCameroun, (28 February, 2020) Cameroon: Gov"t hits out at Human Rights Watch Over Ngarbuh Killings available at https://www. journalducameroun.com/en/cameroongovt-hits-out-at-human-rights-watch-

[20] Mwalimu McMua Kum Paul April 22 YAOUNDE REGIME ADMITS NGARBUH MASSACRE https:// web.facebook.com/nanche.robert/

region-separatiste

over-ngarbuh-killings/

[19] Mimi Mefo Info (25th February 2020): https://web. facebook.com/MimiMefoInfo/ posts/2993055000739057

posts/10215849155243276

posts/504181560527143

posts/507539100191389

&id=100009419968478

[21] Aaron Yancho Kaah (19th February 2020) https://web. facebook.com/aaronyancho.kaah/

[22] Aaron Yancho Kaah, Kumbo diocese mourns the victims of the Ngarbuh massacre today https://web. facebook.com/aaronyancho.kaah/

[23] TownCryer Mehmood https:// web.facebook.com/permalink. php?story\_fbid=2591366207854019

[24] Aaron Yancho Kaah 25th February, "Look Here please..". https://web. facebook.com/search/top?q=aaron%20 yancho%20kaah%20danjuma%20un

[25] Nellborg Steve (3 March 2020) Ambazonians in the UK: We must

**220**

## Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living in South Africa

*Emeka Umejei*

### **Abstract**

This study examines mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa in 2017 and 2019. The study uses narrative theories and netnograhpy involving thematic content analysis and focus group discussions with undergraduate university students, youths and adults across the three dominant regions of Nigeria. The study answers the question: what motivates Nigerians to share mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa on social media? The findings of this study suggest that national solidarity is an overriding motivation for sharing mis-and disinformation about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa on social media.

**Keywords:** Xenophobia, national solidarity, social media, Nigeria, South Africa, reprisal attacks, tensions

#### **1. Introduction**

The Nigerian rumour mill is usually on overdrive. It is an industry that is resilient and immune from the vagaries of the Nigerian political and economic climate (Odunfa [1]). The affordances of digital technology have, in no small measure, contributed in weaponizing the Nigerian rumour mill. Now, rumours, misinformation, disinformation and half-truths travel at the speed of light and reach a wider audience. This is the case of xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa in 2017 and 2019 in which rumours, mis-and disinformation resulted in reprisal attacks on South African businesses in Nigeria. A typical example of how the Nigerian rumour mill works is the story of a Nigerian, who was among those that attacked South African-owned Shoprite at The Palms Mall in Lagos, Nigeria. When the young man was asked why he joined others to attack Shoprite and other South African businesses in Nigeria, he responded that xenophobia, a Nigerian living in South Africa had been killed by South Africans. Hence, attacking South African businesses was the only way he could get even with the death of xenophobia in South Africa. Even though this story has not been verified, it goes to show the potency of mis-and disinformation and how it could have adverse impact on the government-to-government as well as people-to-people relations between two countries. For instance, mis-and disinformation has been identified as factors

responsible for reprisals attacks against South African businesses in other African countries (Osuagwu & Elebeke [2]; Somdyala [3]). Chenzi [4], p. 3 explained that "foreign nationals residing in South Africa share content with their relations who reside outside South Africa about their xenophobic experiences." He emphasised that the social media content these foreigners often share about xenophobic violence in South Africa at times, turn out to be misinformation, leading to reprisal attacks [4]. However, there is limited academic investigation into the motivation for sharing mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa on social media. This chapter provides an insight into factor (s) influencing Nigerians to share mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South. The finding has both academic and policy relevance for the literature on mis-and disinformation as well as South Africa-Nigerian relations.

#### **2. Background**

Xenophobia has attracted widespread attention within and without the academic community. The reason is obvious; it is considered an anomaly that foreigners, particularly Africans, would face the magnitude of hatred that Xenophobia spews. The first major xenophobic outbreak in post-1994 South Africa happened on 11 May 2008 and there have several other outbreaks of violence against foreigners in South Africa. While recent incidents may not be of the same magnitude as the incident of 11 May 2008, its recurrence points to a troubling relationship between locals and foreigners. For instance, on 30 May 2013, 25-year-old Abdi Nasir Mahmoud Good, was stoned to death in Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, South Africa. The violence was captured on a mobile phone and shared on the Internet.1 Again, on 7 June 2014, a Somali national was stoned to death and two others were seriously injured when an angry mob of locals attacked their shops in Mamelodi, South Africa. Three more Somalis were wounded by gunshots and their shops were looted.<sup>2</sup> In April 2015, there was an upsurge in xenophobic attacks throughout the country. The attacks started in Durban and spread to Johannesburg. Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini was accused of igniting the attacks with his remarks that foreigners' resident in the country "should go back to their countries."<sup>3</sup> In October 2015 the serene town of Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape recorded an outbreak of xenophobic attacks on foreigners. According to the news report, more than 500 people were displaced and more than 300 shops and homes looted. Muslims were identified as the target of the attacks.4 While South Africa witnessed a modicum of peace after the Grahamstown xenophobia outbreak, it ruptured in February 2017 when another xenophobia outbreak was recorded in Pretoria, South Africa. The incident took a new turn on 24 February 2017 when a large-scale anti-immigration protest suspected to have official approval, according to the Nelson Mandela Foundation, erupted in the capital city of Pretoria.5 The Protesters marched to the Foreign Ministry and handed a petition to government representatives. Protesters accused immigrants of taking jobs from South Africans, causing crime

**223**

protest-pretoria

49% in 2006" [9], p. 3.

africa-190911074310949.html

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living…*

and complained that "they are arrogant and they don't know how to talk to people, especially Nigerians." The February xenophobia outbreak affected many Nigerians resident in Pretoria, who the locals accused of being "arrogant and don't know how

lated in 2019 resulting in the repatriation of more than 600 Nigerians, who were

in Nigeria but it was more fatal in 2019 resulting in the closure of the South African High Commission, South African-owned Telco, MTN, Shoprite and other South

South Africa incited reprisal attacks, it was mis-and disinformation on social media that worsened it and stoked tensions between South Africa and Nigerian relations. Hassan and Hitchen [5], p. 3 show that in Nigeria, disinformation is most effective when it draws on existing narratives and contexts to sharpen existing social divides and aimed at "delegitimising institutions, groups or personalities, glorifying a leader or, during elections, confusing voters, instigating apathy or marginalising

The occurrence of xenophobic violence has become a feature of the lived realities of foreigners who reside in South Africa. Xenophobia has been defined as a hatred for foreigners (Steenkamp [6]; Williams [7]). However, Harris [8], p. 2, contends that Xenophobia extends beyond hatred; rather, it should be redefined to "incorporate practice" because it is not just a "dislike or fear of foreigners but a

The South African Migration Project (SAMP) identified several factors responsible for the outbreak of xenophobic violence. Some of these include isolation, relative deprivation, Nation Building, Public and official discourse, Legislative and policy Frameworks, Human Rights Education, Data and Information, Public and Officials Discourse, Opportunities for Interaction, Going beyond the Debate(s), Peer Education, and Establishing a Network (Crush et al. [9]). For his part, Harris [8] identified three hypotheses responsible for the occurrence of xenophobia in South Africa including the Scapegoating hypothesis; the isolation hypothesis and the biocultural hypothesis. However, the perception of African migrants as the economic threats has been identified as a major causative factor in the occurrence of xenophobic violence [9]. This was highlighted in the SAMP survey of 2006, which noted that attitudes towards foreigners as a national threat to the economic wellbeing of South Africans have hardened. For instance, the survey result showed that "the proportion of South Africans arguing that foreign nationals use up resources grew by 8% from 59% in 1999 to 67% in 2006. Furthermore, the survey also highlighted that migrants are being increasingly associated with crime rising from 45% in 1 1999 to 67% in 2006 as did the idea that migrants bring disease 24% in 1 1999 to

On the other hand, xenophobia does not apply to all categories of foreigners in South Africa. Black Africans bear the brunt of xenophobic violence outbreak in South Africa. Steenkamp [6], p. 442 explains that xenophobia is carried out along

<sup>6</sup> https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/feb/24/south-african-police-use-force-anti-immigration-

<sup>7</sup> https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/nigeria-begins-repatriate-nationals-south-

<sup>8</sup> https://www.voanews.com/africa/nigerians-attack-south-african-businesses-retaliation

violent practice that results in bodily harm and damage" [8].

However, xenophobic attacks on Nigerians in South Africa esca-

Even though the repatriation of Nigerians from

Both incidents resulted in reprisal attacks

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

flown home aboard Nigeria's Air Peace.7

women and other vulnerable groups."

**3. Xenophobia or Afrophobia?**

African businesses in Nigeria.8

to talk to people."<sup>6</sup>

<sup>1</sup> https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/06/2013638213294187.html

<sup>2</sup> http://www.worldbulletin.net/news/138539/two-dead-in-xenophobic-attacks-in-s-africa

<sup>3</sup> https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32372501

<sup>4</sup> https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2015-10-27-where-poverty-meets-xenophobia-grahamstown-a-city-in-crisis/#.WzJ0a9IzbIU

<sup>5</sup> https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/anti-immigration-march-is-march-of-hatrednelson-mandela-foundation-20170224

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

and complained that "they are arrogant and they don't know how to talk to people, especially Nigerians." The February xenophobia outbreak affected many Nigerians resident in Pretoria, who the locals accused of being "arrogant and don't know how to talk to people."<sup>6</sup> However, xenophobic attacks on Nigerians in South Africa escalated in 2019 resulting in the repatriation of more than 600 Nigerians, who were flown home aboard Nigeria's Air Peace.7 Both incidents resulted in reprisal attacks in Nigeria but it was more fatal in 2019 resulting in the closure of the South African High Commission, South African-owned Telco, MTN, Shoprite and other South African businesses in Nigeria.8 Even though the repatriation of Nigerians from South Africa incited reprisal attacks, it was mis-and disinformation on social media that worsened it and stoked tensions between South Africa and Nigerian relations. Hassan and Hitchen [5], p. 3 show that in Nigeria, disinformation is most effective when it draws on existing narratives and contexts to sharpen existing social divides and aimed at "delegitimising institutions, groups or personalities, glorifying a leader or, during elections, confusing voters, instigating apathy or marginalising women and other vulnerable groups."

#### **3. Xenophobia or Afrophobia?**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

Africa-Nigerian relations.

**2. Background**

looted.<sup>2</sup>

identified as the target of the attacks.4

Foundation, erupted in the capital city of Pretoria.5

<sup>3</sup> https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32372501

stown-a-city-in-crisis/#.WzJ0a9IzbIU

nelson-mandela-foundation-20170224

<sup>1</sup> https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/06/2013638213294187.html

responsible for reprisals attacks against South African businesses in other African countries (Osuagwu & Elebeke [2]; Somdyala [3]). Chenzi [4], p. 3 explained that "foreign nationals residing in South Africa share content with their relations who reside outside South Africa about their xenophobic experiences." He emphasised that the social media content these foreigners often share about xenophobic violence in South Africa at times, turn out to be misinformation, leading to reprisal attacks [4]. However, there is limited academic investigation into the motivation for sharing mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa on social media. This chapter provides an insight into factor (s) influencing Nigerians to share mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South. The finding has both academic and policy relevance for the literature on mis-and disinformation as well as South

Xenophobia has attracted widespread attention within and without the academic community. The reason is obvious; it is considered an anomaly that foreigners, particularly Africans, would face the magnitude of hatred that Xenophobia spews. The first major xenophobic outbreak in post-1994 South Africa happened on 11 May 2008 and there have several other outbreaks of violence against foreigners in South Africa. While recent incidents may not be of the same magnitude as the incident of 11 May 2008, its recurrence points to a troubling relationship between locals and foreigners. For instance, on 30 May 2013, 25-year-old Abdi Nasir Mahmoud Good, was stoned to death in Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, South Africa. The violence was captured on a mobile phone and shared on the Internet.1 Again, on 7 June 2014, a Somali national was stoned to death and two others were seriously injured when an angry mob of locals attacked their shops in Mamelodi, South Africa. Three more Somalis were wounded by gunshots and their shops were

In April 2015, there was an upsurge in xenophobic attacks throughout the

In October

While South Africa witnessed a modicum of

The Protesters marched

country. The attacks started in Durban and spread to Johannesburg. Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini was accused of igniting the attacks with his remarks that foreigners' resident in the country "should go back to their countries."<sup>3</sup>

2015 the serene town of Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape recorded an outbreak of xenophobic attacks on foreigners. According to the news report, more than 500 people were displaced and more than 300 shops and homes looted. Muslims were

peace after the Grahamstown xenophobia outbreak, it ruptured in February 2017 when another xenophobia outbreak was recorded in Pretoria, South Africa. The incident took a new turn on 24 February 2017 when a large-scale anti-immigration protest suspected to have official approval, according to the Nelson Mandela

to the Foreign Ministry and handed a petition to government representatives. Protesters accused immigrants of taking jobs from South Africans, causing crime

<sup>4</sup> https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2015-10-27-where-poverty-meets-xenophobia-graham-

<sup>5</sup> https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/anti-immigration-march-is-march-of-hatred-

<sup>2</sup> http://www.worldbulletin.net/news/138539/two-dead-in-xenophobic-attacks-in-s-africa

**222**

The occurrence of xenophobic violence has become a feature of the lived realities of foreigners who reside in South Africa. Xenophobia has been defined as a hatred for foreigners (Steenkamp [6]; Williams [7]). However, Harris [8], p. 2, contends that Xenophobia extends beyond hatred; rather, it should be redefined to "incorporate practice" because it is not just a "dislike or fear of foreigners but a violent practice that results in bodily harm and damage" [8].

The South African Migration Project (SAMP) identified several factors responsible for the outbreak of xenophobic violence. Some of these include isolation, relative deprivation, Nation Building, Public and official discourse, Legislative and policy Frameworks, Human Rights Education, Data and Information, Public and Officials Discourse, Opportunities for Interaction, Going beyond the Debate(s), Peer Education, and Establishing a Network (Crush et al. [9]). For his part, Harris [8] identified three hypotheses responsible for the occurrence of xenophobia in South Africa including the Scapegoating hypothesis; the isolation hypothesis and the biocultural hypothesis. However, the perception of African migrants as the economic threats has been identified as a major causative factor in the occurrence of xenophobic violence [9]. This was highlighted in the SAMP survey of 2006, which noted that attitudes towards foreigners as a national threat to the economic wellbeing of South Africans have hardened. For instance, the survey result showed that "the proportion of South Africans arguing that foreign nationals use up resources grew by 8% from 59% in 1999 to 67% in 2006. Furthermore, the survey also highlighted that migrants are being increasingly associated with crime rising from 45% in 1 1999 to 67% in 2006 as did the idea that migrants bring disease 24% in 1 1999 to 49% in 2006" [9], p. 3.

On the other hand, xenophobia does not apply to all categories of foreigners in South Africa. Black Africans bear the brunt of xenophobic violence outbreak in South Africa. Steenkamp [6], p. 442 explains that xenophobia is carried out along

africa-190911074310949.html

<sup>6</sup> https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/feb/24/south-african-police-use-force-anti-immigrationprotest-pretoria

<sup>7</sup> https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/nigeria-begins-repatriate-nationals-south-

<sup>8</sup> https://www.voanews.com/africa/nigerians-attack-south-african-businesses-retaliation

certain categories. The major targets of xenophobic attacks in South Africa are black migrants, who are perceived as economic threat to black South Africans. Therefore, the incidences of xenophobia in South Africa could be majorly considered as "Afrophobia" because it is majorly targeted at African migrants' resident in the country.

Unfortunately, this contradicts the role of other Africans nations during the apartheid era when South African exiles were accommodated and educated in other African countries [6]. During this period, several high profile South African political leaders took shelter in other African countries, where they were accommodated, supported and encouraged to sustain the struggle against the Apartheid government in South Africa. For instance, Thambo Mbeki was posted to Nigeria as Deputy head of the ANC's Department of Information and Propaganda. Additionally, many Nigerians were taxed to provide assistance to the ANC-led struggle against apartheid. In fact, it is estimated that the Nigerian government provided an annual subvention of \$5million to the ANC and the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) to aid the struggle against the Apartheid regime at the time.

#### **4. Theoretical framework**

Prinsloo [10], p. 130, explains that narrative is universal because it is "recognised as crossing all social and cultural divides." Narrative is, therefore, a sense-making mechanism for understanding the real world (Fiske [11]; Wigston [12]). This study draws on structuralist approach to narrative analysis, which combines the syntagmatic and paradigmatic. Prinsloo [10], p. 133, explains that "the syntagmatic type of analysis identifies and describes the structure of formal organisation of the text following the chronological order or the linear sequence of the narrative while a paradigmatic type of analysis seeks to identify the deeper latent patterns or organisations which underpin the story." Hence, a combination of syntagmatic and paradigmatic "approaches enable questions of positioning and power to be posed" (Prinsloo [10], p. 157). Also, structuralism "relies on binary opposition in order to transfer meanings in the easiest way because we make sense of concepts and ideas by contrasting them with their opposites [12], p. 142. Levi-Strauss explains that when "two characters are opposed in binary structure, their symbolic meaning is virtually forced to be both general and easily accessible because of the simplicity of the difference between them" [12], p. 152. Explaining further, Wigston [12], p. 154, pointed out that Levi-Strauss is not "interested in the sequential development of the narrative, but rather in the relationships between the various characters and their settings and hence, binary opposition then provide us with a means of undertaking a paradigmatic analysis of a text where we can determine these relationships." Therefore, by analysing the binary oppositions in a text we can "uncover the ideological and manipulative structure of the values embodied in that message" as well as "reveal deep structures below the surface of the message that are not immediately clear but are implied in every opposition" [12], p. 172.

This study draws on Propp and Todorov narratives theories. Propp's model like Todorov's provides a means of identifying the conventional narrative structure in a text. While Propp and Todorov models are useful for comparing text, other analytical devices such as Levi-Strauss binary opposition is needed to gain deeper insight into the structure of a text [13]. Hence, this study combines Propp and Todorov narrative theories to analyse the framing of the February 2017 and August 2019 xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa on social media. This chapter is concerned with the narrative of xenophobia on social media and how it influences emotion, rational and sentiments among Nigerians [10], p. 130.

**225**

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living…*

The affordances of digital technology have resulted in the rise of mis-and disinformation with dire consequences for truth and credibility of the media (Wasserman [13]; Schifferes et al., [14]). Wasserman and Benequista [15], p. 35, explain that the "ease with which media can be produced online has made it possible for rumours, untruths, and disinformation to spread and threaten the credibility of the news media." The use of social media to manipulate public opinion has become a global challenge and sub-Saharan Africa is not an exemption. The role of Cambridge Analytica in election manipulation in Kenya and Nigeria is a pointer to this reality (Granville [16]). For instance, it is estimated that "organized social media manipulation has more than doubled since 2017, with 70 countries using computational propaganda to manipulate public opinion" (Howard and Bradshaw [17]). This has adversely impacted the average level of trust in the news across all countries (Nielsen et al. [18]). Even leading religious leaders such as Pope Francis of

the Catholic Church has acknowledged fake news is a "very serious sin."<sup>9</sup>

explained that "fake social media content about the xenophobic violence in South Africa is one of the triggers of reprisal attacks against South African businesses and nationals in other parts of Africa [4]. This is because most the content they share with their loved ones back in their home countries are likely to be "fake news leading to reprisal attacks" (Chenzi, [4], p. 3). This study examines the motivations for sharing mis-and disinformation concerning Xenophobic attacks against Nigerians

This study is a netnograhpy involving a thematic analysis and focus group discussions. It uses narrative theories, thematic content analysis and focus group discussions with undergraduates and postgraduate students, adults under 40 and adults above 40. The two complementary methodologies enabled the author to collect comprehensive information on the motivation for sharing mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa (Sade-Beck [19], p. 49). In a netnograhpy three categories of data are recognised including archival data, elicited data, and fieldnote data (Kozinets [20], p. 4). This study uses archival data from messages posted on xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa on Twitter and Facebook. First, the study developed a codebook for categorising Propp's seven characters (see **Table 1**). Second, a total of 581 Facebook posts were harvested manually in relation the xenophobia outbreak of February 2017. Furthermore, the study focused on Facebook accounts with more than 2000 followers. This reduced the number of Facebook accounts to 100. These accounts were further coded using Google form. The Twitter analysis focused on the tweets of *@JJ Omojuwa*, who is regarded as a social media influencer in Nigeria. @*Omojuwa* is a known public opinion moulder, who also works as a consultant and runs a foundation. He is highly regarded within the Nigerian social media space. His Twitter account is also verified evincing his status as a social media celebrity in Nigeria. @*Omojuwa* has 560,000 followers on Twitter, which makes him a major influencer of events in Nigeria and Africa at large. The Twitter analysis is focused on the debate ignited on Twitter by @*Omojuwa's* tweet on the February 2017

Xenophobia outbreak. @*Omojuwa's* tweets were also selected because he travelled to South Africa within the period of the February 2017 xenophobia outbreak and was

<sup>9</sup> https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2016/1208/Why-Pope-Francis-says-fake-news-is-a-sin

Chenzi [4]

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

living in South Africa on social media.

**5. Methodology**

**4.1 Social media and fake news**

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

#### **4.1 Social media and fake news**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

certain categories. The major targets of xenophobic attacks in South Africa are black migrants, who are perceived as economic threat to black South Africans. Therefore, the incidences of xenophobia in South Africa could be majorly considered as "Afrophobia" because it is majorly targeted at African migrants' resident in the

Unfortunately, this contradicts the role of other Africans nations during the apartheid era when South African exiles were accommodated and educated in other African countries [6]. During this period, several high profile South African political leaders took shelter in other African countries, where they were accommodated, supported and encouraged to sustain the struggle against the Apartheid government in South Africa. For instance, Thambo Mbeki was posted to Nigeria as Deputy head of the ANC's Department of Information and Propaganda. Additionally, many Nigerians were taxed to provide assistance to the ANC-led struggle against apartheid. In fact, it is estimated that the Nigerian government provided an annual subvention of \$5million to the ANC and the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) to aid the struggle against the Apartheid regime at the time.

Prinsloo [10], p. 130, explains that narrative is universal because it is "recognised as crossing all social and cultural divides." Narrative is, therefore, a sense-making mechanism for understanding the real world (Fiske [11]; Wigston [12]). This study draws on structuralist approach to narrative analysis, which combines the syntagmatic and paradigmatic. Prinsloo [10], p. 133, explains that "the syntagmatic type of analysis identifies and describes the structure of formal organisation of the text following the chronological order or the linear sequence of the narrative while a paradigmatic type of analysis seeks to identify the deeper latent patterns or organisations which underpin the story." Hence, a combination of syntagmatic and paradigmatic "approaches enable questions of positioning and power to be posed" (Prinsloo [10], p. 157). Also, structuralism "relies on binary opposition in order to transfer meanings in the easiest way because we make sense of concepts and ideas by contrasting them with their opposites [12], p. 142. Levi-Strauss explains that when "two characters are opposed in binary structure, their symbolic meaning is virtually forced to be both general and easily accessible because of the simplicity of the difference between them" [12], p. 152. Explaining further, Wigston [12], p. 154, pointed out that Levi-Strauss is not "interested in the sequential development of the narrative, but rather in the relationships between the various characters and their settings and hence, binary opposition then provide us with a means of undertaking a paradigmatic analysis of a text where we can determine these relationships." Therefore, by analysing the binary oppositions in a text we can "uncover the ideological and manipulative structure of the values embodied in that message" as well as "reveal deep structures below the surface of the message that are not immediately

This study draws on Propp and Todorov narratives theories. Propp's model like Todorov's provides a means of identifying the conventional narrative structure in a text. While Propp and Todorov models are useful for comparing text, other analytical devices such as Levi-Strauss binary opposition is needed to gain deeper insight into the structure of a text [13]. Hence, this study combines Propp and Todorov narrative theories to analyse the framing of the February 2017 and August 2019 xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa on social media. This chapter is concerned with the narrative of xenophobia on social media and how it influences emotion, rational and sentiments among Nigerians [10], p. 130.

**224**

country.

**4. Theoretical framework**

clear but are implied in every opposition" [12], p. 172.

The affordances of digital technology have resulted in the rise of mis-and disinformation with dire consequences for truth and credibility of the media (Wasserman [13]; Schifferes et al., [14]). Wasserman and Benequista [15], p. 35, explain that the "ease with which media can be produced online has made it possible for rumours, untruths, and disinformation to spread and threaten the credibility of the news media." The use of social media to manipulate public opinion has become a global challenge and sub-Saharan Africa is not an exemption. The role of Cambridge Analytica in election manipulation in Kenya and Nigeria is a pointer to this reality (Granville [16]). For instance, it is estimated that "organized social media manipulation has more than doubled since 2017, with 70 countries using computational propaganda to manipulate public opinion" (Howard and Bradshaw [17]). This has adversely impacted the average level of trust in the news across all countries (Nielsen et al. [18]). Even leading religious leaders such as Pope Francis of the Catholic Church has acknowledged fake news is a "very serious sin."<sup>9</sup> Chenzi [4] explained that "fake social media content about the xenophobic violence in South Africa is one of the triggers of reprisal attacks against South African businesses and nationals in other parts of Africa [4]. This is because most the content they share with their loved ones back in their home countries are likely to be "fake news leading to reprisal attacks" (Chenzi, [4], p. 3). This study examines the motivations for sharing mis-and disinformation concerning Xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa on social media.

#### **5. Methodology**

This study is a netnograhpy involving a thematic analysis and focus group discussions. It uses narrative theories, thematic content analysis and focus group discussions with undergraduates and postgraduate students, adults under 40 and adults above 40. The two complementary methodologies enabled the author to collect comprehensive information on the motivation for sharing mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa (Sade-Beck [19], p. 49). In a netnograhpy three categories of data are recognised including archival data, elicited data, and fieldnote data (Kozinets [20], p. 4). This study uses archival data from messages posted on xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa on Twitter and Facebook. First, the study developed a codebook for categorising Propp's seven characters (see **Table 1**). Second, a total of 581 Facebook posts were harvested manually in relation the xenophobia outbreak of February 2017. Furthermore, the study focused on Facebook accounts with more than 2000 followers. This reduced the number of Facebook accounts to 100. These accounts were further coded using Google form. The Twitter analysis focused on the tweets of *@JJ Omojuwa*, who is regarded as a social media influencer in Nigeria. @*Omojuwa* is a known public opinion moulder, who also works as a consultant and runs a foundation. He is highly regarded within the Nigerian social media space. His Twitter account is also verified evincing his status as a social media celebrity in Nigeria. @*Omojuwa* has 560,000 followers on Twitter, which makes him a major influencer of events in Nigeria and Africa at large. The Twitter analysis is focused on the debate ignited on Twitter by @*Omojuwa's* tweet on the February 2017 Xenophobia outbreak. @*Omojuwa's* tweets were also selected because he travelled to South Africa within the period of the February 2017 xenophobia outbreak and was

<sup>9</sup> https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2016/1208/Why-Pope-Francis-says-fake-news-is-a-sin


asked for detailed identification by South African border police, which resulted in his being delayed for a few hours. Rather than frame his tweet on this incident as an immigration issue, *@Omojuwa* framed it as a continuation of xenophobic attacks on Nigeria.

Second, A total of eight focus group discussions were held across the three dominant regions of Nigeria. Each of the focus group discussions lasted between 50 and 90 minutes and were conducted in English. In instances where the Nigerian colloquial English was used it was translated to English language. A total of 68 participants joined the discussion in groups ranging from 8 to 10. The discussion guide was structured around five sections, each containing a list of key questions to be asked in all focus groups, and a set of additional questions to be asked at the discretion of discussion facilitator.

#### **6. Analysis**

An analysis of the Facebook posts and tweets suggest there are five broad themes that dominated social media framing of xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa. The themes are: *Retaliate, Lazy and ungrateful, Jealous and inhuman, Irresponsible government, South Africans are barbaric*.

#### **7. Thematic analysis**

The thematic analysis focused on a few accounts on Facebook and Twitter. The accounts were selected for relevance and reach. Three accounts were selected purposively including @Engr.Chris Moore, AY COMEDIA, and YAW on Facebook and @JJ Omojuwa on Twitter.

*Engr. Chris Moore*'s profile on Facebook describes him as a former system administrator, who lives in Milan, Italy. He is followed by 2138 people on Facebook. On 18 March 2017, he posted the following message on his Facebook wall:

*Fellow Nigerians please, stay away from South Africa because of their xenophobic attacks on Nigerians in their country. Please, travel to countries that can at least protect your human right. Please, keep sharing to keep our citizens from travelling to such country.*

This post was accompanied by five gory pictures. Four of the pictures were from the 2008 xenophobic violence in South Africa. The fifth picture was from a scene

**227**

violence-phahlane-20170224

fake news?"

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living…*

of *necklacing*10 in Nigeria. This post was shared by 1596 people, liked by 82 people and attracted 124 comments on Facebook. While responding to comments to this message, *@Engr.Chris Moore* sustained this narrative with another post that "South African government is not doing anything to arrest the situation" but this is not true because about 136 South11 Africa protesters were arrested by the South African

The post by *@ Engr. Chris Moore* ignited widespread debate on Facebook about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians resident in South Africa. However, most of the debates were informed by alternative facts and stereotypes. This is because most of the participants in the debate are not resident in South Africa (see **Figure 1**) and relied on secondary sources. This was highlighted by some of the respondents, who pointed out that the pictures posted by @*Engr. Chris Moore* were old pictures that had been used elsewhere. For instance, *@Ehis Ese* confirmed that one of the pictures was that of an armed robbery perpetrator that was *necklaced* in Warri, Delta State, Nigeria: "Dis guy was a thief and was burnt last year in estate *roundabout* in Warri, Delta state. I mean this particular guy but I don't know about the rest" (Sic). *@Oscarpedro Osagie* also noted: "Wrong. This photograph was on before this incident". Another respondent, @*Mountain Omobaorun Ododo Omoleye*, who is resident in South Africa also pointed that the pictures were not a true reflection of the incident of February 2017: "Hello people this post and the pictures, I have not seen this picture and the news here in South Africa, pls which path of South Africa did this happen" (Sic). A South African @*Mapie Mhlangu* queried why *@Engr. Chris Moore* was spreading fake news on Facebook: "But Why are you spreading

*AY COMEDIAN* is a celebrated Nigerian comedian, whose Facebook account is a community. *AY COMEDIAN* lives in Lagos Nigeria and his Facebook community is followed by 4, 718,434 people. On 23 February 2017 *AY COMEDIAN* posted a picture of a man being mobbed by an angry crowd with the following message: "Xenophobia: Angry South Africans Mob Brutally Attack a Nigerian Man in SA." The man that was being attacked cannot be identified through the picture because his face was not visible. How *AY COMEDIAN* knew that the man being attacked was a Nigerian demystifies human knowledge but the picture helped promote the narrative that South Africans were attacking Nigerians that are resident in South Africa. The source of this picture was given as *gistvilla.co* but this is a non-existent news site. This particular post was shared by 433 people, liked by 1400 and

attracted 1200 comments. Another post by *YAW*, a leading Nigerian comedian and radio host also promoted the same narrative of xenophobia. YAW is a community on Facebook followed by 241, 455 people. On 27 February *YAW* posted a video on Facebook with the following message: "Another video of South African youths shooting a young man to death in the xenophobic attack has emerged. Watched the video below." The source of the video was given as *http://yawnaija.tv/xenophobicattacks-south-africa-2017/.* First, the video in question was not produced in South Africa because the actors in the video spoke the Arabic language, which suggests it could have been in any of the Arabian countries in Africa. Secondly, the source of the video was traced to Yaw's online news site which goes by his own name, *http:// yawnaia.tv*. However, this video was used to promote the xenophobic narrative that

<sup>10</sup> Necklacing. This is an approach to summary execution and torture by forcing tyre round the neck of victims. It is a common practice in Nigeria. For further detail, See https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/

<sup>11</sup> https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/p2-136-arrested-in-pretoria-during-xenophobic-

world/2012-11-28-necklacing-murder-of-students-shocks-world/

police on February 24 during the anti-immigrant protest in Pretoria.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

#### *Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

of *necklacing*10 in Nigeria. This post was shared by 1596 people, liked by 82 people and attracted 124 comments on Facebook. While responding to comments to this message, *@Engr.Chris Moore* sustained this narrative with another post that "South African government is not doing anything to arrest the situation" but this is not true because about 136 South11 Africa protesters were arrested by the South African police on February 24 during the anti-immigrant protest in Pretoria.

The post by *@ Engr. Chris Moore* ignited widespread debate on Facebook about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians resident in South Africa. However, most of the debates were informed by alternative facts and stereotypes. This is because most of the participants in the debate are not resident in South Africa (see **Figure 1**) and relied on secondary sources. This was highlighted by some of the respondents, who pointed out that the pictures posted by @*Engr. Chris Moore* were old pictures that had been used elsewhere. For instance, *@Ehis Ese* confirmed that one of the pictures was that of an armed robbery perpetrator that was *necklaced* in Warri, Delta State, Nigeria: "Dis guy was a thief and was burnt last year in estate *roundabout* in Warri, Delta state. I mean this particular guy but I don't know about the rest" (Sic). *@Oscarpedro Osagie* also noted: "Wrong. This photograph was on before this incident". Another respondent, @*Mountain Omobaorun Ododo Omoleye*, who is resident in South Africa also pointed that the pictures were not a true reflection of the incident of February 2017: "Hello people this post and the pictures, I have not seen this picture and the news here in South Africa, pls which path of South Africa did this happen" (Sic). A South African @*Mapie Mhlangu* queried why *@Engr. Chris Moore* was spreading fake news on Facebook: "But Why are you spreading fake news?"

*AY COMEDIAN* is a celebrated Nigerian comedian, whose Facebook account is a community. *AY COMEDIAN* lives in Lagos Nigeria and his Facebook community is followed by 4, 718,434 people. On 23 February 2017 *AY COMEDIAN* posted a picture of a man being mobbed by an angry crowd with the following message: "Xenophobia: Angry South Africans Mob Brutally Attack a Nigerian Man in SA." The man that was being attacked cannot be identified through the picture because his face was not visible. How *AY COMEDIAN* knew that the man being attacked was a Nigerian demystifies human knowledge but the picture helped promote the narrative that South Africans were attacking Nigerians that are resident in South Africa. The source of this picture was given as *gistvilla.co* but this is a non-existent news site. This particular post was shared by 433 people, liked by 1400 and attracted 1200 comments. Another post by *YAW*, a leading Nigerian comedian and radio host also promoted the same narrative of xenophobia. YAW is a community on Facebook followed by 241, 455 people. On 27 February *YAW* posted a video on Facebook with the following message: "Another video of South African youths shooting a young man to death in the xenophobic attack has emerged. Watched the video below." The source of the video was given as *http://yawnaija.tv/xenophobicattacks-south-africa-2017/.* First, the video in question was not produced in South Africa because the actors in the video spoke the Arabic language, which suggests it could have been in any of the Arabian countries in Africa. Secondly, the source of the video was traced to Yaw's online news site which goes by his own name, *http:// yawnaia.tv*. However, this video was used to promote the xenophobic narrative that

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

South Africans are evil, south Africans are jealous of Nigerians, South Africans are lazy, they are ungrateful for the role Nigerians played in ending apartheid

Portrays themselves as the hero seeking for the betterment of Nigerians but they are

asked for detailed identification by South African border police, which resulted in his being delayed for a few hours. Rather than frame his tweet on this incident as an immigration issue, *@Omojuwa* framed it as a continuation of xenophobic attacks on

Calls on the Nigerian government to rescue Nigerian citizens leaving in South Africa Dispatcher

**Entries Categorisation**

Nigerians are victims of South African wickedness, jealousy Princess Seeks peace and reconciliation between Nigeria and South Africa Hero

Villain

False hero

Second, A total of eight focus group discussions were held across the three dominant regions of Nigeria. Each of the focus group discussions lasted between 50 and 90 minutes and were conducted in English. In instances where the Nigerian colloquial English was used it was translated to English language. A total of 68 participants joined the discussion in groups ranging from 8 to 10. The discussion guide was structured around five sections, each containing a list of key questions to be asked in all focus groups, and a set of additional questions to be asked at the

An analysis of the Facebook posts and tweets suggest there are five broad themes that dominated social media framing of xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa. The themes are: *Retaliate, Lazy and ungrateful, Jealous and inhuman,* 

The thematic analysis focused on a few accounts on Facebook and Twitter. The accounts were selected for relevance and reach. Three accounts were selected purposively including @Engr.Chris Moore, AY COMEDIA, and YAW on Facebook

March 2017, he posted the following message on his Facebook wall:

*Engr. Chris Moore*'s profile on Facebook describes him as a former system administrator, who lives in Milan, Italy. He is followed by 2138 people on Facebook. On 18

*Fellow Nigerians please, stay away from South Africa because of their xenophobic attacks on Nigerians in their country. Please, travel to countries that can at least protect your human right. Please, keep sharing to keep our citizens from travelling* 

This post was accompanied by five gory pictures. Four of the pictures were from the 2008 xenophobic violence in South Africa. The fifth picture was from a scene

**226**

Nigeria.

**Table 1.** *Code book.*

**6. Analysis**

**7. Thematic analysis**

and @JJ Omojuwa on Twitter.

*to such country.*

discretion of discussion facilitator.

fuelling the conflicts by posting fake news

*Irresponsible government, South Africans are barbaric*.

<sup>10</sup> Necklacing. This is an approach to summary execution and torture by forcing tyre round the neck of victims. It is a common practice in Nigeria. For further detail, See https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/ world/2012-11-28-necklacing-murder-of-students-shocks-world/

<sup>11</sup> https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/p2-136-arrested-in-pretoria-during-xenophobicviolence-phahlane-20170224

**Figure 1.** *Geographic location of social media handles.*

South Africans were attacking Nigerians resident in their countries. This post was shared by 46 people, liked by 54 and attracted 20 comments. Furthermore, YAW posted another three pictures with the message: "We are all foreigners somewhere." Two of the pictures were from the 2008 xenophobic outbreak in South Africa but were used to frame the incident of February 2017.

On Twitter, the analysis is focused on @JJ *Omojuwa's* tweet in response to the outbreak of xenophobia in South Africa. *Omojuwa* tweeted about the February xenophobia outbreak in South Africa on March 2 to his followers: "Xenophobia: Stop being ingrates-Thabo Mbeki." This was former President Thambo Mbeki's message cautioning South Africans to replicate the friendliness that other African countries showed to South Africans during apartheid. The tweet attracted 62 retweets and 29 likes. After this post was made on March 2, @*Omojuwa* travelled to South Africa on March 4 and was asked by South African border Police to provide further details about his trip, which he could have done without attracting attention but it presented him an opportunity to promote the xenophobic narrative about South Africans. However, there were a few of *@Omojuwa's* followers who saw through the attempt to frame an immigration issue as xenophobia. One of his followers with the handle *@LuamboJT* replied that it was all about Omojuwa's arrogance: "my man, your arrogance will put you in danger some other days, last time I checked, no Nigerian has been killed in SA." In another tweet, *@LuamboJT* cautioned *@ Omojuwa* that "the big issue to be addressed is your attitude my man, you don't go to a foreign country and say things you were saying."

#### **8. Retaliate**

The responses in this category urge Nigerians to retaliate against South Africans by either attacking their businesses in Nigeria such as MTN, Shoprite or attacking South Africans that are resident in Nigeria. A Facebook post by *@Aniebonam Rusky Lotachukwu* captures the majority of framing in this category. He responded to AY COMEDIAN's post with the following message: "I swear the war has just begun..... Nigerians *gonna* burn down any shop or business owned by South Africans since South Africans seem to be wise.....soon South Africa will fall like an ass and will be one of the poorest country because no country now is happy with their devilish behaviour" (Sic). Another Facebook response by *@Juliet Nganwaozuzu* reproduced the same narrative: "We should start killing all the South African people that are in Nigeria without mercy please enough is enough" (Sic). This category comprised 38.7% (see **Figure 2**) of social media posts on the February xenophobia outbreak in South Africa. This suggests that Nigerians are in support of a reprisal attack in the face of xenophobic violence against Nigerians resident in South Africa.

**229**

February 2017.

**8.3 Irresponsible government**

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living…*

Messages in this category suggest that South Africans are ungrateful for the help

rendered to them by the Nigerian government during apartheid, when some of their citizens were sheltered in Nigeria. For instance, @*Omoabass Kafayat Anifowose* responded to AY COMEDIAN's post that: "Just South Africans are ingrate so easy to forgetting the favour Nigeria did for them. We stood by their side and we fought for them. So to kill Nigerians is what to pay them back?" (Sic). Messages in this category comprise 13.3% (see **Figure 2**) of social media posts on the xenophobic

In this category, South Africans are framed as being jealous of Nigerians because they are hardworking and attract the attention of South African women. A Facebook post by *@Allan Donann* is representative of the framing in this category. He posted in response to *@AY COMEDIAN's* post that: "I just can't believe how a fellow black man will treat his fellow black man like this. This is absurd and inhuman. The lazy mind is a frustrated mind. Why blame your failures on hardworking people" (Sic). Another Facebook post by @*Jayne Bahanack Betow* responded thus: "I will say this loud and clear without mincing words and in all confidence.... These very lazy South Africans are super jealous of hardworking Nigerians....I am a Cameroonian and I witness how hardworking, consistent, smart and intelligent Nigerians are when it comes to business and other essential and lucrative things.... And we Cameroonians admire and respect them for that. Guess what? Many

Cameroonians are beginning to learn from them.....so please South Africans enough of this hatred and jealousy instead try to learn from them" (Sic). This category comprises 2.7% (see **Figure 2**) of social media post on the xenophobic attack of

The responses in this category frame the South African government as is responsible and doing nothing to arrest the attacks on foreigners living in the country. For instance, *@Olufemi Obembe* posted that: "I feel that South African authorities are not responsible. They are supposed to protest lives and properties of everyone living in their territory, most especially foreigners" (Sic). This category comprises 29.3% (see **Figure 2**) of social media posts on the xenophobic outbreak of February 2017. This suggests that many Nigerians think that the South African government tacitly

support xenophobic violence on Nigerians resident in their country.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

**8.1 Lazy and ungrateful**

*Words used to describe south Africans.*

**Figure 2.**

violence of February 2017.

**8.2 Jealous and inhumane**

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

**Figure 2.** *Words used to describe south Africans.*

#### **8.1 Lazy and ungrateful**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

South Africans were attacking Nigerians resident in their countries. This post was shared by 46 people, liked by 54 and attracted 20 comments. Furthermore, YAW posted another three pictures with the message: "We are all foreigners somewhere." Two of the pictures were from the 2008 xenophobic outbreak in South Africa but

On Twitter, the analysis is focused on @JJ *Omojuwa's* tweet in response to the outbreak of xenophobia in South Africa. *Omojuwa* tweeted about the February xenophobia outbreak in South Africa on March 2 to his followers: "Xenophobia: Stop being ingrates-Thabo Mbeki." This was former President Thambo Mbeki's message cautioning South Africans to replicate the friendliness that other African countries showed to South Africans during apartheid. The tweet attracted 62 retweets and 29 likes. After this post was made on March 2, @*Omojuwa* travelled to South Africa on March 4 and was asked by South African border Police to provide further details about his trip, which he could have done without attracting attention but it presented him an opportunity to promote the xenophobic narrative about South Africans. However, there were a few of *@Omojuwa's* followers who saw through the attempt to frame an immigration issue as xenophobia. One of his followers with the handle *@LuamboJT* replied that it was all about Omojuwa's arrogance: "my man, your arrogance will put you in danger some other days, last time I checked, no Nigerian has been killed in SA." In another tweet, *@LuamboJT* cautioned *@ Omojuwa* that "the big issue to be addressed is your attitude my man, you don't go to

The responses in this category urge Nigerians to retaliate against South Africans by either attacking their businesses in Nigeria such as MTN, Shoprite or attacking South Africans that are resident in Nigeria. A Facebook post by *@Aniebonam Rusky Lotachukwu* captures the majority of framing in this category. He responded to AY COMEDIAN's post with the following message: "I swear the war has just begun..... Nigerians *gonna* burn down any shop or business owned by South Africans since South Africans seem to be wise.....soon South Africa will fall like an ass and will be one of the poorest country because no country now is happy with their devilish behaviour" (Sic). Another Facebook response by *@Juliet Nganwaozuzu* reproduced the same narrative: "We should start killing all the South African people that are in Nigeria without mercy please enough is enough" (Sic). This category comprised 38.7% (see **Figure 2**) of social media posts on the February xenophobia outbreak in South Africa. This suggests that Nigerians are in support of a reprisal attack in the

face of xenophobic violence against Nigerians resident in South Africa.

were used to frame the incident of February 2017.

*Geographic location of social media handles.*

a foreign country and say things you were saying."

**228**

**8. Retaliate**

**Figure 1.**

Messages in this category suggest that South Africans are ungrateful for the help rendered to them by the Nigerian government during apartheid, when some of their citizens were sheltered in Nigeria. For instance, @*Omoabass Kafayat Anifowose* responded to AY COMEDIAN's post that: "Just South Africans are ingrate so easy to forgetting the favour Nigeria did for them. We stood by their side and we fought for them. So to kill Nigerians is what to pay them back?" (Sic). Messages in this category comprise 13.3% (see **Figure 2**) of social media posts on the xenophobic violence of February 2017.

#### **8.2 Jealous and inhumane**

In this category, South Africans are framed as being jealous of Nigerians because they are hardworking and attract the attention of South African women. A Facebook post by *@Allan Donann* is representative of the framing in this category. He posted in response to *@AY COMEDIAN's* post that: "I just can't believe how a fellow black man will treat his fellow black man like this. This is absurd and inhuman. The lazy mind is a frustrated mind. Why blame your failures on hardworking people" (Sic). Another Facebook post by @*Jayne Bahanack Betow* responded thus: "I will say this loud and clear without mincing words and in all confidence.... These very lazy South Africans are super jealous of hardworking Nigerians....I am a Cameroonian and I witness how hardworking, consistent, smart and intelligent Nigerians are when it comes to business and other essential and lucrative things.... And we Cameroonians admire and respect them for that. Guess what? Many Cameroonians are beginning to learn from them.....so please South Africans enough of this hatred and jealousy instead try to learn from them" (Sic). This category comprises 2.7% (see **Figure 2**) of social media post on the xenophobic attack of February 2017.

#### **8.3 Irresponsible government**

The responses in this category frame the South African government as is responsible and doing nothing to arrest the attacks on foreigners living in the country. For instance, *@Olufemi Obembe* posted that: "I feel that South African authorities are not responsible. They are supposed to protest lives and properties of everyone living in their territory, most especially foreigners" (Sic). This category comprises 29.3% (see **Figure 2**) of social media posts on the xenophobic outbreak of February 2017. This suggests that many Nigerians think that the South African government tacitly support xenophobic violence on Nigerians resident in their country.

#### **8.4 South Africans are barbaric**

In this category, South Africans are framed as barbaric and wicked. For instance, *@Tee Jay* responded to AY COMEDIAN's post that: "Being confronted by two South Africans before on the street and they said all Nigerians must die without saying anything to them; had to run for my life because they hold knife". In the same vein, *@YemmyOcean Ige* responded to @*Engr. Chris Moore* thus: "Why are d South Africans bad minded as dis, it's not right oooo, let all Nigerians there come back home oooo, Abeg" (Sic). This category comprises 16% (see **Figure 2**) of social media posts on the xenophobic violence of February 2017.

#### **9. Interview analysis**

#### **9.1 Southwest under 40**

The majority of participants in this category are likely to share misinformation on social media platforms if it involves the mistreatment of Nigerians in the diaspora as a means of group solidarity. This is evinced in the xenophobia outbreak in South Africa in 2019 when videos from the 2008 xenophobia attacks in South Africa were shared as that of 2019. This resulted in reprisal attacks on South African business interests in Nigeria. One participant in Lagos, Nigeria mentioned that she felt that sharing misinformation about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa amounted to doing good. This suggests that Nigerian youths are likely to share mis-and disinformation about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa is a way of expression national solidarity with Nigerian victims.

#### **9.2 Northeast under 40**

In the northern part of Nigeria, Participants under the age of forty are also likely to share fake news to show solidarity with Nigerians being maltreated in the Diaspora. One participant said he shared fake videos on the 2019 xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa to make Nigerians know what was happening to fellow Nigerians in South Africa.

#### **9.3 Northeast above 40**

Also, for participants above 40 years of age in the northeast of Nigeria did not share misinformation on Xenophobic attacks against Nigerians because they felt it could result in reprisal attacks. So, most of the people in the age bracket of 40 years and above in the northern part of Nigeria are not likely to share such videos.,

#### **9.4 Southeast above 40**

In the southeast, the view that Nigerians are likely to share mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa as a form of national solidarity is valid. Some participants said they shared videos from the xenophobia outbreak of 2008 when it reoccurred in 2019 leading to reprisal attacks in parts of Nigeria. One participant mentioned that he shared misinformation concerning Xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa but pulled it when he found out it was false:

**231**

and 2019.

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living…*

*I have been a victim of sharing false news/information from people like the xenophobia in South Africa. I got pictures of events that happened before that xenophobia. I went as far as sharing it, but when I came back to verify the authenticity of the news, I discovered that those events had already happened long ago. So, it is* 

Nigerian undergraduate students are also likely to share trending misinformation that has elements of patriotism and emotions. For example, participants shared fake news on the July 2019 xenophobic attacks on Nigerians resident in South Africa without verifying it. This is because the xenophobia outbreak in South Africa was the trending news on social media especially Twitter at the time. So, for undergraduate students sharing videos of xenophobic attacks from 2008 as that of 2019 was part of trending on Twitter and garnering more followers. One participant said he did not care to verify the videos he shared on social media when he saw someone that someone was being burnt alive; it angered him and he shared it on social media but he later realised that it was from the 2008 xenophobic attacks

*When I saw the video of someone who was burning; and there was someone adding fuel to the fire, I was angered and has to share it on Twitter. Later, I started seeing on Twitter that the video was from the 2008 xenophobic attacks. I deleted it and* 

This student was one out of many undergraduate students who found it responsible to delete a misinformation posted on social media and also put up link showing it was fake news. This could be considered an isolated instance not the norm among undergraduate students in Nigeria. Another undergraduate student regurgitated a Nigerian stereotyping of South Africans of being lazy people who are jealous of hardworking Nigerians. This stereotyping happens on both sides of the divide. While South Africans tar Nigerians with the label of drug peddlers, Nigerians retort that South African men are lazy and jealous of Nigerian men, who are winning over

*If you look at a typical South African man, he is lazy, no offence…he is actually a very lazy person and people come into your country to help you, just like Chinese* 

On the other hand, for postgraduate students, most of them said that they only share contents that are verified. Hence, they did not share fake videos on xenophobic attacks on Nigerians because they were unable to verify the authenticity of such content. The findings in this segment suggest that Nigeria youths are more likely to share mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobia as a form of national solidarity especially when it involves the 'mistreatment' of Nigerians in the diaspora such as the incident of Xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa in 2017

*people come into our country to help us build airport, did we kill them?*

This view correlates with one of the themes identified in the framing of xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa on social media, Lazy and ungrateful. There is a perception among Nigerians that South Africans are lazy ad ungrateful for the role Nigeria played in bringing an end to apartheid in

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

*false from my side, I pulled it down.*

*put up the link to where they said it is fake news.*

**9.5 Nigerian students**

in South Africa:

their women:

South Africa.

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

*I have been a victim of sharing false news/information from people like the xenophobia in South Africa. I got pictures of events that happened before that xenophobia. I went as far as sharing it, but when I came back to verify the authenticity of the news, I discovered that those events had already happened long ago. So, it is false from my side, I pulled it down.*

#### **9.5 Nigerian students**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

media posts on the xenophobic violence of February 2017.

In this category, South Africans are framed as barbaric and wicked. For instance, *@Tee Jay* responded to AY COMEDIAN's post that: "Being confronted by two South Africans before on the street and they said all Nigerians must die without saying anything to them; had to run for my life because they hold knife". In the same vein, *@YemmyOcean Ige* responded to @*Engr. Chris Moore* thus: "Why are d South Africans bad minded as dis, it's not right oooo, let all Nigerians there come back home oooo, Abeg" (Sic). This category comprises 16% (see **Figure 2**) of social

The majority of participants in this category are likely to share misinformation on social media platforms if it involves the mistreatment of Nigerians in the diaspora as a means of group solidarity. This is evinced in the xenophobia outbreak in South Africa in 2019 when videos from the 2008 xenophobia attacks in South Africa were shared as that of 2019. This resulted in reprisal attacks on South African business interests in Nigeria. One participant in Lagos, Nigeria mentioned that she felt that sharing misinformation about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa amounted to doing good. This suggests that Nigerian youths are likely to share mis-and disinformation about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa is a way of expression national solidarity with Nigerian

In the northern part of Nigeria, Participants under the age of forty are also likely to share fake news to show solidarity with Nigerians being maltreated in the Diaspora. One participant said he shared fake videos on the 2019 xenophobic attacks against Nigerians living in South Africa to make Nigerians know what was

Also, for participants above 40 years of age in the northeast of Nigeria did not share misinformation on Xenophobic attacks against Nigerians because they felt it could result in reprisal attacks. So, most of the people in the age bracket of 40 years and above in the northern part of Nigeria are not likely to share such videos.,

In the southeast, the view that Nigerians are likely to share mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa as a form of national solidarity is valid. Some participants said they shared videos from the xenophobia outbreak of 2008 when it reoccurred in 2019 leading to reprisal attacks in parts of Nigeria. One participant mentioned that he shared misinformation concerning Xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa but pulled it

**8.4 South Africans are barbaric**

**9. Interview analysis**

**9.1 Southwest under 40**

**9.2 Northeast under 40**

**9.3 Northeast above 40**

**9.4 Southeast above 40**

when he found out it was false:

happening to fellow Nigerians in South Africa.

victims.

**230**

Nigerian undergraduate students are also likely to share trending misinformation that has elements of patriotism and emotions. For example, participants shared fake news on the July 2019 xenophobic attacks on Nigerians resident in South Africa without verifying it. This is because the xenophobia outbreak in South Africa was the trending news on social media especially Twitter at the time. So, for undergraduate students sharing videos of xenophobic attacks from 2008 as that of 2019 was part of trending on Twitter and garnering more followers. One participant said he did not care to verify the videos he shared on social media when he saw someone that someone was being burnt alive; it angered him and he shared it on social media but he later realised that it was from the 2008 xenophobic attacks in South Africa:

*When I saw the video of someone who was burning; and there was someone adding fuel to the fire, I was angered and has to share it on Twitter. Later, I started seeing on Twitter that the video was from the 2008 xenophobic attacks. I deleted it and put up the link to where they said it is fake news.*

This student was one out of many undergraduate students who found it responsible to delete a misinformation posted on social media and also put up link showing it was fake news. This could be considered an isolated instance not the norm among undergraduate students in Nigeria. Another undergraduate student regurgitated a Nigerian stereotyping of South Africans of being lazy people who are jealous of hardworking Nigerians. This stereotyping happens on both sides of the divide. While South Africans tar Nigerians with the label of drug peddlers, Nigerians retort that South African men are lazy and jealous of Nigerian men, who are winning over their women:

*If you look at a typical South African man, he is lazy, no offence…he is actually a very lazy person and people come into your country to help you, just like Chinese people come into our country to help us build airport, did we kill them?*

This view correlates with one of the themes identified in the framing of xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa on social media, Lazy and ungrateful. There is a perception among Nigerians that South Africans are lazy ad ungrateful for the role Nigeria played in bringing an end to apartheid in South Africa.

On the other hand, for postgraduate students, most of them said that they only share contents that are verified. Hence, they did not share fake videos on xenophobic attacks on Nigerians because they were unable to verify the authenticity of such content. The findings in this segment suggest that Nigeria youths are more likely to share mis-and disinformation concerning xenophobia as a form of national solidarity especially when it involves the 'mistreatment' of Nigerians in the diaspora such as the incident of Xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa in 2017 and 2019.

### **10. Conclusion**

This chapter answers the research question: What is the motivation for sharing mis-and disinformation on xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa on social media? The chapter answered this question through an analysis of social media-Facebook, Twitter framing of both incidents as well through focus group discussions across the three dominant regions of Nigeria. The findings suggest that the framing of the February 2017 xenophobic outbreak in South Africa was based mis-and disinformation and reproduction of stereotypes on social media platforms (see **Figure 3**). Alternative facts accounted for 65% of the framing while 35% was based on fact. For instance, 80% of the posts on social media-Facebook and Twitter- framed South Africans as villains while 16% were framed as the false hero (see **Figure 4**). An analysis of the geographic location of the social media accounts-Facebook and Twitter-suggests that majority of them are domiciled in Nigeria (see **Figure 1**). For instance, 75% of the social media accounts are resident in Nigeria and relied on secondary sources, to frame xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa; 13% are resident in South Africa and 7% are resident in America (see **Figure 1**). Consequently, the framing of the xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa in 2017 and 2019 were based on rumours, untruths, misand disinformation emanating from the Nigerian rumour mill. Also, analysis of interview suggests that there is a general consensus among Nigerians that sharing mis-and disinformation about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa amount to some form of national solidarity; a show of patriotism to save

**233**

**Author details**

Emeka Umejei

Nigeria, Yola, Adamawa State, Nigeria

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: mosieds@gmail.com

diplomatic tension between Nigeria and South Africa.

attacks-on-nigerians-id6255692.html

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living…*

Nigerians from the dangers of living in South Africa. This point is validated across the three dominant regions of Nigeria as well as among undergraduate students. Consequently, this results in reprisal attacks and diplomatic tension between the Nigerian and South African governments. For instance, the Senior Special Adviser to the President on International Affairs, Honourable Abike Dabiri rebuked South Africa's Minister of Home Affairs, Malusi Gigaba's that "it appears that Mr. Gigaba would rather dwell on and entertain himself with diplomatic niceties when the welfare of Nigerians resident in South Africa are at stake now more than any time in recent history. His response to the xenophobic attacks, which has now become a recurring decimal on Africans, most especially Nigerians living peacefully in their host country of South Africa was, indeed, unfortunate."12 Additionally, the Nigerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs followed up with a summon on the South African High Commissioner to Nigeria: "The High Commissioner of South Africa to Nigeria is being summoned to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs during which government's concerns on this matter will be brought to his attention."13 The findings correlate with Chenzi's [4] that mis-and disinformation about xenophobia on social media is a leading factor for reprisal attacks on South African businesses in Nigeria and

<sup>12</sup> http://www.pulse.ng/news/local/xenophobia-abike-dabiri-erewa-slams-sa-minister-id6287420.html <sup>13</sup> http://www.pulse.ng/news/local/xenophobia-foreign-ministry-summons-south-african-envoy-over-

Department of Communication and Multimedia Design, American University of

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

**Figure 4.** *Categorisation of social posts.*

**Figure 3.**

#### *Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

Nigerians from the dangers of living in South Africa. This point is validated across the three dominant regions of Nigeria as well as among undergraduate students. Consequently, this results in reprisal attacks and diplomatic tension between the Nigerian and South African governments. For instance, the Senior Special Adviser to the President on International Affairs, Honourable Abike Dabiri rebuked South Africa's Minister of Home Affairs, Malusi Gigaba's that "it appears that Mr. Gigaba would rather dwell on and entertain himself with diplomatic niceties when the welfare of Nigerians resident in South Africa are at stake now more than any time in recent history. His response to the xenophobic attacks, which has now become a recurring decimal on Africans, most especially Nigerians living peacefully in their host country of South Africa was, indeed, unfortunate."12 Additionally, the Nigerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs followed up with a summon on the South African High Commissioner to Nigeria: "The High Commissioner of South Africa to Nigeria is being summoned to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs during which government's concerns on this matter will be brought to his attention."13 The findings correlate with Chenzi's [4] that mis-and disinformation about xenophobia on social media is a leading factor for reprisal attacks on South African businesses in Nigeria and diplomatic tension between Nigeria and South Africa.

<sup>13</sup> http://www.pulse.ng/news/local/xenophobia-foreign-ministry-summons-south-african-envoy-overattacks-on-nigerians-id6255692.html

### **Author details**

Emeka Umejei

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

This chapter answers the research question: What is the motivation for sharing mis-and disinformation on xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa on social media? The chapter answered this question through an analysis of social media-Facebook, Twitter framing of both incidents as well through focus group discussions across the three dominant regions of Nigeria. The findings suggest that the framing of the February 2017 xenophobic outbreak in South Africa was based mis-and disinformation and reproduction of stereotypes on social media platforms (see **Figure 3**). Alternative facts accounted for 65% of the framing while 35% was based on fact. For instance, 80% of the posts on social media-Facebook and Twitter- framed South Africans as villains while 16% were framed as the false hero (see **Figure 4**). An analysis of the geographic location of the social media accounts-Facebook and Twitter-suggests that majority of them are domiciled in Nigeria (see **Figure 1**). For instance, 75% of the social media accounts are resident in Nigeria and relied on secondary sources, to frame xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa; 13% are resident in South Africa and 7% are resident in America (see **Figure 1**). Consequently, the framing of the xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa in 2017 and 2019 were based on rumours, untruths, misand disinformation emanating from the Nigerian rumour mill. Also, analysis of interview suggests that there is a general consensus among Nigerians that sharing mis-and disinformation about xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa amount to some form of national solidarity; a show of patriotism to save

**10. Conclusion**

**232**

**Figure 4.**

**Figure 3.**

*Category of social media posts.*

*Categorisation of social posts.*

Department of Communication and Multimedia Design, American University of Nigeria, Yola, Adamawa State, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: mosieds@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

<sup>12</sup> http://www.pulse.ng/news/local/xenophobia-abike-dabiri-erewa-slams-sa-minister-id6287420.html

### **References**

[1] Odunfa , S. (2009, December 2). Lies, politics and Nigeria's great rumour mill. BBC News. Retrieved from http://news. bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8389020.stm

[2] Osuagwu, P., & Elebeke, E. (2017). Nigeria: Xenophobia - How reprisal attacks, infrastructure vandalization affect Nigeria's \$38 billion telecoms market. All Africa. Retrieved from https://allafrica.com/ stories/201703010139.html

[3] Somdyala, K. (2019). Fake news about xenophobia on social media aimed at ruining brand SA - govt. news24. Retrieved from www. news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/ fake-newsabout-xenophobia-on-socialmedia-aimed-at-ruining-brand-sagovt-20190403

[4] Chenzi, V. (2020). Fake news, social media and xenophobia in South Africa. *African Identities*, 1-20.

[5] Hassan, I and Hitchen, J. (2020, April 15). Driving Division? Disinformation and the New media landscape in Nigeria. Center for Democracy and Development. Retrieved from https:// www.cddwestafrica.org/drivingdivision-disinformation-and-the-newmedia-landscape-in-nigeria/

[6] Steenkamp, C. (2009). Xenophobia in South Africa: What does it say about trust? *The Round Table*, *98*(403), 439-447.

[7] Williams V. Xenophobia in South Africa: overview and analysis. Cape Town: The Perspective. 2008.

[8] Harris, B. (2002). Xenophobia: A new pathology for a new South Africa. *Psychopathology and social prejudice*, 169-184.

[9] Crush, J., McDonald, D., Williams, V., Lefko-Everett, K., Dorey, D., Taylor, D. and la Sablonniere, R. (2008). The Perfect Storm: The Realities of Xenophobia in Contemporary South Africa. *Migration Policy Series*, 50, http://www.queensu.ca/samp/ sampresources/samppublications/

[10] Prinsloo, J. (2009). Textual Analysis: Narrative and Argument. In Fourie, P. (ed). Media Studies Volume 3: *Media Content and Media Audiences*, pp 204- 253. Cape Town: Juta.

[11] John, F. (1987). *Television culture*. London: Methuen.

[12] Wigston, D. (2001). Narrative analysis. In Fourie, P. (ed). Media Studies Volume 2: *Media Content and Media Audiences*, pp 204-253. Cape Town: Juta.

[13] Wasserman, Herman. (2017). Fake news from Africa: Panics, politics and paradigms. *Journalism* 1-14.

[14] Schifferes, S, Newman,N, Thurman,N, Corney, D, Göker, A and Martin, C. (2014). Identifying and verifying news through social media: Developing a user-centred tool for professional journalists. *Digital Journalism* 2(3): 406-418.

[15] Wasserman, Herman and Nicholas Benequista. (2017). Pathways to Media Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa: Reflection from a regional consultation. Centre for international Media Assistance. Accessed on 20 June. https:// www.cima.ned.org/wp- content/ uploads/2017/12/CIMA-Media-Reformin-SSA\_web\_150ppi.pdf.

[16] Granville, K. (2018, March 19). Facebook and Cambridge Analytica: What you need to know as fallout widens. New York Times online. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes. com/2018/03/19/technology/facebookcambridge-analytica-explained.html

**235**

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

[17] Howard, P & Bradshaw, S. (2019, September 4). The Global Disinformation Order: 2019 Global Inventory of Organised Social Media Manipulation. Oxford Internet Institute. Retrieved from https://www.oii.ox.ac. uk/news/releases/use-of-social-mediato-manipulate-public-opinion-now-aglobal-problem-says-new-report/?fbclid =IwAR0YWpWz8HxPnbFga1iab71izh7r q3xpJTfjzzB\_j7d2rJgbYtegC-MBWkM

[18] Nielsen, R. K., Newman, N., Fletcher, R., & Kalogeropoulos, A. (2019, June 13). Reuters Digital News report 2019. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. Retrieved from https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/ sites/default/files/2019-06/DNR\_2019\_

[19] Sade-Beck, L. (2004). Internet Ethnography: Online and Offline. *International Journal of Qualitative* 

*communication and society*, 1-8.

[20] Kozinets, R. V. (2015). Netnography. *The international encyclopedia of digital* 

FINAL\_0.pdf

*Methods*, 3(2), 45-51.

*Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians Living… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94117*

[17] Howard, P & Bradshaw, S. (2019, September 4). The Global Disinformation Order: 2019 Global Inventory of Organised Social Media Manipulation. Oxford Internet Institute. Retrieved from https://www.oii.ox.ac. uk/news/releases/use-of-social-mediato-manipulate-public-opinion-now-aglobal-problem-says-new-report/?fbclid =IwAR0YWpWz8HxPnbFga1iab71izh7r q3xpJTfjzzB\_j7d2rJgbYtegC-MBWkM

[18] Nielsen, R. K., Newman, N., Fletcher, R., & Kalogeropoulos, A. (2019, June 13). Reuters Digital News report 2019. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. Retrieved from https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/ sites/default/files/2019-06/DNR\_2019\_ FINAL\_0.pdf

[19] Sade-Beck, L. (2004). Internet Ethnography: Online and Offline. *International Journal of Qualitative Methods*, 3(2), 45-51.

[20] Kozinets, R. V. (2015). Netnography. *The international encyclopedia of digital communication and society*, 1-8.

**234**

439-447.

169-184.

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

D. and la Sablonniere, R. (2008). The Perfect Storm: The Realities of Xenophobia in Contemporary South Africa. *Migration Policy Series*, 50, http://www.queensu.ca/samp/ sampresources/samppublications/

[10] Prinsloo, J. (2009). Textual Analysis: Narrative and Argument. In Fourie, P. (ed). Media Studies Volume 3: *Media Content and Media Audiences*, pp 204-

[11] John, F. (1987). *Television culture*.

[12] Wigston, D. (2001). Narrative analysis. In Fourie, P. (ed). Media Studies Volume 2: *Media Content and Media Audiences*, pp 204-253. Cape

[13] Wasserman, Herman. (2017). Fake news from Africa: Panics, politics and

[15] Wasserman, Herman and Nicholas Benequista. (2017). Pathways to Media Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa: Reflection from a regional consultation.

Assistance. Accessed on 20 June. https:// www.cima.ned.org/wp- content/ uploads/2017/12/CIMA-Media-Reform-

[16] Granville, K. (2018, March 19). Facebook and Cambridge Analytica: What you need to know as fallout widens. New York Times online. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes. com/2018/03/19/technology/facebookcambridge-analytica-explained.html

Centre for international Media

in-SSA\_web\_150ppi.pdf.

paradigms. *Journalism* 1-14.

*Journalism* 2(3): 406-418.

[14] Schifferes, S, Newman,N, Thurman,N, Corney, D, Göker, A and Martin, C. (2014). Identifying and verifying news through social media: Developing a user-centred tool for professional journalists. *Digital* 

253. Cape Town: Juta.

London: Methuen.

Town: Juta.

[1] Odunfa , S. (2009, December 2). Lies, politics and Nigeria's great rumour mill. BBC News. Retrieved from http://news. bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8389020.stm

[2] Osuagwu, P., & Elebeke, E. (2017). Nigeria: Xenophobia - How reprisal attacks, infrastructure vandalization affect Nigeria's \$38 billion telecoms market. All Africa. Retrieved from https://allafrica.com/

**References**

stories/201703010139.html

govt-20190403

*African Identities*, 1-20.

media-landscape-in-nigeria/

[3] Somdyala, K. (2019). Fake news about xenophobia on social media aimed at ruining brand SA - govt. news24. Retrieved from www. news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/ fake-newsabout-xenophobia-on-socialmedia-aimed-at-ruining-brand-sa-

[4] Chenzi, V. (2020). Fake news, social media and xenophobia in South Africa.

[5] Hassan, I and Hitchen, J. (2020, April 15). Driving Division? Disinformation and the New media landscape in Nigeria. Center for Democracy and Development. Retrieved from https:// www.cddwestafrica.org/drivingdivision-disinformation-and-the-new-

[6] Steenkamp, C. (2009). Xenophobia in South Africa: What does it say about trust? *The Round Table*, *98*(403),

[7] Williams V. Xenophobia in South Africa: overview and analysis. Cape Town: The Perspective. 2008.

[8] Harris, B. (2002). Xenophobia: A new pathology for a new South Africa. *Psychopathology and social prejudice*,

[9] Crush, J., McDonald, D., Williams, V., Lefko-Everett, K., Dorey, D., Taylor,

**237**

**Chapter 13**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

sharing of fake information.

agencies in controlling the fake information.

domains. Some of the most common myths are:

*Kinshuk Pathak*

busters and fact checkers on COVID-19.

COVID-19 Infodemic and Indian

The global widespread of novel COVID-19 also witnessed fake news being circulated in social media. Dealing with these infodemic and providing authentic information was a big challenge for the government and media professionals. The present chapter is an attempt towards this direction to evaluate the role and initiatives of Indian media in dealing with fake news and providing authentic information to the people. A desktop analysis approach of news channels, news websites will be used to conduct the study. The study also lists various credible sources, myth

The outbreak of novel COVID-19 across the world, parallelly witnessed various misleading information, rumors, fake news and misinformation referred as infodemic by WHO [1]. A study of PAHO (Pan American Health Organization) reveals that about 361,000,000 videos were uploaded on YouTube with keyword "COVID-19" and "COVID 19"; 19,200 articles have been indexed by Google Scholar on COVID-19; and 550 million tweets have been found in March with keywords "coronavirus," "corona virus," "covid19," "covid-19," "covid\_19" or pandemic [2]. The overabundance of information generated on COVID-19 especially scientific and medical information and its rampant sharing without being vetted is critical for a pandemic. Fake information often dissolves the available authentic information. The uncertainty and anxiety arising from COVID-19 has provided the perfect base for immediate and widespread

Newspapers, News channels, News websites are potential medium for people to seek information on latest topics and events. News stories and articles published in these channels generate awareness, guides and inform people in many ways. According to Schmidt et al. [3] news coverage aims to report any event effectively and present various perspectives of the event. Amidst the current pandemic situation news agencies are continuously serving people with information on COVID-19, its preventive measures, guidelines issued by the government and fake information being circulated. A need was henceforth identified to study the role of news

According to WHO [4] myths related with COVID-19 are scattered on various

Media: An Evaluative Study

**Keywords:** COVID-19, infodemic, fake news, media, journalism

#### **Chapter 13**

## COVID-19 Infodemic and Indian Media: An Evaluative Study

*Kinshuk Pathak*

#### **Abstract**

The global widespread of novel COVID-19 also witnessed fake news being circulated in social media. Dealing with these infodemic and providing authentic information was a big challenge for the government and media professionals. The present chapter is an attempt towards this direction to evaluate the role and initiatives of Indian media in dealing with fake news and providing authentic information to the people. A desktop analysis approach of news channels, news websites will be used to conduct the study. The study also lists various credible sources, myth busters and fact checkers on COVID-19.

**Keywords:** COVID-19, infodemic, fake news, media, journalism

#### **1. Introduction**

The outbreak of novel COVID-19 across the world, parallelly witnessed various misleading information, rumors, fake news and misinformation referred as infodemic by WHO [1]. A study of PAHO (Pan American Health Organization) reveals that about 361,000,000 videos were uploaded on YouTube with keyword "COVID-19" and "COVID 19"; 19,200 articles have been indexed by Google Scholar on COVID-19; and 550 million tweets have been found in March with keywords "coronavirus," "corona virus," "covid19," "covid-19," "covid\_19" or pandemic [2]. The overabundance of information generated on COVID-19 especially scientific and medical information and its rampant sharing without being vetted is critical for a pandemic. Fake information often dissolves the available authentic information. The uncertainty and anxiety arising from COVID-19 has provided the perfect base for immediate and widespread sharing of fake information.

Newspapers, News channels, News websites are potential medium for people to seek information on latest topics and events. News stories and articles published in these channels generate awareness, guides and inform people in many ways. According to Schmidt et al. [3] news coverage aims to report any event effectively and present various perspectives of the event. Amidst the current pandemic situation news agencies are continuously serving people with information on COVID-19, its preventive measures, guidelines issued by the government and fake information being circulated. A need was henceforth identified to study the role of news agencies in controlling the fake information.

According to WHO [4] myths related with COVID-19 are scattered on various domains. Some of the most common myths are:


According to Naeem and Bhatti [5] "in such a rapidly changing situation, with millions on lockdown, social media outlets such as Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, and WeChat, have become major sources of information about the crisis." Another study of Islam et al. [6] points out that "Facebook, Twitter, and online newspapers have been identified as the best platforms for monitoring misinformation and dispelling rumors, stigma, and conspiracy theories among the general people." A need was therefore felt to analyze the websites of news channels to study the approach adopted to control the fake information. Researcher identified two key roles of media professionals in the current pandemic situation: (a) To generate awareness among the people; (b) To disseminate authentic information and filter fake information.

#### **2. Scope of study**

The scope of study was limited to the websites of Indian news channels. Future studies can be carried on news programmes focusing on mis-information, comparative study of print and electronic media, larger samples can also be considered for study.

#### **3. Methodology**

Desktop analysis approach validated in earlier studies of Nash and Churchill, 2020 [7]; Yuvaraj, 2020 [8] was used in the study. WHO has notified some misinformation related with COVID-19. In the present study researcher evaluated the

**239**

listed below:

**Table 1.**

*Websites of news channels.*

• Alcohol

• Bleach

• Drugs

• Garlic

• Hand dryers

• Hot baths

• Hot peppers

• Houseflies

• Antibiotics

• 5G Mobile networks

• Cold weather, snow

• Holding your breath

• Hydroxychloroquine

• Masks, exercise

• Masks, CO2 intoxication

• Hot and humid climates

*COVID-19 Infodemic and Indian Media: An Evaluative Study*

**S. No News channel URL**

1 AAJ TAK https://www.aajtak.in/ 2 ABP NEWS https://www.abplive.com/ 3 ZEE NEWS https://zeenews.india.com/

5 NDTV India https://www.ndtv.com/ 6 NEWS18 https://www.news18.com/

coverage of Indian news channels on the misinformation topics notified by WHO. The official websites of news channels was considered for the study. Each topic notified by WHO was searched on the news websites and the information obtained

Researcher used the fake news segments enlisted on WHO myth busters [4] webpage to evaluate the fake news covered by the news channels. The criteria are

was subjected to analysis. **Table 1** shows the websites considered for study.

4 Republic BHARAT https://bharat.republicworld.com/livetv

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94230*

*COVID-19 Infodemic and Indian Media: An Evaluative Study DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94230*


**Table 1.** *Websites of news channels.*

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

5.Use of mask for longer duration can cause CO2 intoxication.

6.Alcohol consumption can prevent from COVID-19.

7.Thermal scanners can identify COVID-19 infection.

2.Masks should be used during exercising also.

3.COVID-19 can spread through shoes.

8.COVID-19 is transmitted through flies.

10. Sun exposures prevent from COVID-19.

9. 5G mobile networks are spreading COVID-19.

11. Pneumonia vaccines prevent from COVID-19.

12. Using saline water to rinse nose prevents COVID-19.

13. Garlic consumption reduces the risk of COVID-19.

According to Naeem and Bhatti [5] "in such a rapidly changing situation, with millions on lockdown, social media outlets such as Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, and WeChat, have become major sources of information about the crisis." Another study of Islam et al. [6] points out that "Facebook, Twitter, and online newspapers have been identified as the best platforms for monitoring misinformation and dispelling rumors, stigma, and conspiracy theories among the general people." A need was therefore felt to analyze the websites of news channels to study the approach adopted to control the fake information. Researcher identified two key roles of media professionals in the current pandemic situation: (a) To generate awareness among the

people; (b) To disseminate authentic information and filter fake information.

The scope of study was limited to the websites of Indian news channels. Future studies can be carried on news programmes focusing on mis-information, comparative study of print and electronic media, larger samples can also be considered for

Desktop analysis approach validated in earlier studies of Nash and Churchill, 2020 [7]; Yuvaraj, 2020 [8] was used in the study. WHO has notified some misinformation related with COVID-19. In the present study researcher evaluated the

4.COVID-19 is caused by bacteria.

cure COVID-19.

1.Hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine used for malarial patients can be used to

**238**

study.

**2. Scope of study**

**3. Methodology**

coverage of Indian news channels on the misinformation topics notified by WHO. The official websites of news channels was considered for the study. Each topic notified by WHO was searched on the news websites and the information obtained was subjected to analysis. **Table 1** shows the websites considered for study.

Researcher used the fake news segments enlisted on WHO myth busters [4] webpage to evaluate the fake news covered by the news channels. The criteria are listed below:


#### **4. Findings**

The findings of the study are summarized below.

**Table 2** and **Figure 1** shows the coverage of news by the news channels where Aaj Tak channel webpage had more news articles or post (38) than other channels followed by ABP News (35).

It can be seen from the analysis that Aaj Tak covered 38 issues followed by ABP News 35 issues, 33 issues by Zee News, 29 issues by News 18 and Republic Bharat out of 28 major misinformation topics identified by WHO. These channels covered 2–3 news stories on a misinformation related with COVID-19. At times when print media is also suffering, as most people have stopped subscribing to print newspapers due to fear of COVID-19, Indian media is responding through electronic media and news websites to cater to the information needs of the people.

#### **5. Conclusion**

The current study found the active role played by the News channels in combating fake news and making people aware about authentic information. Media has to play an important role in pandemic situation as there is no any proper vaccine or drug to treat COVID-19. Only awareness and following preventive measures is the key to overcome the current health crisis. The study also validates that the key role identified by researcher (a) to generate awareness among the people; (b) to disseminate authentic information and filter fake information is actively being carried by the Indian media. Also, tackling infodemic is a big challenge. In order to control the rapid spread of fake information through social media there is a need to monitoring or regulatory body to filter information on the web. Also, government should authorize institution or organization who can issue information so that people can also identify

**241**

**Table 2.**

*COVID-19 Infodemic and Indian Media: An Evaluative Study*

**NEWS**

2 Alcohol 5 4 3 2 4 3 3 Antibiotics 1 1 0 0 0 0 4 Bleach 0 0 0 0 0 0

6 Drugs 1 2 1 2 1 1 7 Garlic 2 2 2 2 2 1 8 Hand dryers 0 1 1 0 0 1

11 Hot baths 2 2 2 1 1 1 12 Hot peppers 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 Houseflies 2 2 2 2 2 2

17 Medicines 2 1 1 1 1 2

19 Mosquitos 1 0 0 0 0 1

22 Recovery 1 1 1 1 1 1 23 Saline 1 1 1 1 1 1 24 Shoes 1 1 1 1 1 1

**ZEE NEWS**

3 2 2 2 2 2

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 1 1

2 2 2 1 2 1

2 1 2 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

38 35 33 28 29 29

**Republic Bharat**

**NDTV News 18**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94230*

1 5G Mobile

5 Cold weather, snow

9 Holding your breath

10 Hot and humid climates

14 Hydroxy

15 Masks, CO2

16 Masks,

18 Methanol,

20 Older people, younger people

21 Pneumonia

25 Sunny and hot weather

26 Thermal

27 Ultra-violet

28 Viruses,

chloroquine

intoxication

exercise

ethanol

vaccines

scanners

(UV) lamps

bacteria, antibiotics

*Coverage of news post on fake news.*

networks

**S. No Segments AAJTAK ABP** 


#### *COVID-19 Infodemic and Indian Media: An Evaluative Study DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94230*

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

• Medicines

• Mosquitos

• Recovery

• Saline

• Shoes

**4. Findings**

**5. Conclusion**

• Methanol, ethanol

• Pneumonia vaccines

• Sunny and hot weather

• Ultra-violet (UV) lamps

followed by ABP News (35).

• Viruses, bacteria, antibiotics

The findings of the study are summarized below.

news websites to cater to the information needs of the people.

**Table 2** and **Figure 1** shows the coverage of news by the news channels where Aaj Tak channel webpage had more news articles or post (38) than other channels

It can be seen from the analysis that Aaj Tak covered 38 issues followed by ABP News 35 issues, 33 issues by Zee News, 29 issues by News 18 and Republic Bharat out of 28 major misinformation topics identified by WHO. These channels covered 2–3 news stories on a misinformation related with COVID-19. At times when print media is also suffering, as most people have stopped subscribing to print newspapers due to fear of COVID-19, Indian media is responding through electronic media and

The current study found the active role played by the News channels in combating fake news and making people aware about authentic information. Media has to play an important role in pandemic situation as there is no any proper vaccine or drug to treat COVID-19. Only awareness and following preventive measures is the key to overcome the current health crisis. The study also validates that the key role identified by researcher (a) to generate awareness among the people; (b) to disseminate authentic information and filter fake information is actively being carried by the Indian media. Also, tackling infodemic is a big challenge. In order to control the rapid spread of fake information through social media there is a need to monitoring or regulatory body to filter information on the web. Also, government should authorize institution or organization who can issue information so that people can also identify

• Thermal scanners

• Older people, younger people

**240**

**Table 2.**

*Coverage of news post on fake news.*

**Figure 1.**

*An overview of coverage of each channel.*

credible, authentic information and easily figure out fake information. Similar research can be carried to evaluate the role of media. The present study was limited to the websites of news channels. It would be interesting to conduct a study of news programmes focusing on fake information and carrying a comparative study of print

**243**

**Figure 4.** *NewsGuard [10]*.

**Figure 3.**

*WHO mythbusters on COVID-19 [1].*

*COVID-19 Infodemic and Indian Media: An Evaluative Study*

and electronic media. One can follow the recommendations below to evaluate the

Global library association IFLA has released an infographic to spot fake news

Alternatively, WHO mythbusters website (**Figure 3**) can also be used to get

News Guard (**Figure 4**) can also be used to get trusted information from the

Some of the trusted information sources on COVID-19 are:

2.https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/index.html

1.https://www.who.int/emergen…/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94230*

information and overcome infodemic.

**6. Guide to identify fake news**

authentic information related with COVID-19.

shown in **Figure 2**.

Internet.

and electronic media. One can follow the recommendations below to evaluate the information and overcome infodemic.

### **6. Guide to identify fake news**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

credible, authentic information and easily figure out fake information. Similar research can be carried to evaluate the role of media. The present study was limited to the websites of news channels. It would be interesting to conduct a study of news programmes focusing on fake information and carrying a comparative study of print

**242**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 1.**

*An overview of coverage of each channel.*

*IFLA guidelines on fake news [9].*

Global library association IFLA has released an infographic to spot fake news shown in **Figure 2**.

Alternatively, WHO mythbusters website (**Figure 3**) can also be used to get authentic information related with COVID-19.

News Guard (**Figure 4**) can also be used to get trusted information from the Internet.

Some of the trusted information sources on COVID-19 are:

1.https://www.who.int/emergen…/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019

2.https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/index.html

#### **Figure 3.**

*WHO mythbusters on COVID-19 [1].*

#### **Figure 4.** *NewsGuard [10]*.

**243**


### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Author details**

Kinshuk Pathak Central University of South Bihar, Gaya, India

\*Address all correspondence to: kinshukpathak@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**245**

*COVID-19 Infodemic and Indian Media: An Evaluative Study*

Organization. 2020. DOI: https://doi.

[8] Yuvaraj M. Global responses of health science librarians to the COVID-19 (Corona virus) pandemic: a desktop analysis. Health Information and Libraries Journal. 2020. DOI: https://doi.

[9] IFLA. How to spot fake news. 2020. Available from: https://www.ifla.org/ publications/node/11174 [Accessed:

[10] News Guard. Available from: https://www.newsguardtech.com/

[Accessed: 2020-08-01]

org/10.1111/gwao.12484

org/10.1111/hir.12321

2020-08-01]

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94230*

[2] PAHO. Understanding the infodemic and misinformation in the fight against COVID-19 [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://iris.paho.org/bitstream/ handle/10665.2/52052/Factsheetinfodemic\_eng.pdf?sequence=14

[3] Schmidt A, Ivanova A, Schäfer M *S. media* attention for climate change around the world: A comparative analysis of newspaper coverage in 27 countries. Global Environmental Change. 2013. *23*(5), 1233-1248.

[4] WHO. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public: mythbusters. Available from: https://www.who. int/emergencies/diseases/novelcoronavirus-2019/advice-for-public/ myth-busters [Accessed: 2020-08-01]

[5] Naeem SB, Bhatti R. The COVID-19 'infodemic': a new front for information professionals. Health Information and Libraries Journal. 2020. DOI: https://doi.

[6] Islam MS, Sarkar T, Khan SH, Kamal Abu-Hena M, Hasan SMM, Kabir A, Yeasmin D, Islam MA, Chowdhury KIA, Anwar KS, Chughtai AA, Seale H. COVID-19-related infodemic and its impact on public health: a global social media analysis. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2020.

[7] Nash M, Churchill B. Caring duting COVID-19: a gendered analysis of Australian University respondes to managing remote working and caring responsibilities. Gender, Work &

org/10.1111/hir.12311

DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0812

[1] WHO. Immunizing the public against misinformation [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www. who.int/news-room/feature-stories/ detail/immunizing-the-publicagainst-misinformation [Accessed:

**References**

2020-08-01]

[Accessed: 2020-08-01]

*COVID-19 Infodemic and Indian Media: An Evaluative Study DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94230*

#### **References**

*Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-Truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*

3.https://experience.arcgis.com/…/685d0ace521648f8a5beeeee1b9…

6.https://www.kaggle.com/allen-ins…/CORD-19-research-challenge

4.https://www.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html…

5.https://pages.semanticscholar.org/coronavirus-research

7.https://www.mohfw.gov.in/

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

**Conflict of interest**

**244**

**Author details**

Kinshuk Pathak

Central University of South Bihar, Gaya, India

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: kinshukpathak@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

[1] WHO. Immunizing the public against misinformation [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www. who.int/news-room/feature-stories/ detail/immunizing-the-publicagainst-misinformation [Accessed: 2020-08-01]

[2] PAHO. Understanding the infodemic and misinformation in the fight against COVID-19 [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://iris.paho.org/bitstream/ handle/10665.2/52052/Factsheetinfodemic\_eng.pdf?sequence=14 [Accessed: 2020-08-01]

[3] Schmidt A, Ivanova A, Schäfer M *S. media* attention for climate change around the world: A comparative analysis of newspaper coverage in 27 countries. Global Environmental Change. 2013. *23*(5), 1233-1248.

[4] WHO. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public: mythbusters. Available from: https://www.who. int/emergencies/diseases/novelcoronavirus-2019/advice-for-public/ myth-busters [Accessed: 2020-08-01]

[5] Naeem SB, Bhatti R. The COVID-19 'infodemic': a new front for information professionals. Health Information and Libraries Journal. 2020. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/hir.12311

[6] Islam MS, Sarkar T, Khan SH, Kamal Abu-Hena M, Hasan SMM, Kabir A, Yeasmin D, Islam MA, Chowdhury KIA, Anwar KS, Chughtai AA, Seale H. COVID-19-related infodemic and its impact on public health: a global social media analysis. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2020. DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0812

[7] Nash M, Churchill B. Caring duting COVID-19: a gendered analysis of Australian University respondes to managing remote working and caring responsibilities. Gender, Work &

Organization. 2020. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/gwao.12484

[8] Yuvaraj M. Global responses of health science librarians to the COVID-19 (Corona virus) pandemic: a desktop analysis. Health Information and Libraries Journal. 2020. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/hir.12321

[9] IFLA. How to spot fake news. 2020. Available from: https://www.ifla.org/ publications/node/11174 [Accessed: 2020-08-01]

[10] News Guard. Available from: https://www.newsguardtech.com/ [Accessed: 2020-08-01]

### *Edited by Ján Višňovský and Jana Radošinská*

We live in the era of the digital revolution characterized by easy access to obtaining, processing and disseminating information on a global scale. The emergence of these global digital spaces has transformed the world of communication. This shift in our understanding of what we should be informed about, when and how, manifests itself not only within mature liberal democracies, which grant their citizens and the media constitutionally guaranteed freedom of speech and rights associated with obtaining information, but also within developing countries with different types of political establishments. Moreover, many media producers, especially journalists and persons claiming to be journalists, abuse their crucial mission and, instead, foster a set of serious communication phenomena that threaten basic human rights and freedoms, weaken them or decelerate their development. The publication is focused on the ways fake news, disinformation, misinformation and hateful statements are spread across society, predominantly within the online environment. Its main ambition is to offer an interdisciplinary body of scholarly knowledge on fake news, disinformation and propaganda in relation to today's journalism, social development, political situation and cultural affairs happening all around the world.

Published in London, UK © 2021 IntechOpen © Whitepointer / iStock

Fake News Is Bad News - Hoaxes, Half-truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism

Fake News Is Bad News

Hoaxes, Half-truths and the Nature

of Today's Journalism

*Edited by Ján Višňovský and Jana Radošinská*