Preface

To us, this book, *Fake News Is Bad News – Hoaxes, Half-truths and the Nature of Today's Journalism*, is unique for multiple reasons. First, its challenging main purpose—to offer an interdisciplinary body of scholarly knowledge on fake news, disinformation and propaganda in relation to today's journalism, social development, political situation and cultural affairs happening all around the world—has become even more difficult to fulfill over the last twelve months, which can be defined as 'the year the Earth stood still' (let us hope that it is actually appropriate to use this widely known popular culture reference). Second, COVID-19 has made us much more careful, a bit more empathetic and maybe even somewhat more pessimistic regarding today's journalism and its pitfalls. Third, while offering our feedback to the authors contributing to this publication, we found it quite interesting and maybe even intriguing to see that whenever we come from and whatever we want to discuss in relation to contemporary journalism, there is one focal point that unites us all: the essential idea of quality journalism, with everything it should provide, now confronted with the omnipresence of fake news, disinformation, conspiracies and other public communication deficiencies that may threaten the ways we live our lives, influence what we think or make us act in an inappropriate manner.

Regardless, even during the pandemic we still live in the era of the digital revolution, which is characterized by easy access to obtaining, processing and disseminating information on a global scale. These global digital spaces transformed the world of communication years ago. The given shift in our understanding of what we should be informed about, when and how, manifests itself not only within mature liberal democracies, which grant their citizens and the media constitutionally guaranteed freedom of speech and rights associated with obtaining information, but also within developing countries with different types of political establishments. Moreover, many media producers, especially journalists and persons claiming to be journalists, abuse their crucial mission and, instead, foster a set of serious communication flaws that, in fact, threaten basic human rights and freedoms, weaken them or make their development impossible.

The publication is focused on the ways fake news, disinformation, misinformation and hateful statements are spread across society, predominantly via the online environment. It offers an interdisciplinary body of scholarly knowledge on fake news, disinformation and propaganda in relation to today's journalism, social development, political situation and cultural affairs. The book is divided into two sections that outline the thematic differences between the individual chapters. The first section, which over eight chapters offers a collection of interdisciplinary reflections on understanding fake news and disinformation, includes theoretical as well as empirical knowledge. The second section, consisting of five chapters, focuses on the regional and local contexts of the issue in question.

As our introductory chapter outlines the discussed topics in light of the contemporary trends in journalism, its aim is to identify which aspects of journalistic practice have changed lately, and why. The main line of thought follows global as well as national

**II**

**Section 2**

in Nigeria

in Venezuela

*by Philip Effiom Ephraim*

*by Nanche Billa Robert*

*by Emeka Umejei*

*by Kinshuk Pathak*

Regional and Local Contexts of Processing Information **171**

**Chapter 9 173**

**Chapter 10 183**

**Chapter 11 197**

**Chapter 12 221**

**Chapter 13 237**

Framing Xenophobia on Social Media: An Analysis of Xenophobic Attacks

The Potentials of Radio in Combating Misinformation about COVID-19

Disinformation as a Society-Wide Threat: Journalism and 'Fakecracy'

The Scramble for Cyberspace: Internet-Based Reporting of Genocide

*by Andrés Cañizález, León Hernández and Luisa Torrealba*

COVID-19 Infodemic and Indian Media: An Evaluative Study

in the Southern Cameroon-Ambazonia Crisis

on Nigerians Living in South Africa

(in our case Slovakian) problems of journalism and media communication that will have to be addressed thoroughly and with respect to the global pandemic; a situation similar to those previous generations had to face repeatedly, but which has never been experienced by most people living today. The COVID-19 outbreak has created a new, rather hostile communication environment; even the most skilled and experienced media professionals have never encountered anything like it.

Another communication situation no one was truly prepared for is discussed by Thomas Froehlich. Donald Trump's era had its notable communication specifics, which took by surprise not only journalists, reporters, political scientists and media analysts but also PR specialists and media scholars. The author explains how misinformation/disinformation campaigns reshape the political 'arena', and why they offer remarkable opportunities to politically engaged individuals, who do not communicate as state officials should and do not want to be called politicians in the first place. Froehlich's interdisciplinary view on the topic examines the ways in which disinformation and misinformation spread across the media environment, confusing their recipients and thus distorting social communication at global, national, regional and local levels.

It is obvious that pieces of disinformation and the fake news would not be so appealing and convincing if they were not elaborated in detail and then presented so casually and confidently. Nowadays, we are encountering a rather dangerous phenomenon; audiences, as well as media professionals themselves, are sometimes unable to spot the (often subtle) remaining differences between real news and fake news. The questions of how is that possible and what can we do about it are addressed by Zuzana Kvetanová, Anna Kačincová Predmerská and Magdaléna Švecová. The authors offer their own empirical study on selected Slovak news portals to demonstrate how the methods of debunking fake news and misinformation should be used in a solid or rather functional manner.

While acknowledging the serious society-wide consequences of inauthentic media images of the world around us, Eleonora Shestakova warns that the small, seemingly unimportant things we tend to overlook are just as crucial. The author's study focuses on the concept of 'lightweight and simplified truth', uncovering the subtle and inconspicuous ways fake news and disinformation, calculative and potentially dangerous distortions of reality, manipulate our moods, emotions and lives.

In contrast, Elena Danescu brings a detailed insight into a time of digital disruption' driven by digital media. The author works with the basic assumption that our perceptions of the words 'democracy', 'freedom' and 'truth' are changing significantly. One of the focal purposes of the study is to discuss legislation frameworks associated with freedom of information and freedom of expression by referring to international initiatives and strategic documents. Explaining why digital media can be seen as a driving force of both technological progress and the emergence of a democratic society, Danescu's line of thought aims to underline new challenges media professionals and lawmakers will have to tackle and opportunities that may emerge in the near future, despite the contemporary situation.

Centering attention on the term 'fake news' and seeing it as a phenomenon disvaluing the journalistic practice, Sulaiman A. Osho offers his reflection on ideological constructs of news. As the author suggests, fake news rejects and contradicts all existing news values and therefore it is not supposed to be called 'news' at all.

**V**

Fake news is thus characterized as a total negation of both journalism values and news values, which reaches far beyond the 'disinformation scene' and influences

The next chapter outlines the categories, causes and consequences of fake news. Dumebi Otulugbu considers both global communication trends and the ways fake news is perceived in Nigeria, adding a set of regional or rather national contexts. The author also discusses how the largest Internet companies deal with the related issues, concluding that there is so much more that needs to be done to if not

Discussing one of the most interesting phenomena of digital communication, so-called Internet memes, Jon-Chao Hong, Ming-Yueh Hwang and Kai-Hsin Tai focus on functional food messages. Their chapter offers both a thorough reflection on online behavior patterns in relation to value expectation and an empirical inquiry. As the authors suggest, the ways in which people create, replicate and share memes about functional food is heavily influenced by their individual personality traits.

As noted above, the second section of the publication includes five chapters. Although the individual chapters are thematically diverse, they partly share one ultimate goal – the necessity of underlining the fact that fake news, disinformation and other related communication phenomena manifest themselves within local and regional frameworks as well, posing multiple threats to economically developing

Philip Effiom Ephraim's chapter places emphasis on the fact that in the twenty-first century, the radio may not be the most commercially interesting mass medium, but radio communication still preserves its unique features. The author establishes a complex scholarly discussion on how radio can be useful when public health information needs to be spread quickly and efficiently. As the chapter warns that the dissemination of disinformation about the COVID-19 pandemic within Nigerian society has become a serious problem, radio is identified as a potentially key means of providing the public with quality information, warnings and advice associated

Stating that news sources in Venezuela are steadily narrowing, Andres Cañizalez, León Hernández and Luisa Torrealba outline key challenges faced by the Venezuelan media environment. The chapter proceeds from the general theoretical framework of fake news and disinformation to the current political situation in the country, which is unsteady and marked by restricting regulatory mechanisms applied to the sphere of media production. According to the authors, ethics-based journalism relying on fact-checked information may be the only real answer left; general trust

Another serious regional problem, this time associated with pieces of fake news and the phenomenon of post-truth politics, is addressed by Robert Nanche Billa. The topic in question gains even more relevance and severity when connected to a specific situation or event, in this case to crimes against humanity committed during the 2020 Ngarbuh Massacre. The author's analysis of media coverage on the massacre is divided into multiple segments, as his intention is to outline how this event was perceived and commented on by state officials, human rights organizations, religious

in what we read, see or hear needs to be rebuilt carefully.

authorities and social media discourses.

improve, than at least stabilize the contemporary situation.

today's journalism as a whole.

countries and young democracies.

with current safety measures.

Fake news is thus characterized as a total negation of both journalism values and news values, which reaches far beyond the 'disinformation scene' and influences today's journalism as a whole.

The next chapter outlines the categories, causes and consequences of fake news. Dumebi Otulugbu considers both global communication trends and the ways fake news is perceived in Nigeria, adding a set of regional or rather national contexts. The author also discusses how the largest Internet companies deal with the related issues, concluding that there is so much more that needs to be done to if not improve, than at least stabilize the contemporary situation.

Discussing one of the most interesting phenomena of digital communication, so-called Internet memes, Jon-Chao Hong, Ming-Yueh Hwang and Kai-Hsin Tai focus on functional food messages. Their chapter offers both a thorough reflection on online behavior patterns in relation to value expectation and an empirical inquiry. As the authors suggest, the ways in which people create, replicate and share memes about functional food is heavily influenced by their individual personality traits.

As noted above, the second section of the publication includes five chapters. Although the individual chapters are thematically diverse, they partly share one ultimate goal – the necessity of underlining the fact that fake news, disinformation and other related communication phenomena manifest themselves within local and regional frameworks as well, posing multiple threats to economically developing countries and young democracies.

Philip Effiom Ephraim's chapter places emphasis on the fact that in the twenty-first century, the radio may not be the most commercially interesting mass medium, but radio communication still preserves its unique features. The author establishes a complex scholarly discussion on how radio can be useful when public health information needs to be spread quickly and efficiently. As the chapter warns that the dissemination of disinformation about the COVID-19 pandemic within Nigerian society has become a serious problem, radio is identified as a potentially key means of providing the public with quality information, warnings and advice associated with current safety measures.

Stating that news sources in Venezuela are steadily narrowing, Andres Cañizalez, León Hernández and Luisa Torrealba outline key challenges faced by the Venezuelan media environment. The chapter proceeds from the general theoretical framework of fake news and disinformation to the current political situation in the country, which is unsteady and marked by restricting regulatory mechanisms applied to the sphere of media production. According to the authors, ethics-based journalism relying on fact-checked information may be the only real answer left; general trust in what we read, see or hear needs to be rebuilt carefully.

Another serious regional problem, this time associated with pieces of fake news and the phenomenon of post-truth politics, is addressed by Robert Nanche Billa. The topic in question gains even more relevance and severity when connected to a specific situation or event, in this case to crimes against humanity committed during the 2020 Ngarbuh Massacre. The author's analysis of media coverage on the massacre is divided into multiple segments, as his intention is to outline how this event was perceived and commented on by state officials, human rights organizations, religious authorities and social media discourses.

**IV**

(in our case Slovakian) problems of journalism and media communication that will have to be addressed thoroughly and with respect to the global pandemic; a situation similar to those previous generations had to face repeatedly, but which has never been experienced by most people living today. The COVID-19 outbreak has created a new, rather hostile communication environment; even the most skilled and experienced

Another communication situation no one was truly prepared for is discussed by Thomas Froehlich. Donald Trump's era had its notable communication specifics, which took by surprise not only journalists, reporters, political scientists and media analysts but also PR specialists and media scholars. The author explains how misinformation/disinformation campaigns reshape the political 'arena', and why they offer remarkable opportunities to politically engaged individuals, who do not communicate as state officials should and do not want to be called politicians in the first place. Froehlich's interdisciplinary view on the topic examines the ways in which disinformation and misinformation spread across the media environment, confusing their recipients and thus distorting social communication at global,

It is obvious that pieces of disinformation and the fake news would not be so appealing and convincing if they were not elaborated in detail and then presented so casually and confidently. Nowadays, we are encountering a rather dangerous phenomenon; audiences, as well as media professionals themselves, are sometimes unable to spot the (often subtle) remaining differences between real news and fake news. The questions of how is that possible and what can we do about it are addressed by Zuzana Kvetanová, Anna Kačincová Predmerská and Magdaléna Švecová. The authors offer their own empirical study on selected Slovak news portals to demonstrate how the methods of debunking fake news and

misinformation should be used in a solid or rather functional manner.

near future, despite the contemporary situation.

While acknowledging the serious society-wide consequences of inauthentic media images of the world around us, Eleonora Shestakova warns that the small, seemingly unimportant things we tend to overlook are just as crucial. The author's study focuses on the concept of 'lightweight and simplified truth', uncovering the subtle and inconspicuous ways fake news and disinformation, calculative and potentially dangerous distortions of reality, manipulate our moods, emotions and lives.

In contrast, Elena Danescu brings a detailed insight into a time of digital disruption' driven by digital media. The author works with the basic assumption that our perceptions of the words 'democracy', 'freedom' and 'truth' are changing significantly. One of the focal purposes of the study is to discuss legislation frameworks associated with freedom of information and freedom of expression by referring to international initiatives and strategic documents. Explaining why digital media can be seen as a driving force of both technological progress and the emergence of a democratic society, Danescu's line of thought aims to underline new challenges media professionals and lawmakers will have to tackle and opportunities that may emerge in the

Centering attention on the term 'fake news' and seeing it as a phenomenon disvaluing the journalistic practice, Sulaiman A. Osho offers his reflection on ideological constructs of news. As the author suggests, fake news rejects and contradicts all existing news values and therefore it is not supposed to be called 'news' at all.

media professionals have never encountered anything like it.

national, regional and local levels.

The penultimate chapter of the publication is focused on fake news and disinformation concerning xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa. Its author, Umejei Emeka, is particularly interested in xenophobia (and expressions of violence associated with it). The text identifies social media as a key driving force of the rise of disinformation with serious consequences. The theoretical framework is followed by the author's own empirical inquiry into motivations of those who have shared misinformation and disinformation on xenophobic attacks on Nigerians living in South Africa via social networking sites.

Reacting to the COVID-19 'infodemic' in relation to Indian media and their thematic agendas, Kinshuk Pathak argues that since the outbreak of COVID-19 at the end of 2019, we have witnessed, thus far, an unseen amount of misleading information, rumors, fake news, conspiracies and disinformation. The author's aim is to identify parallels and differences between contents of selected news websites of Indian news channels via desktop analysis. As noted, addressing this 'infodemic' is a difficult challenge; it seems it is next to impossible to combat fake news and, at the same time, convince media audiences to seek authentic information instead.

> **Ján Višňovský and Jana Radošinská** Faculty of Mass Media Communication, Department of Mass Media Communication, University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic

> > **1**

Section 1

Theoretical and Empirical

Outlines of Understanding

Fake News and

Disinformation

## Section 1
