**Appendix A: Measurement of variables and data sources**

*City population, density and growth*: City population data is collected from Census of India, 2011. Website: https://www.census2011.co.in/urbanagglomeration.php

*Total road length*: Both Kachcha road length and Pucca road length are considered for the measurement of total road length of a city. Source: Town amenities, District Census Hand Book, Census of India 2011. Website: http://censusindia.gov. in/2011census/dchb/DCHB.

*Number of Latrines*: Total number of pit, flush/pour, services, and other latrines. Source: Town amenities, District Census Hand Book, Census of India 2011.

*Total water supply*: Total protected water supply in city. Source: Town amenities, District Census Hand Book, Census of India 2011.

*Electricity connection*: Total number of electricity connections in domestic, industrial, commercial, road lighting, electricity, and other connections. Source: Town amenities, District Census Hand Book, Census of India 2011.

*Total hospitals*: It includes allopathic hospitals, alternative medicine hospitals, dispensary/health Centers, family welfare centers, maternity and child welfare centers, maternity homes, TB hospitals/ clinic, and nursing homes Source: Town amenities, District Census Hand Book, Census of India 2011.

*Total number of schools, colleges, and universities*: It includes all the private and governments' school, colleges and universities of a city. Source: Town amenities, District Census Hand Book, Census of India 2011.

*Total number of banks*: It includes nationalized banks, private commercial banks, and cooperative banks.

*Total number of credit societies*: Total number agricultural and non-agricultural credit societies.
