Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin

*Haofu Zheng and Bo Liu*

#### **Abstract**

The Sichuan Basin located in the western region of the Yangtze block was a stable craton basin in the Permian. The structural differentiation caused by the Dongwu movement and the Emei rifting activity controlled the sedimentary system and the Permian carbonate gas reservoirs in the Sichuan Basin. In this study, we have investigated the stratigraphic characteristics of each Permian formation, studied the depositional systems of each period of the Permian stage, and discussed the overall tectono-sedimentary evolution of the sedimentary basin. During the Permian, the Sichuan Basin experienced an intense tectonic activity, controlling the variations of the sedimentary environments occurring in the basin. The depositional systems of the basin were controlled by the tectonic setting of the intra-cratonic depression and marginal rifts during the period. Therefore, this is an important period in the tectono-sedimentary evolution of the study area, which can be divided into the following stages: (1) From the Late Carboniferous to the Early Permian, the Sichuan Basin was dominated by tectonic uplift and denudation. In the Middle Permian, a regional transgression occurred in the whole upper Yangtze region, and the sedimentary environments of the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas gradually changed to the carbonate platform. (2) In the early phase of the Late Permian (the Wujiaping period), being influenced by the Emei rift, the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas formed a complex pattern of structural highs and adjacent depressions, controlled by a differential subsidence. (3) In the late phase of the Late Permian (the Changxing period), with the cessation of the volcanic activity and the enhancement of the regional extension, the pattern of structural highs and depressions is more obvious, and the relatively calm structural environment makes the carbonate sedimentary environment tending to dominate.

**Keywords:** Yangtze block, Permian, structural differentiation, sedimentary system, tectono-sedimentary evolution

#### **1. Introduction**

The Yangtze block is located in South China, with the Qinling-Dabie-Sulu orogenic belt in the north and the Songpan-Ganzi fold belt in the west [1].

The Sichuan cratonic basin located in the western region of the Yangtze block has experienced multiple tectonic movements during its evolution. During the

Permian, the structural differentiation caused by the Dongwu movement and the Emei rifting activity controlled the sedimentary system [2].

Moreover, the depositional systems controlled the distribution of the Permian carbonate gas reservoirs in the area, where several new gas fields have been discovered in recent years. The platform margin reef-shoal facies of the Upper Permian Changxing Formation is one of the favorable sedimentary facies belts for the formation of favorable reservoirs in the Puguang and Yuanba gas fields [3, 4]. Besides, the high-energy granular beach sedimentary facies belt of the Middle Permian is also considered as a reasonable basis for the development of natural gas reservoirs with the discovery of several high-yield gas fields in the northwestern and central part of the Sichuan Basin [5, 6]. On the other hand, shales with high organic matter content widely developed in the Wujiaping period of Upper Permian in the Sichuan Basin are the suitable hydrocarbon-generating beds [7]. Therefore, it is of considerable significance for natural gas exploration to analyze and study the structural differentiation and sedimentary system of the Permian Sichuan cratonic basin.

Although many different opinions have been put forward on the genetic mechanisms of the structural differentiation pattern of the Sichuan Basin [2, 5, 8, 9], these opinions lack a complete analysis on the basin sedimentary filling processes. The previous study lack a detailed discussion on the relationships between the structural differentiation and the depositional processes in the basin, which is precisely the basis and key of structural sedimentary evolution in the Sichuan Basin.

In this study, we focus on the structural differentiation, on the sedimentary systems, and on the tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Sichuan cratonic basin during the Permian.

#### **2. Geological setting**

#### **2.1 Tectonic evolution of the Yangtze block and the formation of the Sichuan Basin**

The Sichuan Basin is a superimposed basin developed on the upper Yangtze craton [8] (**Figure 1**). However, the craton block has long been in the transitional position between Gondwana and Laurasia [10, 11], showing a vigorous tectonic activity. During the later stage there are many regional unconformities in the craton. The cratonic margin was involved in orogenic deformation and was strongly re-shaped. The processes of basin formation and evolution were quite complicated.

At the end of Mesoproterozoic (1000 Ma), the island arc and accreted continental crust in the margin of the Yangtze Paleocontinent were spliced onto the Yangtze block. The Yangtze, Cathaysia, and North China blocks were combined to form a part of Rodinia ancient land [11, 12]. Since 850 Ma, it has experienced (1) the early cracking, the formation of rifted sag, passive continental margin basin, and composite basin of intra-cratonic depression in 850–460.9 Ma (Nh-O2), and (2) the late convergence, the establishment of intra-continental foreland basin and large-scale tectonic uplift in 460.9–416 Ma (O3-S) [12]. In the Tethys Ocean evolutionary stage from Sinian to Silurian, the inner plate tension between the Yangtze block and the Cathaysia block resulted in the formation of the Xianggui continental rift basin and in the internal and marginal rifting of the middle and upper Yangtze craton. Then the compression orogeny in the Caledonian stage resulted in the formation of the South China continent. In the Late Paleozoic, it turned into the Paleo-Tethys Ocean evolution stage.

**191**

**Figure 1.**

middle and upper Yangtze craton [12–15].

*of Permian global paleogeography (modified from Huang et al. [45]).*

the Quaternary (167.7–0 Ma) [12, 16].

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin*

From the Late Paleozoic to the Middle Triassic, the formation and evolution of the Sichuan Basin was genetically related to the geological process of South China block splitting and drifting from the northern margin of the Gondwana continent. The southwestern and northern margin of the Yangtze block became passive continental margins facing on different branches of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The middle and upper Yangtze block experienced a relatively short convergence and compression process from Devonian to Permian, forming the inner depression, the marginal depression, the passive continental margin, and the foreland basin of the

*(a) Location of the Yangtze block and its relationships with other tectonic units in Permian; (b) the restoration* 

After the development of the foreland basin in the Late Triassic, the middle and upper Yangtze were involved in an extensional and convergent cycle, closely related to the development of the Neo-Tethys Ocean, which included (1) the short-term extension from the Early Jurassic to the Early-Middle Jurassic (199.6–167.7 Ma) and (2) the long-term compression and transformation from the Late-Middle Jurassic to

Above all, the basin prototypes of the Sichuan Basin were controlled by the activities of the surrounding plates in different phases. The basement of the basin

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Geochemistry*

Sichuan cratonic basin.

during the Permian.

complicated.

**2. Geological setting**

**of the Sichuan Basin**

Permian, the structural differentiation caused by the Dongwu movement and the

carbonate gas reservoirs in the area, where several new gas fields have been discovered in recent years. The platform margin reef-shoal facies of the Upper Permian Changxing Formation is one of the favorable sedimentary facies belts for the formation of favorable reservoirs in the Puguang and Yuanba gas fields [3, 4]. Besides, the high-energy granular beach sedimentary facies belt of the Middle Permian is also considered as a reasonable basis for the development of natural gas reservoirs with the discovery of several high-yield gas fields in the northwestern and central part of the Sichuan Basin [5, 6]. On the other hand, shales with high organic matter content widely developed in the Wujiaping period of Upper Permian in the Sichuan Basin are the suitable hydrocarbon-generating beds [7]. Therefore, it is of considerable significance for natural gas exploration to analyze and study the structural differentiation and sedimentary system of the Permian

Moreover, the depositional systems controlled the distribution of the Permian

Although many different opinions have been put forward on the genetic mechanisms of the structural differentiation pattern of the Sichuan Basin [2, 5, 8, 9], these opinions lack a complete analysis on the basin sedimentary filling processes. The previous study lack a detailed discussion on the relationships between the structural differentiation and the depositional processes in the basin, which is precisely the

In this study, we focus on the structural differentiation, on the sedimentary systems, and on the tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Sichuan cratonic basin

The Sichuan Basin is a superimposed basin developed on the upper Yangtze craton [8] (**Figure 1**). However, the craton block has long been in the transitional position between Gondwana and Laurasia [10, 11], showing a vigorous tectonic activity. During the later stage there are many regional unconformities in the craton. The cratonic margin was involved in orogenic deformation and was strongly re-shaped. The processes of basin formation and evolution were quite

At the end of Mesoproterozoic (1000 Ma), the island arc and accreted continental crust in the margin of the Yangtze Paleocontinent were spliced onto the Yangtze block. The Yangtze, Cathaysia, and North China blocks were combined to form a part of Rodinia ancient land [11, 12]. Since 850 Ma, it has experienced (1) the early cracking, the formation of rifted sag, passive continental margin basin, and composite basin of intra-cratonic depression in 850–460.9 Ma (Nh-O2), and (2) the late convergence, the establishment of intra-continental foreland basin and large-scale tectonic uplift in 460.9–416 Ma (O3-S) [12]. In the Tethys Ocean evolutionary stage from Sinian to Silurian, the inner plate tension between the Yangtze block and the Cathaysia block resulted in the formation of the Xianggui continental rift basin and in the internal and marginal rifting of the middle and upper Yangtze craton. Then the compression orogeny in the Caledonian stage resulted in the formation of the South China continent. In the Late Paleozoic, it turned into the Paleo-Tethys Ocean

basis and key of structural sedimentary evolution in the Sichuan Basin.

**2.1 Tectonic evolution of the Yangtze block and the formation** 

Emei rifting activity controlled the sedimentary system [2].

**190**

evolution stage.

*(a) Location of the Yangtze block and its relationships with other tectonic units in Permian; (b) the restoration of Permian global paleogeography (modified from Huang et al. [45]).*

From the Late Paleozoic to the Middle Triassic, the formation and evolution of the Sichuan Basin was genetically related to the geological process of South China block splitting and drifting from the northern margin of the Gondwana continent. The southwestern and northern margin of the Yangtze block became passive continental margins facing on different branches of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The middle and upper Yangtze block experienced a relatively short convergence and compression process from Devonian to Permian, forming the inner depression, the marginal depression, the passive continental margin, and the foreland basin of the middle and upper Yangtze craton [12–15].

After the development of the foreland basin in the Late Triassic, the middle and upper Yangtze were involved in an extensional and convergent cycle, closely related to the development of the Neo-Tethys Ocean, which included (1) the short-term extension from the Early Jurassic to the Early-Middle Jurassic (199.6–167.7 Ma) and (2) the long-term compression and transformation from the Late-Middle Jurassic to the Quaternary (167.7–0 Ma) [12, 16].

Above all, the basin prototypes of the Sichuan Basin were controlled by the activities of the surrounding plates in different phases. The basement of the basin

#### *Geochemistry*

was formed in the Pre-Nanhua Period; the rift basin was established in the Nanhua Period; the cratonic margin rift and the cratonic inner depression were created in the Sinian-Ordovician; the cratonic inner depression and the peripheral foreland basin were developed in the Silurian; the cratonic margin rift and the cratonic inner depression were developed from the Devonian to the depositional period of the third member of the Xujiahe Formation in the Late Triassic (D-T3x3 ); the foreland basin was established in the depositional period of the upper Xujiahe Formation (T3x4–6); the large-scale cratonic depression was developed in the Early to the Middle Jurassic; the compressional basin was developed in the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous; the depression basin was established from the Late Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous; and from the Late Cretaceous to the Quaternary, a transitional compressional foreland basin was formed. As a whole, the Sichuan Basin shows the characteristics of an alternating development of extensional basin (Z-O, D-P-T3x3 , J1–2) and compressional basin (S, T3x4–6, J3-K1) [12].

#### **2.2 The tectonic stages of the Permian**

In the Early Permian the striped continents composed of the Cimmerian block, Qiangtang block, and Sibumasu block were separated from the northern margin of Gondwana. Then the back part was extended to form the new Tethys Ocean. In the Middle Permian the transgression reached its maximum in South China, leading to the development of a wide southward-dipping carbonate platform. At that time, the Jiangnan-Xuefeng area was a submerged structural high and was separated by the southern and northern sedimentary regions. On the north side of the Yangtze block, the sedimentary environments were the shallow slope and deepwater basin southward of the Qinling Ocean, where deepwater dark limestones with nodular cherts and bedded cherts were deposited. The southern Qinling Ocean crust was subducted northward under the Qinling micro-block at the end of the Early Permian and developed corresponding island arc volcanic rocks, while the passive continental margin on its southern side was still growing (**Figure 1**).

In the Sichuan Basin, the Middle Permian strata include the Liangshan Formation (P2l), the Qixia Formation (P2q), and the Maokou Formation (P2m), with a thickness of 400–500 m. In the early transgression stage of the Middle Permian sandstones, mudstones, marls, and marshes were deposited. In the middle period, the deposits evolved to shallow platform limestones and shaly limestones interlayered with sandy limestones. Massive limestones, dolomites, and black shales developed in the late Middle Permian, during which Leshan-Luzhou biological shoals grew.

At the end of the Middle Permian characterized by the Emei rift movement, the region was uplifted, and the Maokou strata were denuded in different degrees. The event of the Emei rift may be related to the subduction of the Jinshajiang-Mojiang ocean basin from the south to the north, and a large-scale extension occurred in the back of the arc (**Figure 1**). Longmenshan, Kaijiang-Liangping, and Chengkou-Exi rifts developed in the Yangtze craton block [12, 17].

#### **3. Structural differentiation of the Sichuan cratonic basin during the Permian**

#### **3.1 Tectonic characteristics of plate margin rift**

During the Permian, the Yangtze block was generally located in the lowlatitude area near the equator [18, 19], in the transitional position between the

**193**

**Figure 2.**

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin*

Gondwana and the Laurasia supercontinents. From the Early Permian to the Late Permian, the Yangtze platform was surrounded by the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and the Paleo-Pacific Ocean [20]. It rotated mainly anticlockwisely and formed the South China block, together with the Cathaysia block in the southeast (**Figure 2**). In the Late Permian the North China block was located northward of

The paleomagnetic data showed that both the North China block and the South China block had the trend of northward movement and their latitudinal changes showed a certain degree of synchronicity, which may be related to the first collision of the two blocks in the east [21]. The South Qinling Ocean was located between the two blocks, opening toward the west in the form of scissors, with an angle of 70–80° [21]. Because of the continuous northward subduction, the North Qinling orogenic belt was formed at the southern margin of the North China block, while a passive continental margin emplaced at the north margin of the

The southwest margin of the South China block was Simao-Indosinian block, which was located in the low-latitude area near the equator [23]. Between the two blocks was Jinshajiang Ocean, a branch of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The ocean basin rapidly expanded from the Early Permian to the Late Permian [24]. The subduction of the Jinshajiang Ocean to the Simao-Indosinian block in the southwest reflected a strong tectonic compression, while the South China block was a passive continental margin in the overall extensional setting [25]. The South China block was connected with the Songpan-Ganzi Ocean in the west, while the Jiangnan-Xuefeng intra-continental rifting zone was connected with Youjiang rifting zone, mainly in deepwater shelf environment, with isolated carbonate platform sporadically developed [26]. During the Permian, the tectonic setting of South China block was mainly of regional extension, showing the characteristics of a strong tension at the

**3.2 Characteristics of block internal structure differentiation**

In the Permian period, the tectonic setting of the South China block was mainly of regional extension, showing the characteristics of strong extension at the margin of the block and of a weak tension within the block and developing a set of marginal rift basins, intra-continental depression basins, and rift basins. In the Kangtien ancient land area, located on the southwestern margin of the block,

*Structural differentiation profile of the middle and upper Yangtze plate in the Permian (A-A', NW-SE* 

*direction; B-B*′*, NE–SW direction, location in Figure 1(a); modified from He et al. [12]).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

the South China block.

Yangtze block [22].

margins of the block.

#### *Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

Gondwana and the Laurasia supercontinents. From the Early Permian to the Late Permian, the Yangtze platform was surrounded by the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and the Paleo-Pacific Ocean [20]. It rotated mainly anticlockwisely and formed the South China block, together with the Cathaysia block in the southeast (**Figure 2**). In the Late Permian the North China block was located northward of the South China block.

The paleomagnetic data showed that both the North China block and the South China block had the trend of northward movement and their latitudinal changes showed a certain degree of synchronicity, which may be related to the first collision of the two blocks in the east [21]. The South Qinling Ocean was located between the two blocks, opening toward the west in the form of scissors, with an angle of 70–80° [21]. Because of the continuous northward subduction, the North Qinling orogenic belt was formed at the southern margin of the North China block, while a passive continental margin emplaced at the north margin of the Yangtze block [22].

The southwest margin of the South China block was Simao-Indosinian block, which was located in the low-latitude area near the equator [23]. Between the two blocks was Jinshajiang Ocean, a branch of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The ocean basin rapidly expanded from the Early Permian to the Late Permian [24]. The subduction of the Jinshajiang Ocean to the Simao-Indosinian block in the southwest reflected a strong tectonic compression, while the South China block was a passive continental margin in the overall extensional setting [25]. The South China block was connected with the Songpan-Ganzi Ocean in the west, while the Jiangnan-Xuefeng intra-continental rifting zone was connected with Youjiang rifting zone, mainly in deepwater shelf environment, with isolated carbonate platform sporadically developed [26]. During the Permian, the tectonic setting of South China block was mainly of regional extension, showing the characteristics of a strong tension at the margins of the block.

#### **3.2 Characteristics of block internal structure differentiation**

In the Permian period, the tectonic setting of the South China block was mainly of regional extension, showing the characteristics of strong extension at the margin of the block and of a weak tension within the block and developing a set of marginal rift basins, intra-continental depression basins, and rift basins. In the Kangtien ancient land area, located on the southwestern margin of the block,

**Figure 2.**

*Geochemistry*

was formed in the Pre-Nanhua Period; the rift basin was established in the Nanhua Period; the cratonic margin rift and the cratonic inner depression were created in the Sinian-Ordovician; the cratonic inner depression and the peripheral foreland basin were developed in the Silurian; the cratonic margin rift and the cratonic inner depression were developed from the Devonian to the depositional period of the

basin was established in the depositional period of the upper Xujiahe Formation (T3x4–6); the large-scale cratonic depression was developed in the Early to the Middle Jurassic; the compressional basin was developed in the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous; the depression basin was established from the Late Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous; and from the Late Cretaceous to the Quaternary, a transitional compressional foreland basin was formed. As a whole, the Sichuan Basin shows the characteristics of an alternating development of extensional basin (Z-O, D-P-T3x3

In the Early Permian the striped continents composed of the Cimmerian block, Qiangtang block, and Sibumasu block were separated from the northern margin of Gondwana. Then the back part was extended to form the new Tethys Ocean. In the Middle Permian the transgression reached its maximum in South China, leading to the development of a wide southward-dipping carbonate platform. At that time, the Jiangnan-Xuefeng area was a submerged structural high and was separated by the southern and northern sedimentary regions. On the north side of the Yangtze block, the sedimentary environments were the shallow slope and deepwater basin southward of the Qinling Ocean, where deepwater dark limestones with nodular cherts and bedded cherts were deposited. The southern Qinling Ocean crust was subducted northward under the Qinling micro-block at the end of the Early Permian and developed corresponding island arc volcanic rocks, while the passive

In the Sichuan Basin, the Middle Permian strata include the Liangshan Formation (P2l), the Qixia Formation (P2q), and the Maokou Formation (P2m), with a thickness of 400–500 m. In the early transgression stage of the Middle Permian sandstones, mudstones, marls, and marshes were deposited. In the middle period, the deposits evolved to shallow platform limestones and shaly limestones interlayered with sandy limestones. Massive limestones, dolomites, and black shales developed in the late Middle Permian, during which Leshan-Luzhou biological shoals grew.

At the end of the Middle Permian characterized by the Emei rift movement, the region was uplifted, and the Maokou strata were denuded in different degrees. The event of the Emei rift may be related to the subduction of the Jinshajiang-Mojiang ocean basin from the south to the north, and a large-scale extension occurred in the back of the arc (**Figure 1**). Longmenshan, Kaijiang-Liangping, and Chengkou-Exi

**3. Structural differentiation of the Sichuan cratonic basin during the** 

During the Permian, the Yangtze block was generally located in the lowlatitude area near the equator [18, 19], in the transitional position between the

); the foreland

,

third member of the Xujiahe Formation in the Late Triassic (D-T3x3

continental margin on its southern side was still growing (**Figure 1**).

rifts developed in the Yangtze craton block [12, 17].

**3.1 Tectonic characteristics of plate margin rift**

J1–2) and compressional basin (S, T3x4–6, J3-K1) [12].

**2.2 The tectonic stages of the Permian**

**192**

**Permian**

*Structural differentiation profile of the middle and upper Yangtze plate in the Permian (A-A', NW-SE direction; B-B*′*, NE–SW direction, location in Figure 1(a); modified from He et al. [12]).*

a basalt eruption was considered to be a stratigraphic marker of the extensional process. The exposed area of basalt could reach 250,000 square kilometers, with a wide range of influence [9, 27]. During the Permian, the upper Yangtze block had the characteristics of a structural high to the south and of a depression to the north. The Kangtien ancient land was the main source area supplying terrigenous clastic in the upper Yangtze craton [28, 29]. To the north, it was dominated by the shallow sea carbonate environment and graded into the passive continental margin basinal environment.

The Sichuan Basin is a typical cratonic basin located in the western margin of the Yangtze block, which has recorded many geological events during the Permian. Several geological events occurred in the Permian, including the Emeishan Large Igneous Province [30–32], the Paleo-Tethys Ocean expansion and evolution [19, 33–35], and the end of the Permian biological extinction, have been widely of concern by scholars [36–39]. During recent years, according to the field outcrop data and to the stratigraphic records of drilling data, it was found that from the southwest to the northeast of the basin, the Sichuan Basin has deposited a wide range of marine carbonate rocks during the Permian. However, in the central and northern sectors of the basin, there were many deepwater sedimentary areas toward the carbonate platform margins. This unique sedimentary filling pattern reflects that the Sichuan Basin had the unique structural differentiation characteristics during the Permian [40].

#### **4. Sedimentary system of the Permian**

Permian strata widely developed in the eastern sectors of the Sichuan Basin during the early depositional stages, when carbonate rocks are dominant. During late stages, the difference between the eastern and the western sectors increased. In the Panxi area, the continental basic volcanic rocks were dominant, while the eastward transition was represented by continental clastic rocks. On the contrary, in the eastern Sichuan Basin, thick marine carbonate rocks were dominant [41]. In the Sichuan Basin, the Permian strata can be divided into the Middle Permian Liangshan Formation, Qixia Formation, Maokou Formation, and Upper Permian Wujiaping Formation and Changxing Formation (**Figure 3**).

#### **4.1 Stratigraphic characteristics of the Liangshan formation**

In the late Early Permian, the tectonic movement uplifted the northwestern region of the upper Yangtze to land, controlling variable degrees of denudation of the Paleozoic strata [42]. Until the Middle Permian, transgression occurred from south to north, and the Liangshan Formation was the product of the land-sea transformation at the beginning of this transgression [41, 43, 44]. The Liangshan Formation, widely developed in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas, which is a coal-bearing deposit dominated by clastic rocks, and the contact between Liangshan Formation and underlying strata (e.g., Carboniferous or older layers) are disconformable [41, 43–45].

In the Sichuan Basin and Panxi areas, the lithology and the thickness of the Liangshan Formation considerably vary [41, 44]: (1) The sandstone content of the Liangshan Formation deposited in the western region is relatively large, with a thickness generally ranging from 10 to 42 m and finally reaching 88 m (e.g., Gan Luo). (2) The sedimentary thickness of the Liangshan Formation rapidly decreases

**195**

**Figure 3.**

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin*

eastward to 5–15 m in the area of Emeishan and Leshan, which is often dominated by carbonaceous shales. (3) The Liangshan Formation in the south of Sichuan is 4–17 m thick and is mainly composed of carbonaceous shale and clay rock, containing bauxite and hematite. (4) The Liangshan Formation in eastern Sichuan is dominated by coal-bearing claystone and sandstone and occasionally contains oolitic and bean-shaped hematite, with a thickness of 4–8 m, reaching 21 m. (5) The Liangshan Formation in the north of Sichuan and Longmenshan is 3–30 m thick, thinning eastward, and is mainly composed of aluminum clay rocks, bauxite, and weak coal seams. The Liangshan Formation contains plant fossils (e.g., *Lepidodendron,* 

*Generalized Permian stratigraphy and division of fusulinid zones in SW China (after He et al. [54]).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

**Figure 3.**

*Geochemistry*

basinal environment.

Formation (**Figure 3**).

disconformable [41, 43–45].

characteristics during the Permian [40].

**4. Sedimentary system of the Permian**

a basalt eruption was considered to be a stratigraphic marker of the extensional process. The exposed area of basalt could reach 250,000 square kilometers, with a wide range of influence [9, 27]. During the Permian, the upper Yangtze block had the characteristics of a structural high to the south and of a depression to the north. The Kangtien ancient land was the main source area supplying terrigenous clastic in the upper Yangtze craton [28, 29]. To the north, it was dominated by the shallow sea carbonate environment and graded into the passive continental margin

The Sichuan Basin is a typical cratonic basin located in the western margin of the Yangtze block, which has recorded many geological events during the Permian. Several geological events occurred in the Permian, including the

Emeishan Large Igneous Province [30–32], the Paleo-Tethys Ocean expansion and evolution [19, 33–35], and the end of the Permian biological extinction, have been widely of concern by scholars [36–39]. During recent years, according to the field outcrop data and to the stratigraphic records of drilling data, it was found that from the southwest to the northeast of the basin, the Sichuan Basin has deposited a wide range of marine carbonate rocks during the Permian. However, in the central and northern sectors of the basin, there were many deepwater sedimentary areas toward the carbonate platform margins. This unique sedimentary filling pattern reflects that the Sichuan Basin had the unique structural differentiation

Permian strata widely developed in the eastern sectors of the Sichuan Basin

In the late Early Permian, the tectonic movement uplifted the northwestern region of the upper Yangtze to land, controlling variable degrees of denudation of the Paleozoic strata [42]. Until the Middle Permian, transgression occurred from south to north, and the Liangshan Formation was the product of the land-sea transformation at the beginning of this transgression [41, 43, 44]. The Liangshan Formation, widely developed in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas, which is a coal-bearing deposit dominated by clastic rocks, and the contact between Liangshan Formation and underlying strata (e.g., Carboniferous or older layers) are

In the Sichuan Basin and Panxi areas, the lithology and the thickness of the Liangshan Formation considerably vary [41, 44]: (1) The sandstone content of the Liangshan Formation deposited in the western region is relatively large, with a thickness generally ranging from 10 to 42 m and finally reaching 88 m (e.g., Gan Luo). (2) The sedimentary thickness of the Liangshan Formation rapidly decreases

during the early depositional stages, when carbonate rocks are dominant. During late stages, the difference between the eastern and the western sectors increased. In the Panxi area, the continental basic volcanic rocks were dominant, while the eastward transition was represented by continental clastic rocks. On the contrary, in the eastern Sichuan Basin, thick marine carbonate rocks were dominant [41]. In the Sichuan Basin, the Permian strata can be divided into the Middle Permian Liangshan Formation, Qixia Formation, Maokou Formation, and Upper Permian Wujiaping Formation and Changxing

**4.1 Stratigraphic characteristics of the Liangshan formation**

**194**

*Generalized Permian stratigraphy and division of fusulinid zones in SW China (after He et al. [54]).*

eastward to 5–15 m in the area of Emeishan and Leshan, which is often dominated by carbonaceous shales. (3) The Liangshan Formation in the south of Sichuan is 4–17 m thick and is mainly composed of carbonaceous shale and clay rock, containing bauxite and hematite. (4) The Liangshan Formation in eastern Sichuan is dominated by coal-bearing claystone and sandstone and occasionally contains oolitic and bean-shaped hematite, with a thickness of 4–8 m, reaching 21 m. (5) The Liangshan Formation in the north of Sichuan and Longmenshan is 3–30 m thick, thinning eastward, and is mainly composed of aluminum clay rocks, bauxite, and weak coal seams. The Liangshan Formation contains plant fossils (e.g., *Lepidodendron,* 

*Problemocumnum wongii, Taeniopteris multinervis*), brachiopods (e.g., *Orthotichia indica*), and bryozoans [44].

#### **4.2 Stratigraphic characteristics of the Qixia formation**

During the deposition period of the Qixia Formation, the crustal subsidence was stable and seawater intruded on a large scale. As a result, the early sedimentary environment dominated by clastic rocks was transformed into carbonate platform sedimentary environment [41, 45].

Qixia Formation is widely distributed in the middle and eastern sectors of the Sichuan Basin. It is mainly composed of dark gray-black limestone, with a massive and micrite structure, locally mixed with bioclastic limestone, siliceous limestone, siliceous bands, and siliceous concretion [41, 44]. The limestones of the Qixia Formation generally contain high asphaltene and siliceous components and show dolomitization, and abundant eyeball-shaped structures (e.g., Huayingshan area) occur locally [46]. The Qixia Formation is interlayered above the Liangshan Formation, and its stratigraphic thickness ranges from tens of meters to more than 300 meters, gradually thickening from west to east [41].

According to the observation results of the outcrop in the wild, the Qixia Formation can be divided into two types [44]. One is called "White Qixia," which is distributed in the northern section of Micangshan and Longmenshan. It is mainly composed of light gray-black limestone with dolomitic limestone and dolomite and with shale at the bottom. The other is called "Black Qixia," which is distributed in other areas of the Sichuan Basin, with shale and siliceous layer at the bottom, dark gray thick layer of biological limestone, micritic shell limestone in the lower part, and light gray biological limestone in the upper part.

The Qixia Formation contains many types of fossils, mainly including fusulinids (e.g., *Nankinella orbicularia*, *N. nankingensis*, *N. discoides*, *N. regularis*, *Pisolina excessa*, *Schwagerina tshernyschewi*), corals (e.g., *Hayasakaia yunnanensis*, *Wentzellophyllum denticulatum, Polythecalis chinensis*), brachiopods, and conodonts [41, 44].

#### **4.3 Stratigraphic characteristics of the Maokou formation**

In the Sichuan Basin, the lithology of the Maokou Formation is relatively uniform with shallow marine, light gray, thick micritic fossiliferous limestone, including siliceous concretions and thin siliceous layers, ranging in thickness from 50 m to 600 m. Due to the influence of the Dongwu tectonic movement, the Maokou Formation was involved by various degrees of erosion, and the integrity of the strata gradually improved from west to east. In the southern part of the Sichuan Basin, basalts erupted in the middle sedimentary period of the Maokou Formation. The Maokou Formation can be divided into two members in the northeastern Sichuan Basin and into three members in the central Sichuan Basin.

The lower member of the Maokou Formation is composed of dark gray muddy micritic limestones, bioclastic limestones with black calcareous shales, and a thin siliceous layer at the top. Microbial rocks and storm rocks can be seen in southern Sichuan, eastern Sichuan, and Longmenshan areas. The Maokou Formation contains brachiopods (e.g., *Cryptospirifer omeishanensis*, *C. striatus*) and fusulinids (e.g., *Schwagerina quasibrevipola*, *S. declinata*, *Chusenella sinensis*, *Neoschwagerina*, *Pseudodolina*).

The middle member of Maokou Formation consists of light gray and dark gray thick layer massive micritic bioclastic limestone and micritic limestones

**197**

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin*

with siliceous concretions. In the northwest and south of Sichuan, tempestite is relatively developed. There are abundant organisms, including fusulinids (e.g., *Neoschwagerina craticulifera*, *N. colaniae*, *N. sphaerica*, *Verbeekina heimi*, *Pseudodoliolina ozawai*, *Chusenella conicocylindrica*), corals (e.g., *Wentzelella* 

The upper member of the Maokou Formation consists of gray-white micritic limestone with siliceous concretion, gray-black micritic limestone, and bioclastic limestone, including fusulinids (e.g., *Yabeina*, *Neomisellina*) and ammonoids

The Maokou Formation in Dabashan, Wushan, and southeastern Sichuan only remains lower and middle members. Parts of the lower, middle, and upper members of the Maokou Formation are preserved in Micangshan, Longmenshan, and Huayingshan. The Maokou Formation is well preserved in southern Sichuan (such

The Wujiaping Formation is mainly distributed in the northeastern Sichuan Basin and can be subdivided into two members according to lithology differences. The lower member (formerly known as Wangpo shale) is a coal-bearing stratum at the intersection of land and sea. Its lithology is an aluminous clay rock, carbonaceous shales with coal seam or coal lines, oolitic hematite, and monohydrallite. The upper member of the Wujiaping Formation (limestone section) has little change in lithology, which is micritic limestone, limestone with calcareous, siliceous, carbonaceous shale, and coal lines, with a siliceous layer at the top. From west to east, the dolomite content of deposits increased. In Mianzhu and Youyang, there are thin micritic limestone, limestone with shale, and multilayer coals. To the west of the line of Mianzhu-Daxian-Nanchuan-Gulin, Wujiaping Formation gradu-

In the Sichuan Basin, Wujiaping Formation consists of fusulinids (e.g., *Codonofusiella*), brachiopods (e.g., *Dictyoclostus*), and corals (e.g.,

As a lithostratigraphic unit at the top of the Permian, the Changxing Formation usually refers to the carbonate formation of platform facies sedimentary under the Lower Triassic in the Sichuan Basin, which is roughly equivalent to the sedimentary period of the Dalong Formation, and the difference between them is the sedimen-

The Changxing Formation is mainly composed of shallow water carbonate, while the Dalong Formation primarily consists of deepwater siliceous rock and shale. Therefore, the sedimentary area of the Dalong Formation is also called

The Dalong Formation is defined as the layer dominated by black and gray-black thin-layer siliceous rocks and siliceous shales in Sichuan and Chongqing area, with relatively stable sedimentary thickness, generally 15–42 m. The Dalong Formation is interlayered with the underlying Wujiaping Formation and the overlying Feixianguan Formation, and there is no apparent stratigraphic division between them [41]. In the Sichuan Basin, the distribution of the Dalong Formation is strictly controlled by the paleogeographic pattern, which is distributed in the north deepwater trough or basin facies area, roughly along the line of Guangyuan- Wangcang-Chengkou-Wushan. The lithology of the Dalong Formation is dominated by

**4.5 Stratigraphic characteristics of the Changxing formation**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

*elegans*), brachiopods, and conodonts.

ally changed into Longtan Formation.

*Waagenophyllum*).

tary environment [47].

"siliciclastic rock basin" [48].

as Gongxian).

(e.g., *Altudoceras*, *Paraceltites*, *Shouchangoceras*).

**4.4 Stratigraphic characteristics of the Wujiaping formation**

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

with siliceous concretions. In the northwest and south of Sichuan, tempestite is relatively developed. There are abundant organisms, including fusulinids (e.g., *Neoschwagerina craticulifera*, *N. colaniae*, *N. sphaerica*, *Verbeekina heimi*, *Pseudodoliolina ozawai*, *Chusenella conicocylindrica*), corals (e.g., *Wentzelella elegans*), brachiopods, and conodonts.

The upper member of the Maokou Formation consists of gray-white micritic limestone with siliceous concretion, gray-black micritic limestone, and bioclastic limestone, including fusulinids (e.g., *Yabeina*, *Neomisellina*) and ammonoids (e.g., *Altudoceras*, *Paraceltites*, *Shouchangoceras*).

The Maokou Formation in Dabashan, Wushan, and southeastern Sichuan only remains lower and middle members. Parts of the lower, middle, and upper members of the Maokou Formation are preserved in Micangshan, Longmenshan, and Huayingshan. The Maokou Formation is well preserved in southern Sichuan (such as Gongxian).

#### **4.4 Stratigraphic characteristics of the Wujiaping formation**

The Wujiaping Formation is mainly distributed in the northeastern Sichuan Basin and can be subdivided into two members according to lithology differences. The lower member (formerly known as Wangpo shale) is a coal-bearing stratum at the intersection of land and sea. Its lithology is an aluminous clay rock, carbonaceous shales with coal seam or coal lines, oolitic hematite, and monohydrallite.

The upper member of the Wujiaping Formation (limestone section) has little change in lithology, which is micritic limestone, limestone with calcareous, siliceous, carbonaceous shale, and coal lines, with a siliceous layer at the top. From west to east, the dolomite content of deposits increased. In Mianzhu and Youyang, there are thin micritic limestone, limestone with shale, and multilayer coals. To the west of the line of Mianzhu-Daxian-Nanchuan-Gulin, Wujiaping Formation gradually changed into Longtan Formation.

In the Sichuan Basin, Wujiaping Formation consists of fusulinids (e.g., *Codonofusiella*), brachiopods (e.g., *Dictyoclostus*), and corals (e.g., *Waagenophyllum*).

#### **4.5 Stratigraphic characteristics of the Changxing formation**

As a lithostratigraphic unit at the top of the Permian, the Changxing Formation usually refers to the carbonate formation of platform facies sedimentary under the Lower Triassic in the Sichuan Basin, which is roughly equivalent to the sedimentary period of the Dalong Formation, and the difference between them is the sedimentary environment [47].

The Changxing Formation is mainly composed of shallow water carbonate, while the Dalong Formation primarily consists of deepwater siliceous rock and shale. Therefore, the sedimentary area of the Dalong Formation is also called "siliciclastic rock basin" [48].

The Dalong Formation is defined as the layer dominated by black and gray-black thin-layer siliceous rocks and siliceous shales in Sichuan and Chongqing area, with relatively stable sedimentary thickness, generally 15–42 m. The Dalong Formation is interlayered with the underlying Wujiaping Formation and the overlying Feixianguan Formation, and there is no apparent stratigraphic division between them [41]. In the Sichuan Basin, the distribution of the Dalong Formation is strictly controlled by the paleogeographic pattern, which is distributed in the north deepwater trough or basin facies area, roughly along the line of Guangyuan- Wangcang-Chengkou-Wushan. The lithology of the Dalong Formation is dominated by

*Geochemistry*

*indica*), and bryozoans [44].

sedimentary environment [41, 45].

*Problemocumnum wongii, Taeniopteris multinervis*), brachiopods (e.g., *Orthotichia* 

During the deposition period of the Qixia Formation, the crustal subsidence was stable and seawater intruded on a large scale. As a result, the early sedimentary environment dominated by clastic rocks was transformed into carbonate platform

Qixia Formation is widely distributed in the middle and eastern sectors of the Sichuan Basin. It is mainly composed of dark gray-black limestone, with a massive and micrite structure, locally mixed with bioclastic limestone, siliceous limestone, siliceous bands, and siliceous concretion [41, 44]. The limestones of the Qixia Formation generally contain high asphaltene and siliceous components and show dolomitization, and abundant eyeball-shaped structures (e.g., Huayingshan area) occur locally [46]. The Qixia Formation is interlayered above the Liangshan Formation, and its stratigraphic thickness ranges from tens of meters to more than

According to the observation results of the outcrop in the wild, the Qixia Formation can be divided into two types [44]. One is called "White Qixia," which is distributed in the northern section of Micangshan and Longmenshan. It is mainly composed of light gray-black limestone with dolomitic limestone and dolomite and with shale at the bottom. The other is called "Black Qixia," which is distributed in other areas of the Sichuan Basin, with shale and siliceous layer at the bottom, dark gray thick layer of biological limestone, micritic shell limestone in the lower part,

The Qixia Formation contains many types of fossils, mainly including fusulinids (e.g., *Nankinella orbicularia*, *N. nankingensis*, *N. discoides*, *N. regularis*, *Pisolina excessa*, *Schwagerina tshernyschewi*), corals (e.g., *Hayasakaia yunnanensis*,

In the Sichuan Basin, the lithology of the Maokou Formation is relatively uniform with shallow marine, light gray, thick micritic fossiliferous limestone, including siliceous concretions and thin siliceous layers, ranging in thickness from 50 m to 600 m. Due to the influence of the Dongwu tectonic movement, the Maokou Formation was involved by various degrees of erosion, and the integrity of the strata gradually improved from west to east. In the southern part of the Sichuan Basin, basalts erupted in the middle sedimentary period of the Maokou Formation. The Maokou Formation can be divided into two members in the northeastern Sichuan Basin and into three members in the central

The lower member of the Maokou Formation is composed of dark gray muddy micritic limestones, bioclastic limestones with black calcareous shales, and a thin siliceous layer at the top. Microbial rocks and storm rocks can be seen in southern Sichuan, eastern Sichuan, and Longmenshan areas. The Maokou Formation contains brachiopods (e.g., *Cryptospirifer omeishanensis*, *C. striatus*) and fusulinids (e.g., *Schwagerina quasibrevipola*, *S. declinata*, *Chusenella sinensis*, *Neoschwagerina*,

The middle member of Maokou Formation consists of light gray and dark gray thick layer massive micritic bioclastic limestone and micritic limestones

*Wentzellophyllum denticulatum, Polythecalis chinensis*), brachiopods, and

**4.2 Stratigraphic characteristics of the Qixia formation**

300 meters, gradually thickening from west to east [41].

and light gray biological limestone in the upper part.

**4.3 Stratigraphic characteristics of the Maokou formation**

conodonts [41, 44].

Sichuan Basin.

*Pseudodolina*).

**196**

siliceous rock, siliceous shales, and siliceous limestones with tuff, mudstone, shales, and siltstones, and the siliceous composition is gradually reduced from the bottom to the top. There are abundant fossils, mainly including fusulinids (e.g., *Palaeofusulina*, *Codonofusiella*), ammonoids (e.g., *Pseudotirolites*, *Pseudogastrioceras*), brachiopods (e.g., *Spinomarginifera*), conodonts (e.g., *Clarkina changxingensis*, *C. meishanensis*), and radiolarians (e.g., *Neoalbaillella*, *Albaillella*).

The lithology of the Changxing Formation is mainly composed of mediumthick bioclastic limestones, micritic limestones, reef limestone, and dolomites, containing siliceous bands and concretions. The sedimentary thickness of the Changxing Formation varies from tens of meters to more than 100 m, and in some places, it can be as thick as 200–300 m. The fossils of the Changxing Formation are extremely rich, including algae (e.g., *Tubiphytes*, *Archaeolithoporella, Permocalculus*), fusulinids (e.g., *Palaeofusulina*, *Codonofusiella*), foraminifers (e.g., *Nodosaria*, *Colaniella*, *Pseudoglandulina*, *Pachyphloia*, *Geinitzina*), brachiopods (e.g., *Oldhamina*, *Enteletina*, *Orthothetina*, *Leptodus*), gastropods, bivalves (e.g., *Aviculopecten*), coral (e.g., *Lophophyllidium*, *Plerophyllum*, *Waagenophyllum*, *Huayunophyllum*)*,* bryozoon (e.g., *Fistulipora*, *Fenestella*, *Polypora*), sponge (e.g., *Sphinctozoa*, *Inoza*, *Sclerospongiae*), trilobite (e.g., *Pseudophilipsia*), and conodonts (e.g., *Clarkina changxingensis, C. meishanensis, C. yini*).

Coral reefs and sponge reefs in the Changxing Formation is very well developed. Due to the tectonic control of faults within the platform, the shallow water area around the trough is deposited to form a platform margin reef. The most developed reef is located eastward of Sichuan, such as Wujiti, Huanglongchang, Damaoping, Gaofeng, and Laolongdong. The high-quality reservoir formed by the Changxing reef also provides favorable conditions for the formation of a reef gas reservoir [4].

#### **5. Tectono-sedimentary evolution**

After the small-scale transgression in Late Carboniferous, the Sichuan Basin experienced tectonic uplift in the Early Permian, controlling a wide stratigraphic gap, as shown by the lacking of Lower Permian strata in the basin filling. At the beginning of the Middle Permian, a new transgression occurred in the Sichuan Basin, which extended to the west of Hunan. As a result, the pre-existing ancient land around the basin was submerged by seawater. Only the Kangtien ancient land in the southwest of the basin and the Xuefeng ancient land in the east of the basin remained, which controlled the source supply in the basin and around the basin [41].

#### **5.1 Liangshan period**

During the Middle Permian, the Liangshan Formation, the Sichuan Basin, and its surrounding areas were generally characterized by clastic shore deposits, as controlled by the relatively shallow water body and by the high siliciclastic supply [45]. In the area around the paleo-uplift, the sediments were mainly medium-grained or fine-grained quartz sandstone, which represented the near-source coastal sedimentary environment. In the central Sichuan area, due to its high structural position, the lithology was mainly composed of sandy carbonate sediments, which showed a sedimentary environment of sand flat. In other areas of the basin, due to the relatively deepwater and lower water energy, the sedimentary environment was mainly muddy flat (**Figure 4**).

**199**

**5.2 Qixia period**

*from Huang et al. [45]).*

**Figure 4.**

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin*

During the deposition of the Qixia Formation, the sea level gradually decreased. At this time, the overall topography of the basin was high in the west and low in the east. With the relative shallowness of the water depth, as well as the subsidence of the depression in the basin and the extensional rifting of the basin margin, the

In the periphery of the Kangtien ancient land, it was still shoring facies. In the southwest of the basin, the lithology was mainly characterized by dolomites, dolomitic limestones, sandy limestones, and marls, with a low biological content, showing a typically restricted platform facies deposition. To the east of the restricted platform was an open platform facies area with good circulation of

*Tectono-sedimentary system of the Liangshan period in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas (modified* 

sedimentary environment changed accordingly [45].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Geochemistry*

reservoir [4].

basin [41].

**5.1 Liangshan period**

mainly muddy flat (**Figure 4**).

siliceous rock, siliceous shales, and siliceous limestones with tuff, mudstone, shales, and siltstones, and the siliceous composition is gradually reduced from the bottom to the top. There are abundant fossils, mainly including fusulinids (e.g., *Palaeofusulina*, *Codonofusiella*), ammonoids (e.g., *Pseudotirolites*, *Pseudogastrioceras*), brachiopods (e.g., *Spinomarginifera*), conodonts (e.g., *Clarkina changxingensis*, *C.* 

The lithology of the Changxing Formation is mainly composed of mediumthick bioclastic limestones, micritic limestones, reef limestone, and dolomites, containing siliceous bands and concretions. The sedimentary thickness of the Changxing Formation varies from tens of meters to more than 100 m, and in some places, it can be as thick as 200–300 m. The fossils of the Changxing Formation are extremely rich, including algae (e.g., *Tubiphytes*, *Archaeolithoporella, Permocalculus*), fusulinids (e.g., *Palaeofusulina*, *Codonofusiella*), foraminifers (e.g., *Nodosaria*, *Colaniella*, *Pseudoglandulina*, *Pachyphloia*, *Geinitzina*), brachiopods (e.g., *Oldhamina*, *Enteletina*, *Orthothetina*, *Leptodus*), gastropods, bivalves (e.g., *Aviculopecten*), coral (e.g., *Lophophyllidium*, *Plerophyllum*, *Waagenophyllum*, *Huayunophyllum*)*,* bryozoon (e.g., *Fistulipora*, *Fenestella*, *Polypora*), sponge (e.g., *Sphinctozoa*, *Inoza*, *Sclerospongiae*), trilobite (e.g., *Pseudophilipsia*), and conodonts

Coral reefs and sponge reefs in the Changxing Formation is very well developed. Due to the tectonic control of faults within the platform, the shallow water area around the trough is deposited to form a platform margin reef. The most developed reef is located eastward of Sichuan, such as Wujiti, Huanglongchang, Damaoping, Gaofeng, and Laolongdong. The high-quality reservoir formed by the Changxing reef also provides favorable conditions for the formation of a reef gas

After the small-scale transgression in Late Carboniferous, the Sichuan Basin experienced tectonic uplift in the Early Permian, controlling a wide stratigraphic gap, as shown by the lacking of Lower Permian strata in the basin filling. At the beginning of the Middle Permian, a new transgression occurred in the Sichuan Basin, which extended to the west of Hunan. As a result, the pre-existing ancient land around the basin was submerged by seawater. Only the Kangtien ancient land in the southwest of the basin and the Xuefeng ancient land in the east of the basin remained, which controlled the source supply in the basin and around the

During the Middle Permian, the Liangshan Formation, the Sichuan Basin, and its surrounding areas were generally characterized by clastic shore deposits, as controlled by the relatively shallow water body and by the high siliciclastic supply [45]. In the area around the paleo-uplift, the sediments were mainly medium-grained or fine-grained quartz sandstone, which represented the near-source coastal sedimentary environment. In the central Sichuan area, due to its high structural position, the lithology was mainly composed of sandy carbonate sediments, which showed a sedimentary environment of sand flat. In other areas of the basin, due to the relatively deepwater and lower water energy, the sedimentary environment was

*meishanensis*), and radiolarians (e.g., *Neoalbaillella*, *Albaillella*).

(e.g., *Clarkina changxingensis, C. meishanensis, C. yini*).

**5. Tectono-sedimentary evolution**

**198**

*Tectono-sedimentary system of the Liangshan period in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas (modified from Huang et al. [45]).*

#### **5.2 Qixia period**

During the deposition of the Qixia Formation, the sea level gradually decreased. At this time, the overall topography of the basin was high in the west and low in the east. With the relative shallowness of the water depth, as well as the subsidence of the depression in the basin and the extensional rifting of the basin margin, the sedimentary environment changed accordingly [45].

In the periphery of the Kangtien ancient land, it was still shoring facies. In the southwest of the basin, the lithology was mainly characterized by dolomites, dolomitic limestones, sandy limestones, and marls, with a low biological content, showing a typically restricted platform facies deposition. To the east of the restricted platform was an open platform facies area with good circulation of

seawater, dominated by micrites and locally developed bioclastic limestones. The platform margin was established in the northwestern Sichuan Basin, roughly along the line of Mianzhu-Guangyuan. The sediments of the platform margin facies were mainly composed of thick bioclastic limestones, which were rich in species and high in abundance, and dolomitization locally occurred. In the northern part of the Sichuan Basin, influenced by Longmenshan ancient fault in the west, the terrain was sharply reduced, and the sediments were mainly mudstone, limestones, and shales, representing slope deposits (**Figure 5**).

#### **5.3 Maokou period**

During the deposition of the Maokou Formation, the southwestern margin of the upper Yangtze block was the Kangtien ancient land, and the northeastern margin was the passive continental margin environment, which was connected with the South Qinling continental margin basin. The northern part of the basin was mainly extensional. In contrast, the southern part of the Kangtien ancient land was continuously uplifting, and the basin was distributed in the pattern of uplift and depression [49]. From the southwest to the northeast, the seawater gradually deepened, and the sedimentary environment slowly changed from the continental environment to the marine one. The terrigenous shore facies, the restricted platform facies, the open platform facies, the platform margin facies, and the slope deepwater shelf facies then developed.

The restricted platform facies is distributed in Leshan-Emeishan-Zigong and other places in the southwest of the basin, and bioclastic beach facies is locally developed. The open platform facies area is located in the vast area to the east of the restricted platform facies area, where bioclastic banks are widely deposited in the higher ground, and micrite representing a low-energy environment was widely deposited in other places. The platform margin shoals were developed in the northwest of the basin, generally along the line of Qionglai-Anxian-Jiangyou-Guangyuan. In the area west of the platform margin, the seawater was steeply deepened, and the sedimentary environment also changed into slope deep shelf (**Figure 6**).

#### **5.4 Wujiaping period**

In the Late Permian the Sichuan Basin was located eastward of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, with a high relief in the southwest and a low relief in the northeast. During the deposition of the Wujiaping Formation, the seawater transgressed from the northeast of the basin, and the provenance was mainly from the Kangtien ancient land [41, 50]. From the southwest to the northeast, due to the deepening of the ocean, the Sichuan Basin and its surrounding areas successively developed terrigenous shore facies, restricted platform facies, open platform facies, platform margin facies, and slope facies.

Shoreline facies extended from the southwest to the southeast of the basin, being composed mainly of coal-bearing terrigenous clastic deposits. In the area of Chengdu, Suining, Guangan, Chongqing, Nanchuan, and Zunyi, the poor circulation of seawater controlled the deposition of restricted platform facies. The area located eastward of the restricted platform was an open platform facies, where micrite and bioclastic limestones deposited. In the north and east Sichuan, a series of bioclastic shoals were developed along the line of Guangyuan-Dazhou-Wanyuan-Shizhu, which together form the platform margin. On the west side of the range of Guangyuan-Dazhou-Wanyuan-Shizhu,

**201**

**Figure 5.**

**5.5 Changxing period**

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin*

there were slope and deepwater shelf sedimentary environments, and the sedi-

During the deposition of the Upper Permian Changxing Formation, the paleogeographic pattern of the Sichuan Basin and its surrounding areas was controlled by the Longmenshan-Kangdian ancient land in the west [51]. Its structural lithofacies paleogeographic pattern features can be summarized as strong tectonic activity (e.g., "Emei ground fissure movement" [27]), obvious lithofacies

ments are mainly mudstone and siliceous rock (**Figure 7**).

*Tectono-sedimentary system of the Qixia period in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

**Figure 5.**

*Geochemistry*

**5.3 Maokou period**

(**Figure 6**).

**5.4 Wujiaping period**

facies, and slope facies.

seawater, dominated by micrites and locally developed bioclastic limestones. The platform margin was established in the northwestern Sichuan Basin, roughly along the line of Mianzhu-Guangyuan. The sediments of the platform margin facies were mainly composed of thick bioclastic limestones, which were rich in species and high in abundance, and dolomitization locally occurred. In the northern part of the Sichuan Basin, influenced by Longmenshan ancient fault in the west, the terrain was sharply reduced, and the sediments were mainly mudstone, limestones, and

During the deposition of the Maokou Formation, the southwestern margin of the upper Yangtze block was the Kangtien ancient land, and the northeastern margin was the passive continental margin environment, which was connected with the South Qinling continental margin basin. The northern part of the basin was mainly extensional. In contrast, the southern part of the Kangtien ancient land was continuously uplifting, and the basin was distributed in the pattern of uplift and depression [49]. From the southwest to the northeast, the seawater gradually deepened, and the sedimentary environment slowly changed from the continental environment to the marine one. The terrigenous shore facies, the restricted platform facies, the open platform facies, the platform margin facies, and the slope

The restricted platform facies is distributed in Leshan-Emeishan-Zigong and other places in the southwest of the basin, and bioclastic beach facies is locally developed. The open platform facies area is located in the vast area to the east of the restricted platform facies area, where bioclastic banks are widely deposited in the higher ground, and micrite representing a low-energy environment was widely deposited in other places. The platform margin shoals were developed in the northwest of the basin, generally along the line of Qionglai-Anxian-Jiangyou-Guangyuan. In the area west of the platform margin, the seawater was steeply deepened, and the sedimentary environment also changed into slope deep shelf

In the Late Permian the Sichuan Basin was located eastward of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, with a high relief in the southwest and a low relief in the northeast. During the deposition of the Wujiaping Formation, the seawater transgressed from the northeast of the basin, and the provenance was mainly from the Kangtien ancient land [41, 50]. From the southwest to the northeast, due to the deepening of the ocean, the Sichuan Basin and its surrounding areas successively developed terrigenous shore facies, restricted platform facies, open platform facies, platform margin

Shoreline facies extended from the southwest to the southeast of the basin, being composed mainly of coal-bearing terrigenous clastic deposits. In the area of Chengdu, Suining, Guangan, Chongqing, Nanchuan, and Zunyi, the poor circulation of seawater controlled the deposition of restricted platform facies. The area located eastward of the restricted platform was an open platform facies, where micrite and bioclastic limestones deposited. In the north and east Sichuan, a series of bioclastic shoals were developed along the line of Guangyuan-Dazhou-Wanyuan-Shizhu, which together form the platform margin. On the west side of the range of Guangyuan-Dazhou-Wanyuan-Shizhu,

shales, representing slope deposits (**Figure 5**).

deepwater shelf facies then developed.

**200**

*Tectono-sedimentary system of the Qixia period in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas.*

there were slope and deepwater shelf sedimentary environments, and the sediments are mainly mudstone and siliceous rock (**Figure 7**).

#### **5.5 Changxing period**

During the deposition of the Upper Permian Changxing Formation, the paleogeographic pattern of the Sichuan Basin and its surrounding areas was controlled by the Longmenshan-Kangdian ancient land in the west [51]. Its structural lithofacies paleogeographic pattern features can be summarized as strong tectonic activity (e.g., "Emei ground fissure movement" [27]), obvious lithofacies

**Figure 6.**

*Tectono-sedimentary system of the Maokou period in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas.*

differentiation (e.g., siliceous clastic lithofacies and shallow marine carbonate lithofacies), and relatively rich and complex paleogeomorphic types (e.g., trough and uplift) [50].

During the Late Permian, the eruption of Emei basalts reached its peak due to the strong ground fissure movement, which was called the "Emei ground fissure movement" [27]. This volcano-tectonic activity had a profound impact on the paleogeographic pattern of the Late Permian and Early Triassic in the upper Yangtze region. Wang et al. believed that a series of the northwest and southeast deepwater troughs developed in the Late Permian in the upper Yangtze region, such as "Guangyuan-Wangcang trough," "Kaijiang-Liangping trough" in the west, and "Chengkou-Exi trough" in the east. The formation of these

**203**

**Figure 7.**

water platform facies area [53].

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin*

troughs was controlled by the extensional movement of the southern Qinling Ocean in the north and the "Emei rift movement" in the west [27, 52]. In the Late Permian, the sedimentary facies belts in the upper Yangtze area were obviously different. The dark thin siliceous rocks, siliceous mudstones, and siliceous limestones were mainly deposited in the deepwater trough facies area, and the bioclastic limestones and reef limestones were mainly deposited in the shallow

*Tectono-sedimentary system of the Wujiaping period in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

*Geochemistry*

**202**

and uplift) [50].

**Figure 6.**

differentiation (e.g., siliceous clastic lithofacies and shallow marine carbonate lithofacies), and relatively rich and complex paleogeomorphic types (e.g., trough

*Tectono-sedimentary system of the Maokou period in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas.*

During the Late Permian, the eruption of Emei basalts reached its peak due to the strong ground fissure movement, which was called the "Emei ground fissure movement" [27]. This volcano-tectonic activity had a profound impact on the paleogeographic pattern of the Late Permian and Early Triassic in the upper Yangtze region. Wang et al. believed that a series of the northwest and southeast deepwater troughs developed in the Late Permian in the upper Yangtze region, such as "Guangyuan-Wangcang trough," "Kaijiang-Liangping trough" in the west, and "Chengkou-Exi trough" in the east. The formation of these

*Tectono-sedimentary system of the Wujiaping period in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas.*

troughs was controlled by the extensional movement of the southern Qinling Ocean in the north and the "Emei rift movement" in the west [27, 52]. In the Late Permian, the sedimentary facies belts in the upper Yangtze area were obviously different. The dark thin siliceous rocks, siliceous mudstones, and siliceous limestones were mainly deposited in the deepwater trough facies area, and the bioclastic limestones and reef limestones were mainly deposited in the shallow water platform facies area [53].

#### *Geochemistry*

The sedimentary characteristics of the Late Permian can be summarized as follows: the sedimentary facies belt was generally distributed in the east–west direction and was controlled by the north–south direction structure and differentiated; reef and beach deposits are generally distributed in a belt along the trough to form the platform margin. On the west side of the platform margin, open platform, restricted platform, and terrigenous shore facies were developed, respectively, and on the east side, slope facies and deepwater shelf facies are developed (**Figure 8**).

**Figure 8.**

*Tectono-sedimentary system of the Changxing period in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas.*

**205**

**Author details**

Chongqing, China

and Bo Liu2,3\*

1 College of River and Ocean Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

2 School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China

3 School of Earth Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China

\*Address all correspondence to: bobliu@pku.edu.cn

provided the original work is properly cited.

Haofu Zheng1

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin*

The northern and western margins of the Yangtze block were passive continental marginal environments, while the southern and southeastern margins were conti-

During the deposition of the Liangshan and Qixia formations, the northern and western margins of Sichuan cratonic basin were discrete passive continental margin environments, while the south and southeast margins were continental margin rift basins with deepwater sedimentary characteristics. The sedimentary environment in this period gradually changed from the early shore tidal flat to the stable carbonate platform, which was generally characterized by east–west differentiation and

The tectonic setting of the basin was relatively stable in the Maokou period. The Kangtien ancient land in the south of the basin showed a trend of continuous uplift. The basin presented a pattern of alternating structural highs and depressions. The development of sedimentary facies belts in each sedimentary stage had obvious inheritance and migration. From southwest to northeast, the sedimentary facies included shore facies, limited platform facies, open platform facies, continental shelf facies, platform margin facies, and slope facies. These are the characteristics of

Being influenced by the regional extension controlled by the Emei rifting, the tectonic subsidence of the basin in the Late Permian gradually increased from southwest to northeast. In the early stage, the basin was controlled by the thermal effect of deep materials, and then the northern part of the basin was mainly affected by the superimposition of regional extensional phases and finally formed the sedimentary pattern of platform shelf structural differentiation. At the same time, the sea level changes and the development of reefs and beaches at the platform edge had an important impact on the filling sequence. In the study area transgression gradually occurred from NE to SW, forming a sequence of shelf, slope, platform margin, carbonate platform, mixed platform, tidal flat, and volcanic facies.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

nental marginal rift basins with deepwater settings.

**6. Conclusions**

north–south gradual change.

a carbonate platform system.

*Structural Differentiation and Sedimentary System of the Permian Sichuan Cratonic Basin DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93173*

#### **6. Conclusions**

*Geochemistry*

The sedimentary characteristics of the Late Permian can be summarized as follows: the sedimentary facies belt was generally distributed in the east–west direction and was controlled by the north–south direction structure and differentiated; reef and beach deposits are generally distributed in a belt along the trough to form the platform margin. On the west side of the platform margin, open platform, restricted platform, and terrigenous shore facies were developed, respectively, and on the east side, slope facies and deepwater shelf facies are developed (**Figure 8**).

**204**

**Figure 8.**

*Tectono-sedimentary system of the Changxing period in the Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas.*

The northern and western margins of the Yangtze block were passive continental marginal environments, while the southern and southeastern margins were continental marginal rift basins with deepwater settings.

During the deposition of the Liangshan and Qixia formations, the northern and western margins of Sichuan cratonic basin were discrete passive continental margin environments, while the south and southeast margins were continental margin rift basins with deepwater sedimentary characteristics. The sedimentary environment in this period gradually changed from the early shore tidal flat to the stable carbonate platform, which was generally characterized by east–west differentiation and north–south gradual change.

The tectonic setting of the basin was relatively stable in the Maokou period. The Kangtien ancient land in the south of the basin showed a trend of continuous uplift. The basin presented a pattern of alternating structural highs and depressions. The development of sedimentary facies belts in each sedimentary stage had obvious inheritance and migration. From southwest to northeast, the sedimentary facies included shore facies, limited platform facies, open platform facies, continental shelf facies, platform margin facies, and slope facies. These are the characteristics of a carbonate platform system.

Being influenced by the regional extension controlled by the Emei rifting, the tectonic subsidence of the basin in the Late Permian gradually increased from southwest to northeast. In the early stage, the basin was controlled by the thermal effect of deep materials, and then the northern part of the basin was mainly affected by the superimposition of regional extensional phases and finally formed the sedimentary pattern of platform shelf structural differentiation. At the same time, the sea level changes and the development of reefs and beaches at the platform edge had an important impact on the filling sequence. In the study area transgression gradually occurred from NE to SW, forming a sequence of shelf, slope, platform margin, carbonate platform, mixed platform, tidal flat, and volcanic facies.

#### **Author details**

Haofu Zheng1 and Bo Liu2,3\*

1 College of River and Ocean Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing, China

2 School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China

3 School of Earth Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China

\*Address all correspondence to: bobliu@pku.edu.cn

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[49] Li R, Hu MY, Wei Y, Liu M. Sedimentary facies model and favorable reservoir distribution of the middle Permian in Sichuan Basin. Oil and Gas Geology. 2019;**40**(2):369-379

[50] Ma YS, Chen HD, Wang GL. Sequence Stratigraphy and Paleogeography in South China. Beijing: Science Press; 2009

[51] Li YC. Stable Isotope Cyclostratigraphy of the Permian/ Triassic Limestones from South China: An Indexes and Stratigraphic Correlations and Palaeoenvironmental Implications. Hefei: University of Science and Technology of China Press; 2003

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[54] He B, Xu Y-G, Guan J-P, Zhong Y-T. Paleokarst on the top of the Maokou formation: Further evidence for domal crustal uplift prior to the Emeishan flood volcanism. Lithos. 2010;**119**(1): 1-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.lithos.2010.07.019

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**211**

**Chapter 11**

**Abstract**

Late Neo-Proterozoic

*Tong Li and Changhai Li*

the Tarim Block, NW China

*Kaibo Shi, Bo Liu, Weimin Jiang, Jinxing Yu, Yue Kong,* 

The study of the late Neo-Proterozoic tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Tarim Basin is a key to unravel the tectonic setting, the intracontinental rift formation mechanism, and the sedimentary filling processes of this basin. Since in the Tarim Basin, the late Neo-Proterozoic to early Cambrian sedimentary successions were preserved, this basin represents an excellent site in order to study the Precambrian geology. Based on the outcrop data collected in the peripheral areas of the Tarim Basin, coupled with the intra-basinal drill sites and seismic data previously published, the late Neo-proterozoic tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Tarim Basin has been investigated. These data show that there were two individual blocks before the Cryogenian Period, namely, the north Tarim Block and the south Tarim Block. In the early Neo-Proterozoic (ca. 800 Ma), the amalgamation of two blocks resulted in the formation of the unified basement. During the late Neo-Proterozoic, the Tarim Block was in an extensional setting as a result of the Rodinia supercontinent breakup and then evolved into an intracontinental rift basin. The tectono-sedimentary evolution of the basin may be divided into three stages: the rifting stage (780–700 Ma), the rifting to depression transitional stage (660–600 Ma), and the post-rift depression stage (580–540 Ma). In the rifting stage, intracontinental rifts (i.e., the Awati Rift, the North Manjar Rift, and the South Manjar Rift) were formed, in which coarse-grained clastic sediments were deposited, generally accompanied by a massive volcanic activity due to an intensive stretching. In the rifting-depression transitional stage and in the post-rift depression stage, the paleogeography was characterized by uplifts to the south and depressions to the north. Three types of depositional association (i.e., clastic depositional association, clastic-carbonate mixed depositional association, and carbonate depositional association) were formed. The distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock was genetically related to the tectono-sedimentary evolution during the late Neo-Proterozoic. The lower Cambrian source rock was a stable deposit in the northern Tarim Basin, where the late Ediacaran carbonate was deposited, thinning out toward the central uplift. It was distributed throughout the entire Mangar region in the east and may be missing in the Magaiti and the southwestern Tarim Basin.

**Keywords:** Tarim Block, late Neo-Proterozoic, tectono-sedimentary evolution,

intracontinental rift, lower Cambrian source rock

Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of

#### **Chapter 11**

### Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China

*Kaibo Shi, Bo Liu, Weimin Jiang, Jinxing Yu, Yue Kong, Tong Li and Changhai Li*

#### **Abstract**

The study of the late Neo-Proterozoic tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Tarim Basin is a key to unravel the tectonic setting, the intracontinental rift formation mechanism, and the sedimentary filling processes of this basin. Since in the Tarim Basin, the late Neo-Proterozoic to early Cambrian sedimentary successions were preserved, this basin represents an excellent site in order to study the Precambrian geology. Based on the outcrop data collected in the peripheral areas of the Tarim Basin, coupled with the intra-basinal drill sites and seismic data previously published, the late Neo-proterozoic tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Tarim Basin has been investigated. These data show that there were two individual blocks before the Cryogenian Period, namely, the north Tarim Block and the south Tarim Block. In the early Neo-Proterozoic (ca. 800 Ma), the amalgamation of two blocks resulted in the formation of the unified basement. During the late Neo-Proterozoic, the Tarim Block was in an extensional setting as a result of the Rodinia supercontinent breakup and then evolved into an intracontinental rift basin. The tectono-sedimentary evolution of the basin may be divided into three stages: the rifting stage (780–700 Ma), the rifting to depression transitional stage (660–600 Ma), and the post-rift depression stage (580–540 Ma). In the rifting stage, intracontinental rifts (i.e., the Awati Rift, the North Manjar Rift, and the South Manjar Rift) were formed, in which coarse-grained clastic sediments were deposited, generally accompanied by a massive volcanic activity due to an intensive stretching. In the rifting-depression transitional stage and in the post-rift depression stage, the paleogeography was characterized by uplifts to the south and depressions to the north. Three types of depositional association (i.e., clastic depositional association, clastic-carbonate mixed depositional association, and carbonate depositional association) were formed. The distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock was genetically related to the tectono-sedimentary evolution during the late Neo-Proterozoic. The lower Cambrian source rock was a stable deposit in the northern Tarim Basin, where the late Ediacaran carbonate was deposited, thinning out toward the central uplift. It was distributed throughout the entire Mangar region in the east and may be missing in the Magaiti and the southwestern Tarim Basin.

**Keywords:** Tarim Block, late Neo-Proterozoic, tectono-sedimentary evolution, intracontinental rift, lower Cambrian source rock

#### **1. Introduction**

The Neo-Proterozoic to early Cambrian was a significant period of geological history. Several global geological events occurred in this time interval, for example, the assembly and breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent, the Snowball Earth, and the global sea-level rise and anoxic events [1–13]. The Tarim Basin is a large superimposed basin that underwent multiple phases of tectonic deformation from the Precambrian to the Cenozoic [14]. The late Neo-Proterozoic sedimentary succession was preserved in the peripheral areas of the Tarim Basin, which recorded convergence breakup cycles of the Rodinia supercontinent, multi-glacial events, multiphase volcanism, and evolution of continental rift [15–25]. The study of the late Neo-Proterozoic tectonosedimentary evolution of the Tarim Basin is a key to unravel the tectonic setting, the continental rift formation mechanisms, and the sedimentary filling processes.

Additionally, being the largest petroliferous basin in northwest (NW) China, the lower Cambrian source rock was a focus of scientific debate [17, 18, 26–28]. In recent years, the results of oil and source rock correlation and the exploration discovery of primary oil and gas in the Cambrian subsalt dolomite reservoirs have shown that the lower Cambrian Yurtusi Formation is the most important source rocks in Tarim Basin [26, 29]. However, there are few stratigraphic data about the lower Cambrian source rock. Due to its small thickness and the deep burial, it is difficult to identify and trace the seismic horizons corresponding with the lower Cambrian source rocks on the seismic sections. Therefore, there are a lot of controversies over the distribution of the lower Cambrian source rocks, especially in the western sectors of the Tarim Basin [17, 18, 26–28]. These issues directly affect the evaluation and the selection of the target areas of deep oil and gas exploration. An accurate prediction of the distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock is essential for the deep oil and gas exploration in the Tarim Basin. The late Neo-Proterozoic tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Tarim Basin was reconstructed based on a comprehensive analysis of a large number of field outcrop data, drilling data, and high-resolution seismic profiles. Moreover, we have discussed how the early basin tectonic background influenced the sedimentary characteristics during the early Cambrian period, with a view to provide new ideas for the distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock.

#### **2. Geological setting**

The Tarim Block has an ancient crystallization basement and was separated from the Rodinia supercontinent during the late Neo-Proterozoic. The Tarim Basin, covering an area of approximately 56 × 104 km2 , was the stable area of the Tarim Block (**Figure 1**). As one of the three major continental blocks in China, the Tarim Block experienced several stages of tectonic evolution since its formation, having both similarities and dissimilarities to the North and South China Blocks [30]. The continental crust evolution of trondhjemite, tonalite, and granodiorite (TTG) during the late Neoarchean [31–34] and two orogenic events at the end of the Paleo-Proterozoic and the late Meso-Proterozoic to early Neo-Proterozoic, respectively, occurred. During the early period of the Neo-Proterozoic (ca. 900 Ma), the Tarim Block, that was a part of the Rodinia supercontinent, collided with the Australian Plate [4, 35–39]. Since ca. 800 Ma, the Tarim Block was separated from the Australian Plate, as a result of the breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent, resulting in the late Neo-Proterozoic cover deposits [1, 2]. During the extensional phase, an intense continental rifting, magmatic events, and sedimentary processes subsequently occurred, both in the interior and periphery of the Tarim Block, ranging in age from Cryogenian to Ediacaran [1–13, 15–22, 30, 40, 41].

**213**

**Figure 1.**

**Figure 2.**

*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China*

*Tectonic characteristics of the Tarim Basin and its peripheral areas. I-Kuruktag Quruqtagh uplift belt; II-Kalpin uplift belt; III-Tiekelike uplift belt; and IV-Altun uplift belt. 1-Altun strike-slip fault; 2-Xingxingxia strike-slip fault; 3-North Tarim fault; 4-south marginal fault of the central Tianshan; 5-Nikolaev-Nalat fault* 

*belt; 6-Talass-Fergana strike-slip fault; 7-north Tianshan suture belt; and 8-Kangxiwar fault belt.*

Currently, four uplift belts, that is, Quruqtagh in the northeast, Kalpin in the northwest, Tiekelike in the southwest, and Altun in the southeast (SE), are distributed on the margin of the Tarim Basin, while the hinterland of the basin is covered by desert areas (**Figure 1**). Based on the top of the basement and the regional characteristic of large-scale faults, the Tarim Basin was divided into seven firstorder tectonic units, with three structural uplifts and four depressions, that is, the Kuqa Depression, the Tabei Uplift, the North Depression, the Central Uplift (Bachu Uplift, Tazhong Uplift, and Gucheng Uplift), the Southwest Depression, Tanan

The hinterland of the Tarim Basin was covered by desert. The Neo-Proterozoic

outcrops were distributed along the basin margin, mainly in the Aksu-Kalpin area in the northwestern margin, the Quruqtagh area in the northeastern margin,

Uplift, and the Southeast Depression (**Figure 2**) [24].

*Tectonic units division and key well locations in the Tarim Basin.*

**3. The late Neo-Proterozoic sedimentary distribution**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Geochemistry*

**1. Introduction**

The Neo-Proterozoic to early Cambrian was a significant period of geological history. Several global geological events occurred in this time interval, for example, the assembly and breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent, the Snowball Earth, and the global sea-level rise and anoxic events [1–13]. The Tarim Basin is a large superimposed basin that underwent multiple phases of tectonic deformation from the Precambrian to the Cenozoic [14]. The late Neo-Proterozoic sedimentary succession was preserved in the peripheral areas of the Tarim Basin, which recorded convergence breakup cycles of the Rodinia supercontinent, multi-glacial events, multiphase volcanism, and evolution of continental rift [15–25]. The study of the late Neo-Proterozoic tectonosedimentary evolution of the Tarim Basin is a key to unravel the tectonic setting, the continental rift formation mechanisms, and the sedimentary filling processes.

Additionally, being the largest petroliferous basin in northwest (NW) China, the lower Cambrian source rock was a focus of scientific debate [17, 18, 26–28]. In recent years, the results of oil and source rock correlation and the exploration discovery of primary oil and gas in the Cambrian subsalt dolomite reservoirs have shown that the lower Cambrian Yurtusi Formation is the most important source rocks in Tarim Basin [26, 29]. However, there are few stratigraphic data about the lower Cambrian source rock. Due to its small thickness and the deep burial, it is difficult to identify and trace the seismic horizons corresponding with the lower Cambrian source rocks on the seismic sections. Therefore, there are a lot of controversies over the distribution of the lower Cambrian source rocks, especially in the western sectors of the Tarim Basin [17, 18, 26–28]. These issues directly affect the evaluation and the selection of the target areas of deep oil and gas exploration. An accurate prediction of the distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock is essential for the deep oil and gas exploration in the Tarim Basin. The late Neo-Proterozoic tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Tarim Basin was reconstructed based on a comprehensive analysis of a large number of field outcrop data, drilling data, and high-resolution seismic profiles. Moreover, we have discussed how the early basin tectonic background influenced the sedimentary characteristics during the early Cambrian period, with a view to provide new ideas for the distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock.

The Tarim Block has an ancient crystallization basement and was separated from the Rodinia supercontinent during the late Neo-Proterozoic. The Tarim Basin,

Block (**Figure 1**). As one of the three major continental blocks in China, the Tarim Block experienced several stages of tectonic evolution since its formation, having both similarities and dissimilarities to the North and South China Blocks [30]. The continental crust evolution of trondhjemite, tonalite, and granodiorite (TTG) during the late Neoarchean [31–34] and two orogenic events at the end of the Paleo-Proterozoic and the late Meso-Proterozoic to early Neo-Proterozoic, respectively, occurred. During the early period of the Neo-Proterozoic (ca. 900 Ma), the Tarim Block, that was a part of the Rodinia supercontinent, collided with the Australian Plate [4, 35–39]. Since ca. 800 Ma, the Tarim Block was separated from the

Australian Plate, as a result of the breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent, resulting in the late Neo-Proterozoic cover deposits [1, 2]. During the extensional phase, an intense continental rifting, magmatic events, and sedimentary processes subsequently occurred, both in the interior and periphery of the Tarim Block, ranging in

age from Cryogenian to Ediacaran [1–13, 15–22, 30, 40, 41].

km2

, was the stable area of the Tarim

**212**

**2. Geological setting**

covering an area of approximately 56 × 104

*Tectonic characteristics of the Tarim Basin and its peripheral areas. I-Kuruktag Quruqtagh uplift belt; II-Kalpin uplift belt; III-Tiekelike uplift belt; and IV-Altun uplift belt. 1-Altun strike-slip fault; 2-Xingxingxia strike-slip fault; 3-North Tarim fault; 4-south marginal fault of the central Tianshan; 5-Nikolaev-Nalat fault belt; 6-Talass-Fergana strike-slip fault; 7-north Tianshan suture belt; and 8-Kangxiwar fault belt.*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Tectonic units division and key well locations in the Tarim Basin.*

Currently, four uplift belts, that is, Quruqtagh in the northeast, Kalpin in the northwest, Tiekelike in the southwest, and Altun in the southeast (SE), are distributed on the margin of the Tarim Basin, while the hinterland of the basin is covered by desert areas (**Figure 1**). Based on the top of the basement and the regional characteristic of large-scale faults, the Tarim Basin was divided into seven firstorder tectonic units, with three structural uplifts and four depressions, that is, the Kuqa Depression, the Tabei Uplift, the North Depression, the Central Uplift (Bachu Uplift, Tazhong Uplift, and Gucheng Uplift), the Southwest Depression, Tanan Uplift, and the Southeast Depression (**Figure 2**) [24].

#### **3. The late Neo-Proterozoic sedimentary distribution**

The hinterland of the Tarim Basin was covered by desert. The Neo-Proterozoic outcrops were distributed along the basin margin, mainly in the Aksu-Kalpin area in the northwestern margin, the Quruqtagh area in the northeastern margin,

and the Tiekelike area in the southwestern margin, while they are lacking in the Altun area in the southeastern margin of the basin. Within the basin, several wells (including well XH1, well WC1, well QG1, well LT1, well YL1, well DT1, well TD1, and well TD2,) were drilled into the late Neo-Proterozoic strata and some other wells (including well ST1, well T1, well F1, well H4, well BT5, well MB1, well CT1, well TC1, well ZS1, well MC1, and well YD2,) were drilled into the Precambrian basement or into volcanic rocks (**Figure 2**).

#### **3.1 Periphery of the basin**

#### *3.1.1 The northeastern margin*

The Neo-Proterozoic outcrops in the northeastern margin of Tarim Basin were mainly located in the Quruqtagh area. The Quruqtagh area was separated into northern and southern regions by the Xingdi fault and preserved intact Neo-Proterozoic sedimentary successions.

The Cryogenian sequence was subdivided into the Baiyisi Formation, the Zhaobishan Formation, the Altungol Formation, and the Tereeken Formation from the bottom to the top (**Figures 3** and **4**). In the northern Quruqtagh region, the Baiyisi Formation comprised of diamictites in its lower part and was overlain by volcanic rocks. The Zhaobishan Formation was composed of sandstones, siltstones, and shales in the northern region and was lacking in the southern region. In the northern region, the Altungol Formation developed diamictites in the lower part and consisted of siltstones, sandstones, and volcanic rocks in its upper part. In the southern region, the Altungol Formation was dominated by diamictites and covered by cap dolomite with negative δ 13C values [42]. In the northern region, the Tereeken Formation consisted of diamictites separated by several layers of siltstones, mudstones, and volcanic rocks and was covered by a 10-m thick cap dolomites, characterized by negative δ13C values [42]. In the southern region, a shallowing upward sequence crops out, which is composed of shales, siltstones, sandstones interlayered with carbonates (**Figure 4**).


**215**

**Figure 4.**

*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China*

The Ediacaran sequence was disconformably underlain by the Cryogenian strata and was unconformably overlain by the Cambrian Xishanbulake Formation (**Figure 5e**). It was subdivided into the Zhamoketi Formation, the Yukengol Formation, the Shuiquan Formation, and the Hankalchough Formation from the

In the northern region, the Zhamoketi Formation were comprised mainly of fine-grained clastic deposits and volcanic rocks developed on the figures. The Yukengol Formation was composed of shales, siltstones interlayered with carbonates (**Figures 5e** and **6**). In the southern region, the Zhamoketi Formation and Yukengol Formation have similar sedimentary characteristics, which are mainly sandstones and siltstones (**Figures 5e** and **6**). There are weak differences between the southern and northern regions in the upper Ediacaran and the carbonate deposition gradually increased. The Shuiquan Formation was principally composed

Hankalchough Formation in the top part of Ediacaran was comprised of diamictites and cap dolomites, characterized by negative δ13C values in both northern and

The Neo-Proterozoic outcrops in the northwestern margin of the basin were

mainly distributed in the Aksu-Wushi area. The Neo-Proterozoic units are

13C ratio (**Figures 5g** and **6**) [42]. The youngest

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

bottom to the top (**Figures 3** and **6**).

*Stratigraphic correlation of Cryogenian in periphery of the Tarim Basin.*

of carbonate rocks with a positive δ

southern regions (**Figure 6**) [42].

*3.1.2 The northwestern margin*

#### **Figure 3.** *Stratigraphic classification and correlation of Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the Tarim Basin.*

*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Geochemistry*

basement or into volcanic rocks (**Figure 2**).

**3.1 Periphery of the basin**

*3.1.1 The northeastern margin*

Proterozoic sedimentary successions.

by cap dolomite with negative δ

with carbonates (**Figure 4**).

and the Tiekelike area in the southwestern margin, while they are lacking in the Altun area in the southeastern margin of the basin. Within the basin, several wells (including well XH1, well WC1, well QG1, well LT1, well YL1, well DT1, well TD1, and well TD2,) were drilled into the late Neo-Proterozoic strata and some other wells (including well ST1, well T1, well F1, well H4, well BT5, well MB1, well CT1, well TC1, well ZS1, well MC1, and well YD2,) were drilled into the Precambrian

The Neo-Proterozoic outcrops in the northeastern margin of Tarim Basin were mainly located in the Quruqtagh area. The Quruqtagh area was separated into northern and southern regions by the Xingdi fault and preserved intact Neo-

The Cryogenian sequence was subdivided into the Baiyisi Formation, the Zhaobishan Formation, the Altungol Formation, and the Tereeken Formation from the bottom to the top (**Figures 3** and **4**). In the northern Quruqtagh region, the Baiyisi Formation comprised of diamictites in its lower part and was overlain by volcanic rocks. The Zhaobishan Formation was composed of sandstones, siltstones, and shales in the northern region and was lacking in the southern region. In the northern region, the Altungol Formation developed diamictites in the lower part and consisted of siltstones, sandstones, and volcanic rocks in its upper part. In the southern region, the Altungol Formation was dominated by diamictites and covered

Formation consisted of diamictites separated by several layers of siltstones, mudstones, and volcanic rocks and was covered by a 10-m thick cap dolomites, characterized by negative δ13C values [42]. In the southern region, a shallowing upward sequence crops out, which is composed of shales, siltstones, sandstones interlayered

*Stratigraphic classification and correlation of Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the Tarim Basin.*

13C values [42]. In the northern region, the Tereeken

**214**

**Figure 3.**

*Stratigraphic correlation of Cryogenian in periphery of the Tarim Basin.*

The Ediacaran sequence was disconformably underlain by the Cryogenian strata and was unconformably overlain by the Cambrian Xishanbulake Formation (**Figure 5e**). It was subdivided into the Zhamoketi Formation, the Yukengol Formation, the Shuiquan Formation, and the Hankalchough Formation from the bottom to the top (**Figures 3** and **6**).

In the northern region, the Zhamoketi Formation were comprised mainly of fine-grained clastic deposits and volcanic rocks developed on the figures. The Yukengol Formation was composed of shales, siltstones interlayered with carbonates (**Figures 5e** and **6**). In the southern region, the Zhamoketi Formation and Yukengol Formation have similar sedimentary characteristics, which are mainly sandstones and siltstones (**Figures 5e** and **6**). There are weak differences between the southern and northern regions in the upper Ediacaran and the carbonate deposition gradually increased. The Shuiquan Formation was principally composed of carbonate rocks with a positive δ 13C ratio (**Figures 5g** and **6**) [42]. The youngest Hankalchough Formation in the top part of Ediacaran was comprised of diamictites and cap dolomites, characterized by negative δ13C values in both northern and southern regions (**Figure 6**) [42].

#### *3.1.2 The northwestern margin*

The Neo-Proterozoic outcrops in the northwestern margin of the basin were mainly distributed in the Aksu-Wushi area. The Neo-Proterozoic units are

**Figure 5.**

*Characteristics of the Cryogenian-Ediacaran sequence boundary in periphery of the Tarim Basin.*

**217**

*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China*

and Ediacaran sequences. The Aksu Group was mainly comprised of pelitic, psammtie, and mafic schists, which underwent green-schist to blue-schist facies metamorphism (**Figure 5a**) [42–44]. In addition, a series of NW-trending mafic dykes intruded the Aksu Group, with given zircon U-Pb ages of 757 ± 8.9 Ma [5] and 759 ± 7 Ma [45]. The Aksu Group was unconformably overlain by the Cryogenian-

Ediacaran sedimentary strata, including the Qiaoenbrak and Yuermeinak

members (**Figure 4**). The lower member was mainly composed of feldspar sandstones, feldspar-quartz sandstones, and siltstones. The middle member was characterized by thick rhythmic gray-green sandstones and siltstones (**Figure 4**). Several mafic dykes intruded into the middle member, with given zircon U-Pb age of 633 ± 7 Ma. The upper member was mainly calcareous sandstones and coarsegrained feldspars sandstones. There is a clear angular unconformity between the Qiaoenbrak Formation and the overlying Yuermeinak Formation. The Yuermeinak Formation was locally exposed and consisted of thick diamictites and sandstones, which were interpreted as glacial deposits. The Yuermeinak diamictite is generally

correlated with the Tereeken diamictite in the northeastern Tarim Basin.

The Sugetbrak Formation was unconformably underlain by the Yuermeinak Formation or the Aksu Group (**Figure 5a**). It consisted of two members. The lower member was composed of red conglomerates and sandstones, which were deposited in an oxidized environment (**Figure 5a** and **b**). The mafic dykes intruded into the lower member, with given zircon U-Pb age of 615 Ma [3]. The upper member was characterized by mixed deposits of fine-grained clastic and carbonate rocks. The Qigebrak Formation was composed of bedded dolomite and stromatolites developed. There is a weathering crust with a thickness of ca. 30–50 m in the uppermost of the Qigebrak Formation, which was unconformably overlain by the Cambrian

The Neo-Proterozoic strata in the southwestern margin of the basin were mainly distributed in the Tiekelike area and the outcrops along the Xinjiang-Tibet Highway were complete. The late Neo-Proterozoic succession has been divided into the Qiakemakelieke Group (including Yalaguzi, Bolong, and Kelixi Formations) and the Yutang Formation of the Cryogenian, Kuerkake, and Kezisuhumu Formations

The Yalaguzi Formation was composed of conglomerates and unconformably underlain by the Tonian Sukuluoke Group (**Figure 4**). The upper part was composed of gray-green laminated silicalite and siliceous mudstones. The Bolong Formation was mainly composed of two sets of thick diamictites, which were separated by layers of laminated siliceous mudstones, siltstones, and sandstones. The Bolong diamicitie can be generally correlated with the Altungol and Qiaoenbrak diamictites (**Figure 4**). The Kelixi Formation was a shallowing upward sequence. It was composed of mudstones, siltstones, sandstones, and conglomerate-bearing sandstones from the bottom to the top (**Figure 4**) [46]. There was another set of diamicites in the lower part of the Yutang Formation, which was contemporaneous with the Tereeken and Yuermeinak diamictites. The upper part was composed of

Formations of the Cryogenian and the Sugetbrak and Qigebrak Formations of the

The Qiaoenbrak Formation was subdivided into the lower, middle, and upper

composed of the metamorphic Aksu Group and the unmetamorphosed Cryogenian

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

Ediacaran (**Figures 3**, **4**, and **6**).

Yurtusi Formation (**Figure 5d**).

(Ediacaran; **Figures 3**, **4**, and **6**).

siltstones and sandstones (**Figure 4**).

*3.1.3 The southwestern margin*

**Figure 6.** *Stratigraphic correlation of Ediacaran in periphery of the Tarim Basin.*

#### *Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

composed of the metamorphic Aksu Group and the unmetamorphosed Cryogenian and Ediacaran sequences. The Aksu Group was mainly comprised of pelitic, psammtie, and mafic schists, which underwent green-schist to blue-schist facies metamorphism (**Figure 5a**) [42–44]. In addition, a series of NW-trending mafic dykes intruded the Aksu Group, with given zircon U-Pb ages of 757 ± 8.9 Ma [5] and 759 ± 7 Ma [45]. The Aksu Group was unconformably overlain by the Cryogenian-Ediacaran sedimentary strata, including the Qiaoenbrak and Yuermeinak Formations of the Cryogenian and the Sugetbrak and Qigebrak Formations of the Ediacaran (**Figures 3**, **4**, and **6**).

The Qiaoenbrak Formation was subdivided into the lower, middle, and upper members (**Figure 4**). The lower member was mainly composed of feldspar sandstones, feldspar-quartz sandstones, and siltstones. The middle member was characterized by thick rhythmic gray-green sandstones and siltstones (**Figure 4**). Several mafic dykes intruded into the middle member, with given zircon U-Pb age of 633 ± 7 Ma. The upper member was mainly calcareous sandstones and coarsegrained feldspars sandstones. There is a clear angular unconformity between the Qiaoenbrak Formation and the overlying Yuermeinak Formation. The Yuermeinak Formation was locally exposed and consisted of thick diamictites and sandstones, which were interpreted as glacial deposits. The Yuermeinak diamictite is generally correlated with the Tereeken diamictite in the northeastern Tarim Basin.

The Sugetbrak Formation was unconformably underlain by the Yuermeinak Formation or the Aksu Group (**Figure 5a**). It consisted of two members. The lower member was composed of red conglomerates and sandstones, which were deposited in an oxidized environment (**Figure 5a** and **b**). The mafic dykes intruded into the lower member, with given zircon U-Pb age of 615 Ma [3]. The upper member was characterized by mixed deposits of fine-grained clastic and carbonate rocks. The Qigebrak Formation was composed of bedded dolomite and stromatolites developed. There is a weathering crust with a thickness of ca. 30–50 m in the uppermost of the Qigebrak Formation, which was unconformably overlain by the Cambrian Yurtusi Formation (**Figure 5d**).

#### *3.1.3 The southwestern margin*

*Geochemistry*

**Figure 5.**

*Characteristics of the Cryogenian-Ediacaran sequence boundary in periphery of the Tarim Basin.*

**216**

**Figure 6.**

*Stratigraphic correlation of Ediacaran in periphery of the Tarim Basin.*

The Neo-Proterozoic strata in the southwestern margin of the basin were mainly distributed in the Tiekelike area and the outcrops along the Xinjiang-Tibet Highway were complete. The late Neo-Proterozoic succession has been divided into the Qiakemakelieke Group (including Yalaguzi, Bolong, and Kelixi Formations) and the Yutang Formation of the Cryogenian, Kuerkake, and Kezisuhumu Formations (Ediacaran; **Figures 3**, **4**, and **6**).

The Yalaguzi Formation was composed of conglomerates and unconformably underlain by the Tonian Sukuluoke Group (**Figure 4**). The upper part was composed of gray-green laminated silicalite and siliceous mudstones. The Bolong Formation was mainly composed of two sets of thick diamictites, which were separated by layers of laminated siliceous mudstones, siltstones, and sandstones. The Bolong diamicitie can be generally correlated with the Altungol and Qiaoenbrak diamictites (**Figure 4**). The Kelixi Formation was a shallowing upward sequence. It was composed of mudstones, siltstones, sandstones, and conglomerate-bearing sandstones from the bottom to the top (**Figure 4**) [46]. There was another set of diamicites in the lower part of the Yutang Formation, which was contemporaneous with the Tereeken and Yuermeinak diamictites. The upper part was composed of siltstones and sandstones (**Figure 4**).

The Kuerkake Formation includes two members (**Figure 6**). The lower member was composed of black and dark-gray mudstones intercalated with siltstones, while the upper member consisted of sandstones and siltstones interlayered with darkgray mudstones. The Kezisuhumu Formation was composed of mudstones, siltstones interlayered with dolomites in its lower part and thick dolomites in the upper part, which was unconformably covered by Devonian or Carboniferous strata.

#### **3.2 The areas within the basin**

#### *3.2.1 The northern Tarim Basin (the Tabei area)*

In the northern part of Tarim Basin, only well WC1, well XH1, well QG1, and well LT1 have drilled in the Ediacaran strata, while no well drilled in the Cryogenian strata. The Sugetbrak Formation was characterized by fine-grained clastic sediments and limestones, with a thickness of ca. 70–90 m. These features were similar to those in the upper member of Sugetbrak in the Aksu area. The Qigebrak Formation has a thickness of ca. 160–180 m and is composed of dolomites. The well XH1 has drilled phyllite, quartz schist, and granite gneiss beneath the Sugetbrak mudstones. The granite gneiss yielded a zircon U-Pb age of 832 ± 4 Ma [30]. The well WC1 has drilled the chlorite schist and quartz schist with detrital zircon ages clusters at ca. 800 Ma [30, 47]. In the Yangxia section, the sericite quartz schist developed and the detrital zircon ages clusters were at ca. 800 Ma [48]. This metamorphic basement has also been drilled in wells YH2, well LT2, and well MN1. It might be correlated with the Aksu Group in Aksu area accordingly to the detrital zircon ages and to the degree of metamorphism. In addition, Precambrian basement granite (ca. 1.8–1.9 Ga [30, 47, 49]) was revealed in many boreholes. These lithologic and chronological characterisitics suggest that the northern Tarim Basin developed a metamorphic basement which might be corresponded to the Aksu Group, and the Paleo-Proterozoic crystalline basement locally occurred.

As shown on seismic profiles, the Ediacaran strata were distributed stably in the southern area of the Tabei uplift (**Figure 7a**–**c**). Toward the north, the Ediacaran strata were pinched out due to uplifting and denudation during Paleozoic, and hence the Precambrian metamorphic basement was directly covered by Mesozoic strata (**Figure 7c**).

#### *3.2.2 The Bachu-Tazhong area*

In the Bachu uplift, only well T1 has drilled the late Neo-Proterozoic strata with a thickness of ca. 200 m. The lithology is composed of mudstones, sandstones, and volcanic rocks, and the underlying andesite (zircon U-Pb age of 755 ± 3 Ma [30]) is intercalated with mudstones. The youngest detrital zircon age of tuffaceous sandstone just below the Cambrian carbonate rocks of well T1 is 707 ± 8 Ma, which was interpreted as the maximum sedimentary age [50]. In addition, some wells (e.g., well ST1, well F1, and well H4) directly drilled in the mafic volcanic rocks just below the Cambrian carbonate rocks (ca. 26–224 m), which were supposed to correspond to the eruption in the period of the late Neo-Proterozoic based on the zircon U-Pb dating [47].

In the northern Bachu uplift, there was no borehole drilled in the Neo-Proterozoic strata. The seismic interpretation has shown that the Cryogenian depositional distribution was controlled by faults and was characterized by intracontinental rift deposition (**Figure 8a**). The Ediacaran strata have stable distribution over the rift sedimentary system (**Figure 8a**).

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*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China*

In the southern Bachu uplift, well BT5 has revealed a set of breccias below the Cambrian strata. The breccias mainly consisted of basalt/diabase, indicating the deposits were near the source. The well MB1 drilled the granite gneiss (zircon U-Pb age of 1920 ± 14 Ma [50]) just below the Cambrian carbonate rocks. It was suggested that the Paleo-Proterozoic crystalline basement occurred in the Maigaiti

*Seismic reflection characteristics of Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the northern Tarim Basin (profiles location as* 

In the Tazhong uplift, there was no borehole drilled in the Neo-Proterozoic sedimentary successions. The well ZS1 drilled the olivine-bearing granite (zircon U-Pb ages of 1895 ± 1 Ma [47] and 1915 ± 5 Ma [30]) and well TC1 revealed diorite and granodiorite (zircon U-Pb age of 757 ± 6 Ma [51]) below the Cambrian carbonate rocks. In the northern region of Tazhong uplift, there were obvious seismic reflection characteristics of the Cryogenian intracontinental rift deposition with large thickness and the Ediacaran depression sedimentary successions (**Figure 8c**). However, in the southern area, the late Neo-Proterozoic sedimentary successions were lacking, and the Paleo-Proterozoic crystalline basement was directly overlain by the Cambrian carbonate rocks (**Figure 8b**). The above features implied that the northern part of the Tazhong uplift was a deposition area, while the southern part was the structural high without deposition during the late

In the Tadong area, several boreholes (e.g., well TD2, well TD1, well DT1, and well YL1) have drilled in the Ediacaran strata. In the Tadong low uplift zone, well TD1, well TD2, and well DT1 drilled in Shuiquan carbonate rocks with a thickness of ca. 28–800 m. The Paleo-Proterozoic granite crystalline basement (zircon U-Pb ages of 1908 ± 9 Ma [51], 1908 ± 9 Ma, and 1908 ± 9 Ma [47]) was revealed in well

area. The well YL6 drilled a set of marble below the middle Cambrian [50], which might be corresponded to the Bochatetage Formation in the Tiekelike area. According to detrital zircon dating, the Bochatetage Formation was deposited in the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

middle Neo-Proterozoic [11].

**Figure 7.**

*shown in Figure 2).*

Neo-Proterozoic.

*3.2.3 The eastern Tarim Basin (the Tadong area)*

*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

#### **Figure 7.**

*Geochemistry*

**3.2 The areas within the basin**

*3.2.1 The northern Tarim Basin (the Tabei area)*

The Kuerkake Formation includes two members (**Figure 6**). The lower member was composed of black and dark-gray mudstones intercalated with siltstones, while the upper member consisted of sandstones and siltstones interlayered with darkgray mudstones. The Kezisuhumu Formation was composed of mudstones, siltstones interlayered with dolomites in its lower part and thick dolomites in the upper part, which was unconformably covered by Devonian or Carboniferous strata.

In the northern part of Tarim Basin, only well WC1, well XH1, well QG1, and well LT1 have drilled in the Ediacaran strata, while no well drilled in the Cryogenian strata. The Sugetbrak Formation was characterized by fine-grained clastic sediments and limestones, with a thickness of ca. 70–90 m. These features were similar to those in the upper member of Sugetbrak in the Aksu area. The Qigebrak Formation has a thickness of ca. 160–180 m and is composed of dolomites. The well XH1 has drilled phyllite, quartz schist, and granite gneiss beneath the Sugetbrak mudstones. The granite gneiss yielded a zircon U-Pb age of 832 ± 4 Ma [30]. The well WC1 has drilled the chlorite schist and quartz schist with detrital zircon ages clusters at ca. 800 Ma [30, 47]. In the Yangxia section, the sericite quartz schist developed and the detrital zircon ages clusters were at ca. 800 Ma [48]. This metamorphic basement has also been drilled in wells YH2, well LT2, and well MN1. It might be correlated with the Aksu Group in Aksu area accordingly to the detrital zircon ages and to the degree of metamorphism. In addition, Precambrian basement granite (ca. 1.8–1.9 Ga [30, 47, 49]) was revealed in many boreholes. These lithologic and chronological characterisitics suggest that the northern Tarim Basin developed a metamorphic basement which might be corresponded to the Aksu Group, and the Paleo-Proterozoic crystalline basement locally occurred.

As shown on seismic profiles, the Ediacaran strata were distributed stably in the southern area of the Tabei uplift (**Figure 7a**–**c**). Toward the north, the Ediacaran strata were pinched out due to uplifting and denudation during Paleozoic, and hence the Precambrian metamorphic basement was directly covered by Mesozoic

In the Bachu uplift, only well T1 has drilled the late Neo-Proterozoic strata with a thickness of ca. 200 m. The lithology is composed of mudstones, sandstones, and volcanic rocks, and the underlying andesite (zircon U-Pb age of 755 ± 3 Ma [30]) is intercalated with mudstones. The youngest detrital zircon age of tuffaceous sandstone just below the Cambrian carbonate rocks of well T1 is 707 ± 8 Ma, which was interpreted as the maximum sedimentary age [50]. In addition, some wells (e.g., well ST1, well F1, and well H4) directly drilled in the mafic volcanic rocks just below the Cambrian carbonate rocks (ca. 26–224 m), which were supposed to correspond to the eruption in the period of the late Neo-Proterozoic based on the

In the northern Bachu uplift, there was no borehole drilled in the Neo-Proterozoic strata. The seismic interpretation has shown that the Cryogenian depositional distribution was controlled by faults and was characterized by intracontinental rift deposition (**Figure 8a**). The Ediacaran strata have stable distribution

**218**

strata (**Figure 7c**).

*3.2.2 The Bachu-Tazhong area*

zircon U-Pb dating [47].

over the rift sedimentary system (**Figure 8a**).

*Seismic reflection characteristics of Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the northern Tarim Basin (profiles location as shown in Figure 2).*

In the southern Bachu uplift, well BT5 has revealed a set of breccias below the Cambrian strata. The breccias mainly consisted of basalt/diabase, indicating the deposits were near the source. The well MB1 drilled the granite gneiss (zircon U-Pb age of 1920 ± 14 Ma [50]) just below the Cambrian carbonate rocks. It was suggested that the Paleo-Proterozoic crystalline basement occurred in the Maigaiti area. The well YL6 drilled a set of marble below the middle Cambrian [50], which might be corresponded to the Bochatetage Formation in the Tiekelike area. According to detrital zircon dating, the Bochatetage Formation was deposited in the middle Neo-Proterozoic [11].

In the Tazhong uplift, there was no borehole drilled in the Neo-Proterozoic sedimentary successions. The well ZS1 drilled the olivine-bearing granite (zircon U-Pb ages of 1895 ± 1 Ma [47] and 1915 ± 5 Ma [30]) and well TC1 revealed diorite and granodiorite (zircon U-Pb age of 757 ± 6 Ma [51]) below the Cambrian carbonate rocks. In the northern region of Tazhong uplift, there were obvious seismic reflection characteristics of the Cryogenian intracontinental rift deposition with large thickness and the Ediacaran depression sedimentary successions (**Figure 8c**). However, in the southern area, the late Neo-Proterozoic sedimentary successions were lacking, and the Paleo-Proterozoic crystalline basement was directly overlain by the Cambrian carbonate rocks (**Figure 8b**). The above features implied that the northern part of the Tazhong uplift was a deposition area, while the southern part was the structural high without deposition during the late Neo-Proterozoic.

#### *3.2.3 The eastern Tarim Basin (the Tadong area)*

In the Tadong area, several boreholes (e.g., well TD2, well TD1, well DT1, and well YL1) have drilled in the Ediacaran strata. In the Tadong low uplift zone, well TD1, well TD2, and well DT1 drilled in Shuiquan carbonate rocks with a thickness of ca. 28–800 m. The Paleo-Proterozoic granite crystalline basement (zircon U-Pb ages of 1908 ± 9 Ma [51], 1908 ± 9 Ma, and 1908 ± 9 Ma [47]) was revealed in well

#### **Figure 8.**

*Seismic reflection characteristics of Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the western Tarim Basin (profiles location as shown in Figure 2).*

TD2. The well YD2 drilled the granite (zircon U-Pb ages of 750 ± 7 Ma [47]) and was overlain by the Cambrian black shale. The Ediacaran sedimentary successions including the Zhamoketi, Yukengol, and Shuiquan Formations were drilled by well YL1 in the Manjar sag, which composed of mudstones and siltstones in the lower part as well as micrite and argillaceous limestones intercalated with mudstones in the upper part.

As shown on seismic profiles, the Cryogenian was characteristic of the intracontinental rift deposition with a great thickness variation, which was controlled by faults (**Figure 9a** and **b**). The Ediacaran was the post-rifting depression deposition and stably distributed in the Manjar area (**Figure 9a**, **b**, and **e**). It was implied that the Tadong low uplift was a structural high, which might be the volcanic eruption center or the rift flank, hence it directly deposited the Shuiquan dolomite. The thickness of the Shuiquan dolomite pinched out toward the south (**Figure 9c** and **d**). The Shuiquan dolomite was missed in well YD2, and this might be attributed to denudation due to uplifting at the end of the Ediacaran.

**221**

**Figure 9.**

*shown in Figure 2).*

*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

*3.2.4 The southwestern to southeastern Tarim Basin*

Although no Cryogenian-Ediacaran strata have drilled in the southwestern Tarim Basin due to large buried depth, the distinct seismic reflection signatures could be identified on the seismic section (**Figure 6d**–**f**). The Cryogenian developed intracontinental rift sedimentary successions with a large thickness and the Ediacaran was characteristic of depression sedimentary successions (**Figure 6d**–**f**). The 3D resistivity inversion results displayed that a depth range of 6–15 km exhibited low resistivity in the Magaiti area [52], and the areas of low-resistivity decrease with depth. Thus, it was inferred that the Cryogenian-Ediacaran developed in the southwest (SW) Tarim Basin. The northeast (NE)-SW trending aeromagnetic anomalies belts might indicate the basement difference and were not the identifica-

*Seismic reflection characteristics of Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the eastern Tarim Basin (profiles location as* 

tion mark of the Cryogenian-Ediacaran sedimentary successions.

*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Geochemistry*

**220**

the upper part.

*shown in Figure 2).*

**Figure 8.**

TD2. The well YD2 drilled the granite (zircon U-Pb ages of 750 ± 7 Ma [47]) and was overlain by the Cambrian black shale. The Ediacaran sedimentary successions including the Zhamoketi, Yukengol, and Shuiquan Formations were drilled by well YL1 in the Manjar sag, which composed of mudstones and siltstones in the lower part as well as micrite and argillaceous limestones intercalated with mudstones in

*Seismic reflection characteristics of Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the western Tarim Basin (profiles location as* 

As shown on seismic profiles, the Cryogenian was characteristic of the intracontinental rift deposition with a great thickness variation, which was controlled by faults (**Figure 9a** and **b**). The Ediacaran was the post-rifting depression deposition and stably distributed in the Manjar area (**Figure 9a**, **b**, and **e**). It was implied that the Tadong low uplift was a structural high, which might be the volcanic eruption center or the rift flank, hence it directly deposited the Shuiquan dolomite. The thickness of the Shuiquan dolomite pinched out toward the south (**Figure 9c** and **d**). The Shuiquan dolomite was missed in well YD2, and this might be attrib-

uted to denudation due to uplifting at the end of the Ediacaran.

*Seismic reflection characteristics of Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the eastern Tarim Basin (profiles location as shown in Figure 2).*

#### *3.2.4 The southwestern to southeastern Tarim Basin*

Although no Cryogenian-Ediacaran strata have drilled in the southwestern Tarim Basin due to large buried depth, the distinct seismic reflection signatures could be identified on the seismic section (**Figure 6d**–**f**). The Cryogenian developed intracontinental rift sedimentary successions with a large thickness and the Ediacaran was characteristic of depression sedimentary successions (**Figure 6d**–**f**). The 3D resistivity inversion results displayed that a depth range of 6–15 km exhibited low resistivity in the Magaiti area [52], and the areas of low-resistivity decrease with depth. Thus, it was inferred that the Cryogenian-Ediacaran developed in the southwest (SW) Tarim Basin. The northeast (NE)-SW trending aeromagnetic anomalies belts might indicate the basement difference and were not the identification mark of the Cryogenian-Ediacaran sedimentary successions.

#### *Geochemistry*

In the southwestern Tarim Basin, no Cryogenian-Ediacaran strata have drilled. The wells MC1 and MC2 drilled in the low green-schist facies metamorphic rocks, with detrital zircon age clusters at ca. 750–850 Ma and 1.8–1.9 Ga [30, 47]. According to the detrital zircon ages, metamorphic grade, and petrological characteristics, it might be equivalent to the Ailiankate Group in the Tiekelike area. The Ailiankate Group was considered as Paleo-Proterozoic, but recent studies revealed it was Neo-Proterozoic [11, 53, 54]. Moreover, no Cryogenian-Ediacaran sedimentary successions were observed in the Altun outcrops, and the Cambrian/ Ordovician strata were underlain by the Tonian. Thus, it was concluded that the southeastern Tarim Basin was the uplift area without deposition during the period of Cryogenian-Ediacaran.

#### **4. Discussion**

#### **4.1 Tectono-sedimentary evolution**

#### *4.1.1 The pre-rifting stage (ca. 880–800 Ma)*

Recently, a large number of chronological, geochemical, and geophysical studies on the Precambrian basement were carried out [1–13, 30, 34, 47, 51, 53–62]. These results suggested that there were two individual blocks before the Cryogenian Period, namely, the north Tarim Block and the south Tarim Block (**Figure 10**). The Neo-Proterozoic granitie (ca. 930–910 Ma [60, 63, 64]) was widely distributed in the Altun area, southeastern margin of Tarim Basin. Geochemical analysis indicates that the granite was formed in a collision orogenic tectonic background and interpreted to syn-collision granite [60, 64, 65], which was a result of the Rodinia supercontinent convergence. Thus, it is inferred that the south Tarim Block converged to the northern margin of the Australia Plate and collision orogenesis at ca. 930–910 Ma. This tectonic movement resulted in the formation of extensive

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*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China*

syn-collision granite in the southeastern margin of Tarim Basin. The Sailajiazitage bimodal volcanic rocks were identified in the southwestern margin of Tarim Basin, which were composed of basalts and rhyolites [12]. The geochemical and chronological studies have suggested that these bimodal volcanic rocks formed in the intracontinental rift setting and erupted during the early Neo-Proterozoic (ca.

These different characteristics suggest that the western and eastern parts of south Tarim Block had different tectonic settings during the early Neo-Proterozoic. After the south Tarim Block converged to the northern margin of Australia Plate, the western part of the south Tarim Block was in an extensional tectonic setting and the West Kunlun Ocean gradually opened. The NE-SW trending rifts began to develop at ca. 880 Ma (**Figure 10**) and then deposited the early Neo-Proterozoic successions (Sailajiazitage Group, Bochatetage Formation, Sumalan Formation, and Sukuluoke Formation). This extensional tectonic setting might be last to the end at ca. 800 Ma, which was demonstrated by the ca. 800 Ma basalt and mafic dyke swarms in the Candilik-Xuxugou area [12, 54, 66]. During this period (ca. 880– 800 Ma), the Kazakhstan, Yili, and Central Tianshan Blocks were not yet separated from the north Tarim Block (**Figure 10**). Due to subduction of the Tianshan Ocean, a back-arc basin formed and the Aksu Group volcanic-clastic rocks deposited [9, 20]. At ca. 800 Ma, the north and south Tarim Blocks amalgamated together to form the uniform Tarim Block. At the same time, the low green-schist facies metamorphism of the Ailiankate Group in the southwestern margin of Tarim Block and ultra-pressure blue-schist facies metamorphism of the Aksu Group in the northern

In the late Neo-Proterozoic, the Rodinia supercontinent had an initial breakup due to the activity of the super-mantle plume. As a result, the Tarim Block was in an extensional setting and evolved the intracontinental rift basin. Tectonosedimentary evolution of the basin may be divided into three stages: the rifting stage (780–700 Ma), rifting to depression transitional stage (660–600 Ma), and

In the periphery of Tarim Block, with the opening of Altyn Ocean, the Qaidam Block was separated from the southeastern edge of Tarim Block and associated intracontinental bimodal volcanic rocks (ca. 760–750 Ma) [60] were developed in the Altun region, while the Altun Block was not separated from the Tarim Block (**Figure 10**) [67]. In the southwestern margin of Tarim Block, the NW-SE trending rifts had been died out by reason of amalgamation of the north and south Tarim Blocks during the early Neo-Proterozoic, and they evolved into the passive continental margin basin during the late Neo-Proterozoic. This tectonic setting continued, at least, till Cambrian, forming the late Neo-Proterozoic to Cambrian unmetamorphosed sedimentary succession. Due to the continuous subduction, the South Tianshan Ocean was opened, and the Kazakhstan, Yili, Central Tianshan, and other blocks were separated from the northern edge of Tarim Block, forming a strong extensional setting in the northern margin of the present Tarim Basin (**Figure 10**). Large-scale rift-related bimodal volcanic rocks (ca. 760–710 Ma) [1–3, 47] distributed in the northeastern margin of the present Tarim Basin, and abundant mafic dykes (ca. 760 Ma) [5, 60] intruded into the Aksu Group in the

In the Bachu area, several boreholes have directly drilled the volcanic rocks just below the Cambrian carbonate rocks. The geochemical characteristics suggested that these volcanic rocks erupted in an intracontinental rift setting. In addition,

post-rifting depression stage (580–540 Ma) (**Figures 10**–**12**).

northwestern margin of the present Tarim Basin.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

880–840 Ma) [12, 54, 66].

margin of Tarim Block occurred.

*4.1.2 The rifting stage (ca. 780–700 Ma)*

#### *Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

syn-collision granite in the southeastern margin of Tarim Basin. The Sailajiazitage bimodal volcanic rocks were identified in the southwestern margin of Tarim Basin, which were composed of basalts and rhyolites [12]. The geochemical and chronological studies have suggested that these bimodal volcanic rocks formed in the intracontinental rift setting and erupted during the early Neo-Proterozoic (ca. 880–840 Ma) [12, 54, 66].

These different characteristics suggest that the western and eastern parts of south Tarim Block had different tectonic settings during the early Neo-Proterozoic. After the south Tarim Block converged to the northern margin of Australia Plate, the western part of the south Tarim Block was in an extensional tectonic setting and the West Kunlun Ocean gradually opened. The NE-SW trending rifts began to develop at ca. 880 Ma (**Figure 10**) and then deposited the early Neo-Proterozoic successions (Sailajiazitage Group, Bochatetage Formation, Sumalan Formation, and Sukuluoke Formation). This extensional tectonic setting might be last to the end at ca. 800 Ma, which was demonstrated by the ca. 800 Ma basalt and mafic dyke swarms in the Candilik-Xuxugou area [12, 54, 66]. During this period (ca. 880– 800 Ma), the Kazakhstan, Yili, and Central Tianshan Blocks were not yet separated from the north Tarim Block (**Figure 10**). Due to subduction of the Tianshan Ocean, a back-arc basin formed and the Aksu Group volcanic-clastic rocks deposited [9, 20]. At ca. 800 Ma, the north and south Tarim Blocks amalgamated together to form the uniform Tarim Block. At the same time, the low green-schist facies metamorphism of the Ailiankate Group in the southwestern margin of Tarim Block and ultra-pressure blue-schist facies metamorphism of the Aksu Group in the northern margin of Tarim Block occurred.

#### *4.1.2 The rifting stage (ca. 780–700 Ma)*

In the late Neo-Proterozoic, the Rodinia supercontinent had an initial breakup due to the activity of the super-mantle plume. As a result, the Tarim Block was in an extensional setting and evolved the intracontinental rift basin. Tectonosedimentary evolution of the basin may be divided into three stages: the rifting stage (780–700 Ma), rifting to depression transitional stage (660–600 Ma), and post-rifting depression stage (580–540 Ma) (**Figures 10**–**12**).

In the periphery of Tarim Block, with the opening of Altyn Ocean, the Qaidam Block was separated from the southeastern edge of Tarim Block and associated intracontinental bimodal volcanic rocks (ca. 760–750 Ma) [60] were developed in the Altun region, while the Altun Block was not separated from the Tarim Block (**Figure 10**) [67]. In the southwestern margin of Tarim Block, the NW-SE trending rifts had been died out by reason of amalgamation of the north and south Tarim Blocks during the early Neo-Proterozoic, and they evolved into the passive continental margin basin during the late Neo-Proterozoic. This tectonic setting continued, at least, till Cambrian, forming the late Neo-Proterozoic to Cambrian unmetamorphosed sedimentary succession. Due to the continuous subduction, the South Tianshan Ocean was opened, and the Kazakhstan, Yili, Central Tianshan, and other blocks were separated from the northern edge of Tarim Block, forming a strong extensional setting in the northern margin of the present Tarim Basin (**Figure 10**). Large-scale rift-related bimodal volcanic rocks (ca. 760–710 Ma) [1–3, 47] distributed in the northeastern margin of the present Tarim Basin, and abundant mafic dykes (ca. 760 Ma) [5, 60] intruded into the Aksu Group in the northwestern margin of the present Tarim Basin.

In the Bachu area, several boreholes have directly drilled the volcanic rocks just below the Cambrian carbonate rocks. The geochemical characteristics suggested that these volcanic rocks erupted in an intracontinental rift setting. In addition,

*Geochemistry*

of Cryogenian-Ediacaran.

**4.1 Tectono-sedimentary evolution**

*4.1.1 The pre-rifting stage (ca. 880–800 Ma)*

**4. Discussion**

In the southwestern Tarim Basin, no Cryogenian-Ediacaran strata have drilled.

Recently, a large number of chronological, geochemical, and geophysical studies on the Precambrian basement were carried out [1–13, 30, 34, 47, 51, 53–62]. These results suggested that there were two individual blocks before the Cryogenian Period, namely, the north Tarim Block and the south Tarim Block (**Figure 10**). The Neo-Proterozoic granitie (ca. 930–910 Ma [60, 63, 64]) was widely distributed in the Altun area, southeastern margin of Tarim Basin. Geochemical analysis indicates that the granite was formed in a collision orogenic tectonic background and interpreted to syn-collision granite [60, 64, 65], which was a result of the Rodinia supercontinent convergence. Thus, it is inferred that the south Tarim Block converged to the northern margin of the Australia Plate and collision orogenesis at ca. 930–910 Ma. This tectonic movement resulted in the formation of extensive

*Tectonic-sedimentary characteristics of the Tarim block during Cryogenian to Ediacaran.*

The wells MC1 and MC2 drilled in the low green-schist facies metamorphic rocks, with detrital zircon age clusters at ca. 750–850 Ma and 1.8–1.9 Ga [30, 47]. According to the detrital zircon ages, metamorphic grade, and petrological characteristics, it might be equivalent to the Ailiankate Group in the Tiekelike area. The Ailiankate Group was considered as Paleo-Proterozoic, but recent studies revealed it was Neo-Proterozoic [11, 53, 54]. Moreover, no Cryogenian-Ediacaran sedimentary successions were observed in the Altun outcrops, and the Cambrian/ Ordovician strata were underlain by the Tonian. Thus, it was concluded that the southeastern Tarim Basin was the uplift area without deposition during the period

**222**

**Figure 10.**

**Figure 11.**

*Tectonic-sedimentary evolution profile of the Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the western Tarim Basin.*

*Tectonic-sedimentary evolution profile of the Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the eastern Tarim Basin.*

**225**

*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China*

Kalpin, Manjar-Kuruktag, and Magaiti areas (**Figures 7**–**9**).

*4.1.3 The rifting to depression transitional stage (ca. 660–600 Ma)*

seismic profiles show obvious characteristics of intracontinental rift in the Awati-

In summary, the Tarim Block was in a strong extensional setting during the period of ca. 780–700 Ma, and three intracontinental rifts (i.e., the Awati Rift, the North Manjar Rift, and the South Manjar Rift) formed in the northern part of Tarim Block (**Figures 10**–**12**). Rift shoulders were the uplift area without deposition. The Bachu area was the volcanic eruption center and resulted in the formation highland, which was a provenance denudation zone without deposition (**Figure 11**). The southern part was generally supposed to basement uplift and intracontinental rift developed in the Magaiti area. The southwestern margin was a passive continen-

At the end of the middle Cryogenian, a tectonic uplifting movement occurred, which resulted in the angular unconformity contract between the Qiaoenbrak Formation and the overlying strata in the Aksu area, and in the parallel unconformity contract between the Altungol Formation and the overlying Tereeken

After this phase of tectonic uplifting, the north part evolved into the transformation stage from rifting to depression and still was in an extensional tectonic setting. Episodic magmatic thermal events occurred in the northeast margin, such as rhyolite (ca. 655 Ma) [8] at the top of the Altungol Formation, mafic volcanic and pyroclastic rocks (ca. 635 Ma) [40] at the upper part of the Tereeken Formation, mafic dykes intruded into Zhamoketi Formation (ca. 615 Ma) [2, 8], and large area distribution granite (ca. 660–630 Ma) [13]. In the northwestern margin, ca. 633 Ma and ca. 615 Ma [3] mafic dykes intruded into the Qiaoenbrak Formation and

In the northern part of the Tarim Block, because of continuous stretching and transgression, the isolated rifts gradually interconnected (Awati Rift, North Manjar Rift, and South Manjar Rift), the depositional area continued to expand and the residual paleo-uplift was existed in the Tabei area (**Figures 10**–**12**). The Bachu-Tazhong-Tadongnan area was still a highland, which was a provenance denudation zone without deposition (**Figure 10**). The seawater was from the South Tianshan Ocean with NE and NW directions of transgression, and the shore sedimentary was in development. In Manjar, grayish green mudstone intercalated with sandstone

In the southwestern part of Tarim Block, the intensity of tectonic activity weakened gradually and was mainly post-rifting the thermal subsidence. Pishan palaeohigh was submerged, the continental rift (developed in Magaiti area) connected with the southwest margin and formed a passive continental margin (**Figures 10** and **11**). Influenced by the West Kunlun Ocean, the transgression from the southwest, the shore sedimentary developed in Magaiti and toward southwest

During this period, the Tarim Block was in a stable tectonic setting without significant magmatic events and evolved into a post-rift depression stage. The northern part was the intra-cratonic depression basin and was characterized by thermal subsidence. The residual paleo-uplift was gradually flooded by seawater, but the Bachu-Tazhong-Tadongnan uplift still existed (**Figures 10**–**12**). Due to the decrease of terrigenous clastic and seawater evaporation and concentration,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

tal margin (**Figures 11** and **12**).

Formation in the Quruqtagh area.

Sugetbrak Formation, respectively.

shelf to deepwater deposition.

and siltstone was deposited in the shelf environment.

*4.1.4 The post-rift depression stage (ca. 580–540 Ma)*

#### *Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

seismic profiles show obvious characteristics of intracontinental rift in the Awati-Kalpin, Manjar-Kuruktag, and Magaiti areas (**Figures 7**–**9**).

In summary, the Tarim Block was in a strong extensional setting during the period of ca. 780–700 Ma, and three intracontinental rifts (i.e., the Awati Rift, the North Manjar Rift, and the South Manjar Rift) formed in the northern part of Tarim Block (**Figures 10**–**12**). Rift shoulders were the uplift area without deposition. The Bachu area was the volcanic eruption center and resulted in the formation highland, which was a provenance denudation zone without deposition (**Figure 11**). The southern part was generally supposed to basement uplift and intracontinental rift developed in the Magaiti area. The southwestern margin was a passive continental margin (**Figures 11** and **12**).

#### *4.1.3 The rifting to depression transitional stage (ca. 660–600 Ma)*

At the end of the middle Cryogenian, a tectonic uplifting movement occurred, which resulted in the angular unconformity contract between the Qiaoenbrak Formation and the overlying strata in the Aksu area, and in the parallel unconformity contract between the Altungol Formation and the overlying Tereeken Formation in the Quruqtagh area.

After this phase of tectonic uplifting, the north part evolved into the transformation stage from rifting to depression and still was in an extensional tectonic setting. Episodic magmatic thermal events occurred in the northeast margin, such as rhyolite (ca. 655 Ma) [8] at the top of the Altungol Formation, mafic volcanic and pyroclastic rocks (ca. 635 Ma) [40] at the upper part of the Tereeken Formation, mafic dykes intruded into Zhamoketi Formation (ca. 615 Ma) [2, 8], and large area distribution granite (ca. 660–630 Ma) [13]. In the northwestern margin, ca. 633 Ma and ca. 615 Ma [3] mafic dykes intruded into the Qiaoenbrak Formation and Sugetbrak Formation, respectively.

In the northern part of the Tarim Block, because of continuous stretching and transgression, the isolated rifts gradually interconnected (Awati Rift, North Manjar Rift, and South Manjar Rift), the depositional area continued to expand and the residual paleo-uplift was existed in the Tabei area (**Figures 10**–**12**). The Bachu-Tazhong-Tadongnan area was still a highland, which was a provenance denudation zone without deposition (**Figure 10**). The seawater was from the South Tianshan Ocean with NE and NW directions of transgression, and the shore sedimentary was in development. In Manjar, grayish green mudstone intercalated with sandstone and siltstone was deposited in the shelf environment.

In the southwestern part of Tarim Block, the intensity of tectonic activity weakened gradually and was mainly post-rifting the thermal subsidence. Pishan palaeohigh was submerged, the continental rift (developed in Magaiti area) connected with the southwest margin and formed a passive continental margin (**Figures 10** and **11**). Influenced by the West Kunlun Ocean, the transgression from the southwest, the shore sedimentary developed in Magaiti and toward southwest shelf to deepwater deposition.

#### *4.1.4 The post-rift depression stage (ca. 580–540 Ma)*

During this period, the Tarim Block was in a stable tectonic setting without significant magmatic events and evolved into a post-rift depression stage. The northern part was the intra-cratonic depression basin and was characterized by thermal subsidence. The residual paleo-uplift was gradually flooded by seawater, but the Bachu-Tazhong-Tadongnan uplift still existed (**Figures 10**–**12**). Due to the decrease of terrigenous clastic and seawater evaporation and concentration,

*Geochemistry*

**Figure 11.**

*Tectonic-sedimentary evolution profile of the Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the western Tarim Basin.*

*Tectonic-sedimentary evolution profile of the Cryogenian-Ediacaran in the eastern Tarim Basin.*

**224**

**Figure 12.**

#### *Geochemistry*

the carbonate content increased. Two deepwater sedimentary environments were developed in the Manjar and the northwest part of the Aksu-Kuqa area, where carbonate rocks and dark mudstone were deposited (**Figure 12**). A tidal-flat environment was developed in the southeastern part of the Manjar to the Kalpin-Awat area and deposited bedded dolomite with abundant stromatolite (**Figure 11**). At the same time, carbonate depositional systems prevailed in the southwestern part of Tarim Block.

At the end of Ediacaran, Tarim Block experienced a tectonic uplifting and the Ediacaran strata suffered from long-term weathering. Hence, a thick weathered crust (ca. 30–50 m) was formed at the top of Qigebrak dolomite, and meanwhile the lower Ediacaran strata were absent or partially absent in the southwestern of Tarim Basin.

#### **4.2 Implication for the distribution of Cambrian source rocks**

#### *4.2.1 The lower Cambrian source rock*

In the western region of the Tarim Basin, the lower Cambrian source rock developed in the Yurtusi Formation, which composed of silicalites, siliceous shales, and black shales with argillaceous dolomite. In the Aksu area, the Yurtusi source rock was in stable distribution with the thickness of ca. 10–15 m [26]. The total organic carbon (TOC) content was 2–16% [26], up to a maximum 22.39% [28], which is the highest quality marine hydrocarbon source rock in China [26]. In the Tabei uplift, only two boreholes (well XH1 and well LT1) have revealed the Yurtusi Formation whose sedimentary characteristics were similar to the Aksu outcrops. In well XH1, the thickness of the Yurtusi source rock was ca. 33 m, with a TOC of 1.0–9.43% (5.5% on average) [28]. In the Bachu-Tazhong uplift, many boreholes drilled through the Cambrian strata and entered into Precambrian, but no well revealed the Yurtusi source rock. In Magaiti, no well drilled and revealed the Yurtusi source rock. It is probably of large burial depth or was absent in the early Cambrian deposition.

In the eastern region of the Tarim Basin, the lower Cambrian source rock developed in Xishanbrak and Xidashan Formations. In north Quruqtagh, the Xishanbrak Formation developed in siliceous mud rocks with the thickness of ca. 12.5 m and TOC of 1.53%. The Xidashan Formation consisted of black mud rocks whose thickness was ca. 15 m and the TOC was of 1.39–2.17% (1.78% on average). In south Quruqtagh, the Xidashan Formation developed ca. 20 m black mud rocks with a TOC of 0.17–0.92% (0.46% on average). In Manjar area, several boreholes have drilled in the lower Cambrian, but it is difficult to divide between the Xishanbrak Formation and the Xidashan Formation. In well TD1, the thickness of black mud rocks was ca. 55 m with a TOC of 0.70–5.52% (2.3% on average) [27]. In well TD2, the thickness of black mud rocks with limestone was ca. 85 m and the TOC was more than 1%. In well YL1, the lower Cambrian composed of shales and argillaceous limestone, and the thickness was ca. 65 m with a TOC of more than 0.5% (1.56% on average) [27].

#### *4.2.2 The distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock*

In recent years, the results of oil and source rock correlation and the exploration discovery of primary oil and gas in the Cambrian subsalt dolomite reservoirs have shown that the lower Cambrian is the most important source rocks in the Tarim Basin [26, 29]. However, there are few stratigraphic data about the lower Cambrian

**227**

*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China*

source rock. Due to its small thickness and the deep burial, it is difficult to identify and trace the seismic horizons corresponding with the lower Cambrian source rocks on the seismic sections. Therefore, there are a lot of controversies over the distribution of the lower Cambrian source rocks, especially in the western sectors of the

Based on the oil and gas exploration discovery of Ediacaran-Cambrian in the Sichuan Basin, paleogeography in the late Neo-Proterozoic controlled the distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock [68–70]. Similar to the Sichuan Basin, the sedimentary characteristics of the lower Cambrian were related to the tectono-sedimentary in the late Neo-Proterozoic and uplifting movement at the end of Ediacaran. Based on outcrops and drilling data, in the western of the Tarim Baisn, the Yurtusi source rock existed in an area where the late Ediacaran carbonate deposited. The Yurtusi source rock did not develop in the area where the basement

Therefore, we suggest that paleogeography in the late Neo-Proterozoic controlled the transgression in the early Cambrian and distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock. During the early Cambrian, the Tarim Basin had the paleogeographical characteristics of uplift in the south and depression in the north. The lower Cambrian source rock was composed of stable deposits in the northern Tarim Basin, where the late Ediacaran carbonate was deposited and thinning out toward the central uplift. It was distributed throughout the entire Manjar region in the east, and its overall thickness was thicker than that in the northern Tarim Basin. The lower Cambrian source rocks may be missing in the Magaiti and the southwestern

1.During the late Neo-Proterozoic, the Tarim Block was in an extensional setting as a result of the Rodinia supercontinent breakup and then evolved into an intracontinental rift basin. The tectono-sedimentary evolution of the basin may be divided into three stages: the rifting stage (780–700 Ma), the rifting to depression transitional stage (660–600 Ma), and the post-rift depression stage

2.During the different stages of tectonic evolution, there were different paleogeographic characteristics and sedimentary association. In the rifting stage, intracontinental rifts (i.e., the Awati Rift, the North Manjar Rift, and the South Manjar Rift) were formed, in which coarse-grained clastic sediments were deposited, generally accompanied by a massive volcanic activity due to an intensive stretching. In the rifting-depression transitional stage and in the post-rift depression stage, the paleogeography was characterized by uplifts to the south and depressions to the north. Three types of depositional association (i.e., clastic depositional association, clastic-carbonate mixed depositional

association, and carbonate depositional association) were formed.

may be missing in the Magaiti and the southwestern Tarim Basin.

3.The distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock was genetically related to the tectono-sedimentary evolution during the late Neo-Proterozoic. The lower Cambrian source rock was a stable deposit in the northern Tarim Basin, where the late Ediacaran carbonate was deposited, thinning out toward the central uplift. It was distributed throughout the entire Manjar region in the east and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

uplift existed in the late Neo-Proterozoic.

Tarim Basin [17, 18, 26–28].

Tarim Basin.

**5. Conclusions**

(580–540 Ma).

*Late Neo-Proterozoic Tectono-Sedimentary Evolution of the Tarim Block, NW China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93379*

source rock. Due to its small thickness and the deep burial, it is difficult to identify and trace the seismic horizons corresponding with the lower Cambrian source rocks on the seismic sections. Therefore, there are a lot of controversies over the distribution of the lower Cambrian source rocks, especially in the western sectors of the Tarim Basin [17, 18, 26–28].

Based on the oil and gas exploration discovery of Ediacaran-Cambrian in the Sichuan Basin, paleogeography in the late Neo-Proterozoic controlled the distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock [68–70]. Similar to the Sichuan Basin, the sedimentary characteristics of the lower Cambrian were related to the tectono-sedimentary in the late Neo-Proterozoic and uplifting movement at the end of Ediacaran. Based on outcrops and drilling data, in the western of the Tarim Baisn, the Yurtusi source rock existed in an area where the late Ediacaran carbonate deposited. The Yurtusi source rock did not develop in the area where the basement uplift existed in the late Neo-Proterozoic.

Therefore, we suggest that paleogeography in the late Neo-Proterozoic controlled the transgression in the early Cambrian and distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock. During the early Cambrian, the Tarim Basin had the paleogeographical characteristics of uplift in the south and depression in the north. The lower Cambrian source rock was composed of stable deposits in the northern Tarim Basin, where the late Ediacaran carbonate was deposited and thinning out toward the central uplift. It was distributed throughout the entire Manjar region in the east, and its overall thickness was thicker than that in the northern Tarim Basin. The lower Cambrian source rocks may be missing in the Magaiti and the southwestern Tarim Basin.

#### **5. Conclusions**

*Geochemistry*

of Tarim Block.

Tarim Basin.

Cambrian deposition.

*4.2.1 The lower Cambrian source rock*

the carbonate content increased. Two deepwater sedimentary environments were developed in the Manjar and the northwest part of the Aksu-Kuqa area, where carbonate rocks and dark mudstone were deposited (**Figure 12**). A tidal-flat environment was developed in the southeastern part of the Manjar to the Kalpin-Awat area and deposited bedded dolomite with abundant stromatolite (**Figure 11**). At the same time, carbonate depositional systems prevailed in the southwestern part

At the end of Ediacaran, Tarim Block experienced a tectonic uplifting and the Ediacaran strata suffered from long-term weathering. Hence, a thick weathered crust (ca. 30–50 m) was formed at the top of Qigebrak dolomite, and meanwhile the lower Ediacaran strata were absent or partially absent in the southwestern of

In the western region of the Tarim Basin, the lower Cambrian source rock developed in the Yurtusi Formation, which composed of silicalites, siliceous shales, and black shales with argillaceous dolomite. In the Aksu area, the Yurtusi source rock was in stable distribution with the thickness of ca. 10–15 m [26]. The total organic carbon (TOC) content was 2–16% [26], up to a maximum 22.39% [28], which is the highest quality marine hydrocarbon source rock in China [26]. In the Tabei uplift, only two boreholes (well XH1 and well LT1) have revealed the Yurtusi Formation whose sedimentary characteristics were similar to the Aksu outcrops. In well XH1, the thickness of the Yurtusi source rock was ca. 33 m, with a TOC of 1.0–9.43% (5.5% on average) [28]. In the Bachu-Tazhong uplift, many boreholes drilled through the Cambrian strata and entered into Precambrian, but no well revealed the Yurtusi source rock. In Magaiti, no well drilled and revealed the Yurtusi source rock. It is probably of large burial depth or was absent in the early

In the eastern region of the Tarim Basin, the lower Cambrian source rock developed in Xishanbrak and Xidashan Formations. In north Quruqtagh, the Xishanbrak Formation developed in siliceous mud rocks with the thickness of ca. 12.5 m and TOC of 1.53%. The Xidashan Formation consisted of black mud rocks whose thickness was ca. 15 m and the TOC was of 1.39–2.17% (1.78% on average). In south Quruqtagh, the Xidashan Formation developed ca. 20 m black mud rocks with a TOC of 0.17–0.92% (0.46% on average). In Manjar area, several boreholes have drilled in the lower Cambrian, but it is difficult to divide between the Xishanbrak Formation and the Xidashan Formation. In well TD1, the thickness of black mud rocks was ca. 55 m with a TOC of 0.70–5.52% (2.3% on average) [27]. In well TD2, the thickness of black mud rocks with limestone was ca. 85 m and the TOC was more than 1%. In well YL1, the lower Cambrian composed of shales and argillaceous limestone, and the thickness was ca. 65 m with a TOC of more than 0.5% (1.56% on

In recent years, the results of oil and source rock correlation and the exploration discovery of primary oil and gas in the Cambrian subsalt dolomite reservoirs have shown that the lower Cambrian is the most important source rocks in the Tarim Basin [26, 29]. However, there are few stratigraphic data about the lower Cambrian

**4.2 Implication for the distribution of Cambrian source rocks**

**226**

average) [27].

*4.2.2 The distribution of the lower Cambrian source rock*


#### **Acknowledgements**

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. U19B6003) and Sinopec Science and Technology Major Project (P19022-7). The authors appreciate the Academic Editor Gemma Aiello for the detailed and constructive comments on the early version of manuscript. The authors also extend great thanks to Xiaoqiao Gao, Hongguang Liu, and Hangyu Liu for their field assistance.

#### **Author details**

Kaibo Shi1 , Bo Liu1,2\*, Weimin Jiang1 , Jinxing Yu1 , Yue Kong1 , Tong Li1 and Changhai Li1

1 School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China

2 School of Earth Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China

\*Address all correspondence to: bobliu@pku.edu.cn

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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assistance.

**Acknowledgements**

**228**

**Author details**

and Changhai Li1

, Bo Liu1,2\*, Weimin Jiang1

\*Address all correspondence to: bobliu@pku.edu.cn

provided the original work is properly cited.

, Jinxing Yu1

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. U19B6003) and Sinopec Science and Technology Major Project (P19022-7). The authors appreciate the Academic Editor Gemma Aiello for the detailed and constructive comments on the early version of manuscript. The authors also extend great thanks to Xiaoqiao Gao, Hongguang Liu, and Hangyu Liu for their field

1 School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China

2 School of Earth Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, China

, Yue Kong1

, Tong Li1

Kaibo Shi1

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siliciclastic rocks and basalts from deep drilling cores. Gondwana Research. 2020;**80**:142-156. DOI: 10.1016/j.

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[45] Zhang J, Zhang C, Li H, Ye X, Geng J, Zhou Y. Revisit to time and tectonic environment of the Aksu blueschist terrane in northern Tarim, NW China: New evidence from zircon U-Pb age and Hf isotope. Acta Petrologica Sinica.

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[56] Guo Z, Zhang Z, Liu S, Li H. U-Pb geochronological evidence for the early Precambrian complex of the Tarim Craton, NW China. Acta Petrologica Sinica. 2003;**19**(3):537-542

[57] Zheng B, Zhu W, Shu L, Zhang Z, Yu J, Huang W. The protolith of the Aksu Precambrian blueschist and its tectonic setting. Acta Petrologica Sinica. 2008;**24**(12):2839-2848

[58] Wang F, Wang B, Shu L. Continental tholeiitic basalt of the Akesu area (NW China) and its implication for the Neoproterozoic rifting in the northern Tarim. Acta Petrologica Sinica. 2010;**26**(2):547-558

[59] Wang C. Precambrian tectonic of south margin of Tarim Basin, NW China [thesis]. Xian: Northwest University; 2011

[60] Zhang J, Li H, Meng F, Xiang Z, Yu S, Li J. Polyphase tectonothermal events recorded in metamorphic basement from the Altyn Tagh, the southeastern margin of the Tarim basin, western China: Constraint from U-Pb zircon geochronology. Acta Petrologica Sinica. 2011;**27**(1):23-46

[61] Ge R. Precambrian tectono-thermal events and crustal evolution in the Kuruktag Block, Northern Tarim Craton [thesis]. Nanjing: Nanjing University; 2014

[62] Zhang Z, Kang J, Kusky T, Santosh M, Huang H, Zhang D, et al. Geochronology, geochemistry and petrogenesis of Neoproterozoic basalts from Sugetbrak, Northwest Tarim block, China: Implications for the onset of Rodinia supercontinent breakup. Precambrian Research. 2012;**220- 221**(8):158-176. DOI: 10.1016/j. precamres.2012.08.002

[63] Gehrels GE, Yin A, Wang X. Detrital-zircon geochronology of the northeastern Tibetan plateau. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 2003;**115**(7):881-896. DOI: 10.1130/00167606(2003)115<0881:dgot nt>2.0.co;2

[64] Wang C, Liu L, Yang W, Zhu X, Cao Y, Chen S, et al. Provenance and ages of the Altyn complex in Altyn Tagh: Implications for the early Neoproterozoic evolution of northwestern China. Precambrian Research. 2013;**230**:193-208. DOI: 10.1016/j.precamres.2013.02.003

[65] Wang L, Zhang W, Duan X, Long X, Ma Z, Song Z, et al. Isotopic age and genesis of the mozogranitic gneiss at the Huanxingshan in middle Altyn Tagh. Acta Petrologica Sinica. 2015;**31**(1):119-132

[66] Yin D, Zheng Y, Wu H. Study on the tectonic setting and geologic feature of Sailajiazitage group in western Kunlun. Xinjiang Geology. 2014;**32**(3):295-300. DOI: 10.3969/j. issn.1000-8845.2014.03.003

[67] Yang Z. Early palaeozoic tectonic evolution in Hongliugou, Altyn, Xinjiang [thesis]. Beijing: Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences; 2012 [68] Liu S, Sun W, Song J, Deng B, Zhong Y, Luo C, et al. Tectonicscontrolled distribution of marine petroleum accumulations in the Sichuan Basin, China. Earth Science Frontiers. 2015;**22**(3):146-160. DOI: 10.13745/j. esf.2015.03.013

[69] Liu S, Wang Y, Sun W, Zhong Q, Hong H, Deng B, et al. Control of intracratonic sags on the hydrocarbon accumulations in the marin strata across the Sichuan Basin, China. Journal of Chengdu University of Technology. 2016;**43**(1):1-23. DOI: 10.3969/j. issn.1671-9727.2016.01.01

[70] Du J, Wang Z, Zou C, Xu C, Shen P, Zhang B, et al. Discovery of intracratonic rift in the Upper Yangtze and its control effect on the formation of Anyue giant gas field. Acta Petrolei Sinica. 2016;**37**(1):1-16. DOI: 10.7623/ syxb201601001

**235**

**Chapter 12**

Patterns

**Abstract**

*Vic Semeniuk and Margaret Brocx*

The Onshore Southern Carnarvon

Basin in Coastal Western Australia

The onshore southern Carnarvon Basin in Western Australia, in existence since the early Palaeozoic, has a history during the Palaeozoic and Tertiary of relatively uniform sedimentary styles with thick laterally-extensive sequences of sediment. Its sedimentary history became more complicated in the Quaternary period with complex tectonics and arrays of sedimentary facies and packages and basin complexity over relatively short distances, with several regions that are sedimentologically and stratigraphically distinct related to the factors of physiographic and geological setting, riverine input, arid climate, migrating climate, tectonism, and degree of protection from open ocean. For the Pleistocene and Holocene epoch, there are distinct north-trending stratigraphic packets, each with their environmentally distinctive shoaling facies sharply juxtaposed against each other or separated by Pleistocene non-marine sediments; in geographic order, from south to north, these are: a limestone aeolianite barrier along western Shark Bay; pocket seagrass bank carbonate complexes of central western Shark Bay that are nestled in the northerly-

oriented inter-dune depressions developed as swales of the north-trending

parabolic dunes deriving from the limestone aeolianite barrier; an aeolian red sand shoestring of the north-trending Peron Peninsula longitudinally bisecting central Shark Bay; metahaline to hypersaline shoaling carbonate sedimentary packages of south-eastern Shark Bay that fringe Hamelin Pool; the Wooramel delta, a wavedominated delta composed of quartz sand and locally-generated carbonate sediment; the Wooramel seagrass bank (an extensive shore-parallel wedge of seagrass bank carbonate sequence along the eastern coast, central to northern Shark Bay); metahaline carbonate and quartz sand platforms fringing both sides of the red-sand Peron Peninsula; metahaline to hypersaline carbonate sediments that underlie the deeper-water axially-oriented embayments of Shark Bay; the Boodalia Pleistocene reddened (quartzose) deltaic sediment sequence; the Gascoyne Delta and laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex, the former comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand capped by tidal sand-and-mud sequences, and the latter comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand capped by beach-to-beach-ridge deposits; the Lake MacLeod evaporite basin filled with a shoaling sequence of carbonate sediments,

during the Quaternary: Tectonic

Setting and Facies-Complicated

Heterogeneous Stratigraphic

#### **Chapter 12**

*Geochemistry*

esf.2015.03.013

syxb201601001

[68] Liu S, Sun W, Song J, Deng B, Zhong Y, Luo C, et al. Tectonicscontrolled distribution of marine petroleum accumulations in the Sichuan Basin, China. Earth Science Frontiers. 2015;**22**(3):146-160. DOI: 10.13745/j.

[69] Liu S, Wang Y, Sun W, Zhong Q, Hong H, Deng B, et al. Control of intracratonic sags on the hydrocarbon accumulations in the marin strata across the Sichuan Basin, China. Journal of Chengdu University of Technology. 2016;**43**(1):1-23. DOI: 10.3969/j. issn.1671-9727.2016.01.01

[70] Du J, Wang Z, Zou C, Xu C, Shen P, Zhang B, et al. Discovery of intracratonic rift in the Upper Yangtze and its control effect on the formation of Anyue giant gas field. Acta Petrolei Sinica. 2016;**37**(1):1-16. DOI: 10.7623/

**234**

The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary: Tectonic Setting and Facies-Complicated Heterogeneous Stratigraphic Patterns

*Vic Semeniuk and Margaret Brocx*

### **Abstract**

The onshore southern Carnarvon Basin in Western Australia, in existence since the early Palaeozoic, has a history during the Palaeozoic and Tertiary of relatively uniform sedimentary styles with thick laterally-extensive sequences of sediment. Its sedimentary history became more complicated in the Quaternary period with complex tectonics and arrays of sedimentary facies and packages and basin complexity over relatively short distances, with several regions that are sedimentologically and stratigraphically distinct related to the factors of physiographic and geological setting, riverine input, arid climate, migrating climate, tectonism, and degree of protection from open ocean. For the Pleistocene and Holocene epoch, there are distinct north-trending stratigraphic packets, each with their environmentally distinctive shoaling facies sharply juxtaposed against each other or separated by Pleistocene non-marine sediments; in geographic order, from south to north, these are: a limestone aeolianite barrier along western Shark Bay; pocket seagrass bank carbonate complexes of central western Shark Bay that are nestled in the northerlyoriented inter-dune depressions developed as swales of the north-trending parabolic dunes deriving from the limestone aeolianite barrier; an aeolian red sand shoestring of the north-trending Peron Peninsula longitudinally bisecting central Shark Bay; metahaline to hypersaline shoaling carbonate sedimentary packages of south-eastern Shark Bay that fringe Hamelin Pool; the Wooramel delta, a wavedominated delta composed of quartz sand and locally-generated carbonate sediment; the Wooramel seagrass bank (an extensive shore-parallel wedge of seagrass bank carbonate sequence along the eastern coast, central to northern Shark Bay); metahaline carbonate and quartz sand platforms fringing both sides of the red-sand Peron Peninsula; metahaline to hypersaline carbonate sediments that underlie the deeper-water axially-oriented embayments of Shark Bay; the Boodalia Pleistocene reddened (quartzose) deltaic sediment sequence; the Gascoyne Delta and laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex, the former comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand capped by tidal sand-and-mud sequences, and the latter comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand capped by beach-to-beach-ridge deposits; the Lake MacLeod evaporite basin filled with a shoaling sequence of carbonate sediments,

halite, and gypsite; Tertiary limestone and Pleistocene aeolian sediments acting as a barrier to Lake McLeod; and the uplifted Tertiary limestone barrier of Cape Range that is fringed by Holocene coral complexes of the Ningaloo Reef. The coastal and onshore near-coastal southern Carnarvon Basin is an example of a complex sedimentary basin, where sedimentary packages can be markedly different over short distances, and illustrates the complexities a geologist would face if analyzing such a basin in the stratigraphic column. This feature of extreme diversity of sedimentary facies and packages within and between separate contemporaneous 'sedimentary basins' is the theme of this contribution.

**Keywords:** Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia, Quaternary, Shark Bay, Lake MacLeod, Gascoyne Delta, Quaternary tectonics, facies-complicated sedimentary basins

#### **1. Introduction**

The onshore epicratonic Carnarvon Basin in the mid western part of Western Australian has existed since the early Palaeozoic and its Palaeozoic and Tertiary history was generally one of relatively uniform sedimentary styles with thick laterallyextensive sequences of sediment [1, 2]. In this context, it conforms with many sedimentary basins throughout the World (*e.g.*, the Sydney Basin [3], the Kimberley Basin [4], the Eucla Basin [5], the Paris Basin [6, 7], the Paradox Basin [8, 9], the Tindouf Basin [10]; the Gourara Basin [11], the Karoo Basins [12], amongst many others). However, the sedimentary history of the Carnarvon Basin became more complicated in its southern part in the Quaternary period with complex tectonics and arrays of distinct but separated sedimentary facies and sedimentary packages.

During the Pleistocene-Holocene in the southern part of the Carnarvon Basin, the coastal and near-coastal onshore zone has basin complexity over its relatively short latitudinal distance of 500 km, with several separate regions distinct from both a sedimentologic and stratigraphic point of view, as related to several control factors, including the physiographic and geological setting, the river input, the arid climate, the tectonic setting, and the degree of protection from the open ocean. As a consequence of these controls, distinct south-north trending sedimentary packages have formed, each one extending tens of kilometres in length and several kilometres in width. These distinct sedimentary packages are completely different one from each other and are either generally sharply latitudinally and longitudinally juxtaposed one against each other or separated by Pleistocene uplands or fluvial non-marine sediments. Each one of the south-north trending stratigraphic sequences has environmentally distinctive shoaling facies and, being separated over short distances by uplands, gives the impression of a series of closely juxtaposed 'sub-basins'. In fact, particularly for the Holocene, the stratigraphic packages in the southern Carnarvon Basin illustrates the diversity and the complexity of laterally equivalent contemporaneous units that would provide a geologist working in the stratigraphic record a difficulty and a dilemma on how to interpret and to correlate various facies and intervening uplands.

#### **2. The Carnarvon Basin: its geological and tectonic setting**

The Carnarvon Basin is an epicratonic, faulted and folded basin some 535,000 km2 in the offshore portion and some 115,000 km2 in the onshore area.

**237**

**Figure 1.**

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary…*

Existing since the Palaeozoic Era, it is a basin elongated northeast-southwest, and is bordered by Precambrian rocks of the Pilbara Craton and Yilgarn Craton [13], and is adjoined by the Perth Basin to the south and the Canning Basin to the north (**Figure 1**). It has been subdivided into a range of sub-basins and tectonic ridges, the most important of which to this paper is the large-scale division into Northern Carnarvon Basin and Southern Carnarvon Basin (**Figure 2**). But while there is crustal sagging and crustal faulting on the regional scale in the general Carnarvon Basin [1], tectonism did not seem to play a major part at smaller scales during sedimentation of formational units as it has during the Quaternary epoch. The Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and lower to middle Cainozoic sedimentary sequences of the

*Geological map of Western Australia (from Brocx and Semeniuk [14]) showing cratons and basins, the location of the Carnarvon Basin, and subdivision of the Carnarvon Basin into northern and southern basins.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

Existing since the Palaeozoic Era, it is a basin elongated northeast-southwest, and is bordered by Precambrian rocks of the Pilbara Craton and Yilgarn Craton [13], and is adjoined by the Perth Basin to the south and the Canning Basin to the north (**Figure 1**). It has been subdivided into a range of sub-basins and tectonic ridges, the most important of which to this paper is the large-scale division into Northern Carnarvon Basin and Southern Carnarvon Basin (**Figure 2**). But while there is crustal sagging and crustal faulting on the regional scale in the general Carnarvon Basin [1], tectonism did not seem to play a major part at smaller scales during sedimentation of formational units as it has during the Quaternary epoch. The Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and lower to middle Cainozoic sedimentary sequences of the

#### **Figure 1.**

*Geochemistry*

basins

**1. Introduction**

basins' is the theme of this contribution.

various facies and intervening uplands.

**2. The Carnarvon Basin: its geological and tectonic setting**

The Carnarvon Basin is an epicratonic, faulted and folded basin some

in the onshore area.

in the offshore portion and some 115,000 km2

halite, and gypsite; Tertiary limestone and Pleistocene aeolian sediments acting as a barrier to Lake McLeod; and the uplifted Tertiary limestone barrier of Cape Range that is fringed by Holocene coral complexes of the Ningaloo Reef. The coastal and onshore near-coastal southern Carnarvon Basin is an example of a complex sedimentary basin, where sedimentary packages can be markedly different over short distances, and illustrates the complexities a geologist would face if analyzing such a basin in the stratigraphic column. This feature of extreme diversity of sedimentary facies and packages within and between separate contemporaneous 'sedimentary

**Keywords:** Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia, Quaternary, Shark Bay, Lake MacLeod, Gascoyne Delta, Quaternary tectonics, facies-complicated sedimentary

The onshore epicratonic Carnarvon Basin in the mid western part of Western Australian has existed since the early Palaeozoic and its Palaeozoic and Tertiary history was generally one of relatively uniform sedimentary styles with thick laterallyextensive sequences of sediment [1, 2]. In this context, it conforms with many sedimentary basins throughout the World (*e.g.*, the Sydney Basin [3], the Kimberley Basin [4], the Eucla Basin [5], the Paris Basin [6, 7], the Paradox Basin [8, 9], the Tindouf Basin [10]; the Gourara Basin [11], the Karoo Basins [12], amongst many others). However, the sedimentary history of the Carnarvon Basin became more complicated in its southern part in the Quaternary period with complex tectonics and arrays of distinct but separated sedimentary facies and sedimentary packages. During the Pleistocene-Holocene in the southern part of the Carnarvon Basin, the coastal and near-coastal onshore zone has basin complexity over its relatively short latitudinal distance of 500 km, with several separate regions distinct from both a sedimentologic and stratigraphic point of view, as related to several control factors, including the physiographic and geological setting, the river input, the arid climate, the tectonic setting, and the degree of protection from the open ocean. As a consequence of these controls, distinct south-north trending sedimentary packages have formed, each one extending tens of kilometres in length and several kilometres in width. These distinct sedimentary packages are completely different one from each other and are either generally sharply latitudinally and longitudinally juxtaposed one against each other or separated by Pleistocene uplands or fluvial non-marine sediments. Each one of the south-north trending stratigraphic sequences has environmentally distinctive shoaling facies and, being separated over short distances by uplands, gives the impression of a series of closely juxtaposed 'sub-basins'. In fact, particularly for the Holocene, the stratigraphic packages in the southern Carnarvon Basin illustrates the diversity and the complexity of laterally equivalent contemporaneous units that would provide a geologist working in the stratigraphic record a difficulty and a dilemma on how to interpret and to correlate

**236**

535,000 km2

*Geological map of Western Australia (from Brocx and Semeniuk [14]) showing cratons and basins, the location of the Carnarvon Basin, and subdivision of the Carnarvon Basin into northern and southern basins.*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Geological map of Southern Carnarvon Basin Western Australia (modified from [15]) showing the tectonic framework (with the main emerging tectonic structures as anticlines) and the major depositional depression,*  viz*., the Bullara Sunkland. Logan [16] subdivided the Bullara Sunkland into a southern part termed the 'Shark Bay Depression', a central part termed the 'MacLeod Graben', and a northern part termed the 'Dingo Syncline'. Main geographic names are also shown.*

southern Carnarvon Basin comprise formational sheets that are laterally and basinwide extensive [1, 2] (**Figure 2**). There is an extensive literature on the Northern Carnarvon Basin and the inland Southern Carnarvon Basin [17–22] but information on their geology, sub-basins, and stratigraphy is not relevant to the coastal and near-coastal onshore zone of the Southern Carnarvon Basin as presented in this Chapter as the latter in the Quaternary had a change in basin dynamics (with development of smaller isolated sedimentary packages formed in environmentally discrete areas), and is therefore distinct from the general geological setting of the Carnarvon Basin.

**239**

**Figure 3.**

*packages and the older stratigraphic units.*

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary…*

The Quaternary southern Carnarvon Basin, arrayed along some 500 km of the Western Australian coastal and near-coastal zone, shows tectonic and palaeogeographic complication and inter-basinal heterogeneity. There are a multitude of smaller-scale depositional sites (or 'depositional basins'), each one limited in area extent and each one sharply bordered by uplands or by a contrasting sedimentation style. There are thirteen main Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene) stratigraphic packages along the southern Carnarvon Basin; ordered geographically from south to north, these are (**Figure 3**): a limestone aeolianite barrier along western Shark Bay; pocket seagrass bank carbonate complexes of central western Shark Bay that are nestled in the northerly-oriented inter-dune depressions developed as swales of the north-trending parabolic dunes deriving from the limestone aeolianite barrier; an aeolian red sand shoestring of the north-trending Peron Peninsula longitudinally bisecting central Shark Bay; metahaline to hypersaline shoaling carbonate sedimentary packages of south-eastern Shark Bay that fringe Hamelin Pool; the Wooramel delta, a wave-dominated delta composed of quartz sand and locally-generated carbonate sediment; the Wooramel seagrass bank (an extensive shore-parallel wedge of seagrass bank carbonate sequence along the eastern coast, central to northern Shark Bay); metahaline carbonate and quartz sand platforms fringing both sides of the red-sand Peron Peninsula; metahaline to hypersaline deep basin carbonate sediments that underlie the deeper-water axially-oriented embayments of Shark Bay;

*Distribution of the 13 main Quaternary stratigraphic packages in the Southern Carnarvon Basin. Most of the stratigraphic packages are Holocene in age, with the Pleistocene and Tertiary rocks (and some Cretaceous rocks) noted in the Legend. Of special note is the south-to-north elongation of the various Holocene stratigraphic* 

**3. The southern Carnarvon Basin in the Quaternary: a mosaic** 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

**of facies-complicated sedimentary basins**

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

#### **3. The southern Carnarvon Basin in the Quaternary: a mosaic of facies-complicated sedimentary basins**

The Quaternary southern Carnarvon Basin, arrayed along some 500 km of the Western Australian coastal and near-coastal zone, shows tectonic and palaeogeographic complication and inter-basinal heterogeneity. There are a multitude of smaller-scale depositional sites (or 'depositional basins'), each one limited in area extent and each one sharply bordered by uplands or by a contrasting sedimentation style. There are thirteen main Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene) stratigraphic packages along the southern Carnarvon Basin; ordered geographically from south to north, these are (**Figure 3**): a limestone aeolianite barrier along western Shark Bay; pocket seagrass bank carbonate complexes of central western Shark Bay that are nestled in the northerly-oriented inter-dune depressions developed as swales of the north-trending parabolic dunes deriving from the limestone aeolianite barrier; an aeolian red sand shoestring of the north-trending Peron Peninsula longitudinally bisecting central Shark Bay; metahaline to hypersaline shoaling carbonate sedimentary packages of south-eastern Shark Bay that fringe Hamelin Pool; the Wooramel delta, a wave-dominated delta composed of quartz sand and locally-generated carbonate sediment; the Wooramel seagrass bank (an extensive shore-parallel wedge of seagrass bank carbonate sequence along the eastern coast, central to northern Shark Bay); metahaline carbonate and quartz sand platforms fringing both sides of the red-sand Peron Peninsula; metahaline to hypersaline deep basin carbonate sediments that underlie the deeper-water axially-oriented embayments of Shark Bay;

#### **Figure 3.**

*Geochemistry*

**238**

**Figure 2.**

Carnarvon Basin.

*Syncline'. Main geographic names are also shown.*

southern Carnarvon Basin comprise formational sheets that are laterally and basinwide extensive [1, 2] (**Figure 2**). There is an extensive literature on the Northern Carnarvon Basin and the inland Southern Carnarvon Basin [17–22] but information on their geology, sub-basins, and stratigraphy is not relevant to the coastal and near-coastal onshore zone of the Southern Carnarvon Basin as presented in this Chapter as the latter in the Quaternary had a change in basin dynamics (with development of smaller isolated sedimentary packages formed in environmentally discrete areas), and is therefore distinct from the general geological setting of the

*Geological map of Southern Carnarvon Basin Western Australia (modified from [15]) showing the tectonic framework (with the main emerging tectonic structures as anticlines) and the major depositional depression,*  viz*., the Bullara Sunkland. Logan [16] subdivided the Bullara Sunkland into a southern part termed the 'Shark Bay Depression', a central part termed the 'MacLeod Graben', and a northern part termed the 'Dingo* 

*Distribution of the 13 main Quaternary stratigraphic packages in the Southern Carnarvon Basin. Most of the stratigraphic packages are Holocene in age, with the Pleistocene and Tertiary rocks (and some Cretaceous rocks) noted in the Legend. Of special note is the south-to-north elongation of the various Holocene stratigraphic packages and the older stratigraphic units.*

The Boodalia—a Pleistocene reddened (quartzose) deltaic sediment sequence; the Gascoyne Delta and laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex, the former comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand and tidal sand-and-mud sequences and the latter comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand capped by beach to beach-ridge deposits; the Lake MacLeod evaporite basin filled with a shoaling sequence of carbonate sediments, halite, and gypsite; Tertiary limestone and Pleistocene aeolian sediments acting as a barrier to Lake McLeod; and uplifted Tertiary limestone barrier of Cape Range that is fringed by Holocene coral-reef complexes of the Ningaloo Reef. Selected stratigraphic profiles of the thirteen packages are shown in **Figure 3**.

The stratigraphic packages are separated by 1. tectonically-uplifted Tertiary limestone, 2. emerging Quaternary anticlines form emergent ridges, or 3. aeolianemplaced Quaternary sediments, with the packages occurring in relatively small and distinct self-contained well-defined depositional basins (such as the bowls of parabolic dunes; terms from Semeniuk et al. [23]). The stratigraphic sequences of the thirteen packages are described in **Table 1**, and their distribution is illustrated in **Figure 4**. Detailed stratigraphy and lithologies of the Holocene-age stratigraphic sequences are described in various publications [15, 16, 24–28, 30, 31], and summarised in **Table 2**. **Figure 4** illustrates the location of the distinct and discrete sedimentary packages and their inter-relationship as arrayed along the length of the southern Carnarvon Basin.

There are a number of reasons why these stratigraphic packages have developed as separate systems and separated in these sedimentologically distinct geographic regions; they are: physiographic and geological setting, riverine input, arid climate, migrating climate, tectonism, and degree of protection from open ocean.

The physiography and geology of this part of the coastal and near-coastal Carnarvon basin comprises 1. tectonically-emerging ridges (that Logan et al. [15] term 'anticlines'), 2. aeolian-emplaced coastal calcareous sand bodies (that when cemented form resistant upstanding ridges and, when mobilized into parabolic dunes and when later cemented form a limestone-rocky invaginated coast), and 3. aeolian-emplaced coastal quartz sand ridge. These large-scale and smaller-scale ridges and uplands form the cradle within which Holocene sedimentation was localised. As such, the Holocene sedimentation was/is occurring in lowlands, or along the open coast. The Pleistocene stratigraphic units generally form the uplands to the Holocene sediments as limestone aeolianites or red sand dune deposits [15].

Locally, riverine input has developed deltoid sedimentary accumulations along the coast, *viz*., the Wooramel Delta and the Gascoyne Delta. The Gascoyne Delta, since it is partly exposed to open Indian Ocean conditions and strong southerly winds, is an extremely asymmetric delta, with northerly-propelled deltaic sand forming a ribbon of shore-parallel beach ridges north of the river mouth.

The arid climate is a major factor determining sedimentation patterns and diagenesis of the Holocene sediments and, during the Holocene, with Earth axis precession the Tropic of Capricorn (separating the Tropical climate from Subtropical climate) has migrated northwards-centred on Shark Bay several thousand years ago it is now located near Exmouth Gulf [30]. This was one of the factors that changed the sedimentation styles in Shark Bay and along the coast of Cape Range.

In recent times, Shark Bay is partitioned into hydrochemical fields from its oceanic exterior to its protected interior (*e.g.*, Hamelin Pool, **Figure 2**), *viz*., the salinity changes from oceanic in the north to metahaline and then hypersaline in southern parts [31]. This is partly due to its south-eastern interior portions being isolated from oceanic influences and, as such, there is more restricted circulation from ocean to interior, but also is due to the extreme evaporation acting on the southeasterly restricted parts of the Bay and to the evolution of a circulation-restricting

**241**

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary…*

**Height, thickness, width, and length of the stratigraphic package2**

10–40 m above MSL. 10–20 km wide, 180 km long, up to 150 m thick

In small packets within the inlets of eastern shore Edel Land 8 km × 3 km, up to 30 km × 6 km; 3–5 m thick seawardthickening wedge

120 km long × 20 km wide, with heights 20–70 m above MSL

3–10 km wide, 100 km overall length as measured along the Hamelin Basin shore

Triangular wedge 15 km × 15 km of sand, 1–2 m thick, with local spits and cheniers

5 km × 90 km, wedging up to 3 m

thick

**Main stratigraphic units3**

Tamala limestone: a Pleistocene aeolianite comprising carbonate and quartz calcarenite

Boat Haven Sand3 , a stratigraphic unit of bioturbated sand formed under seagrass bank conditions

Peron Sandstone: a Pleistocene red sand broadly elongate dune complex with cuspate, straight, curved, and irregular margins (former coastal barrier); stratigraphically, composed of several episodes of dune building separated by soils

Wooramel Sand3 (earlier Holocene metahaline seagrass bank sediments) overlain by Hutchinson Formation and (onshore) the shoreline ribbon of Hamelin Coquina

**Relation to adjoining uplands and to adjoining stratigraphic packages**

Forms a barrier to Shark Bay

Packets of seagrassbank-dominated calcareous sediment cradled between uplands in a limestone rocky shore invaginated coastline

Forms a peninsula partition within Shark Bay and the source of quartz sand within the Shark Bay depositional system

Ribbon-like (metahaline) calcareous seagrass bank sediments shore-parallel and flanking the southeastern shore of Shark Bay lithologically passing up into (hypersaline) oolite sediment and tidally into stromatolites

Un-named Deltoid accumulation

Wooramel Sand3 Wedge-like

at the mouth of the Wooramel River

calcareous seagrass bank sediments flanking the eastern shore of Shark Bay

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

**Stratigraphic package (south** 

1. Limestone aeolianite barrier along western Shark Bay [15]

2. Pocket seagrass bank carbonate complexes of central western

3. Aeolian red sand shoestring of the north-trending Peron Peninsula longitudinally bisecting central Shark

4. Metahaline to hypersaline shoaling sedimentary package of south-eastern Shark Bay [25]

5. Wooramel Delta, centraleastern Shark Bay [15]

6. Wooramel seagrass bank deposits: extensive shoreparallel wedge of seagrass bank carbonate sequence eastern coast, central to northern Shark Bay [24–26]

Bay [15]

Shark Bay [24, 25]

**to north)**


*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

*Geochemistry*

southern Carnarvon Basin.

The Boodalia—a Pleistocene reddened (quartzose) deltaic sediment sequence; the Gascoyne Delta and laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex, the former comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand and tidal sand-and-mud sequences and the latter comprising subtidal quartz-dominated sand capped by beach to beach-ridge deposits; the Lake MacLeod evaporite basin filled with a shoaling sequence of carbonate sediments, halite, and gypsite; Tertiary limestone and Pleistocene aeolian sediments acting as a barrier to Lake McLeod; and uplifted Tertiary limestone barrier of Cape Range that is fringed by Holocene coral-reef complexes of the Ningaloo Reef. Selected stratigraphic profiles of the thirteen packages are shown in **Figure 3**. The stratigraphic packages are separated by 1. tectonically-uplifted Tertiary limestone, 2. emerging Quaternary anticlines form emergent ridges, or 3. aeolianemplaced Quaternary sediments, with the packages occurring in relatively small and distinct self-contained well-defined depositional basins (such as the bowls of parabolic dunes; terms from Semeniuk et al. [23]). The stratigraphic sequences of the thirteen packages are described in **Table 1**, and their distribution is illustrated in **Figure 4**. Detailed stratigraphy and lithologies of the Holocene-age stratigraphic sequences are described in various publications [15, 16, 24–28, 30, 31], and summarised in **Table 2**. **Figure 4** illustrates the location of the distinct and discrete sedimentary packages and their inter-relationship as arrayed along the length of the

There are a number of reasons why these stratigraphic packages have developed as separate systems and separated in these sedimentologically distinct geographic regions; they are: physiographic and geological setting, riverine input, arid climate,

migrating climate, tectonism, and degree of protection from open ocean.

Holocene sediments as limestone aeolianites or red sand dune deposits [15].

the sedimentation styles in Shark Bay and along the coast of Cape Range.

Locally, riverine input has developed deltoid sedimentary accumulations along the coast, *viz*., the Wooramel Delta and the Gascoyne Delta. The Gascoyne Delta, since it is partly exposed to open Indian Ocean conditions and strong southerly winds, is an extremely asymmetric delta, with northerly-propelled deltaic sand forming a ribbon of shore-parallel beach ridges north of the river mouth.

The arid climate is a major factor determining sedimentation patterns and diagenesis of the Holocene sediments and, during the Holocene, with Earth axis precession the Tropic of Capricorn (separating the Tropical climate from Subtropical climate) has migrated northwards-centred on Shark Bay several thousand years ago it is now located near Exmouth Gulf [30]. This was one of the factors that changed

In recent times, Shark Bay is partitioned into hydrochemical fields from its oceanic exterior to its protected interior (*e.g.*, Hamelin Pool, **Figure 2**), *viz*., the salinity changes from oceanic in the north to metahaline and then hypersaline in southern parts [31]. This is partly due to its south-eastern interior portions being isolated from oceanic influences and, as such, there is more restricted circulation from ocean to interior, but also is due to the extreme evaporation acting on the southeasterly restricted parts of the Bay and to the evolution of a circulation-restricting

The physiography and geology of this part of the coastal and near-coastal Carnarvon basin comprises 1. tectonically-emerging ridges (that Logan et al. [15] term 'anticlines'), 2. aeolian-emplaced coastal calcareous sand bodies (that when cemented form resistant upstanding ridges and, when mobilized into parabolic dunes and when later cemented form a limestone-rocky invaginated coast), and 3. aeolian-emplaced coastal quartz sand ridge. These large-scale and smaller-scale ridges and uplands form the cradle within which Holocene sedimentation was localised. As such, the Holocene sedimentation was/is occurring in lowlands, or along the open coast. The Pleistocene stratigraphic units generally form the uplands to the

**240**


**243**

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary…*

**Height, thickness, width, and length of the stratigraphic package2**

Coral reef 150 km long, 2–5 km wide, up to 5 m thick

*These geomorphic and stratigraphic systems are variable and the figures for length, width, and height, while* 

*Some of the stratigraphic units were not properly defined in the various original publications on this region [15, 16,* 

**Main stratigraphic units3**

Ningaloo Limestone3 **Relation to adjoining uplands and to adjoining stratigraphic packages**

Plastered on and flanking rocky shore cut into Tertiary limestone

shallow-water submarine seagrass bank that evolved in the Faure Island area [31]. Seagrass bank sedimentation occurs in those parts of Shark Bay where there is oceanic and metahaline salinity, and is eliminated when salinity becomes hypersaline. Much of Shark Bay is protected from the open ocean and, as such, many of the facies therein reflect this. Where the coast is exposed to the Indian Ocean, it is subject to prevailing swell, wind waves, and strong sea breezes, and wave-dominated conditions prevail, *e.g.*, the wave-dominated and asymmetric delta of the Gascoyne River. Further, where there is a rocky coast (such as the tectonically-uplifted Cape Range), with open ocean conditions and a tropical climate, coral reefs are devel-

*Description and settings of the 13 major stratigraphic packages in generalised sequences.1*

The Quaternary Southern Carnarvon Basin in its modern sedimentology, palaeosedimentology, and palaeogeography is an array of facies-complicated patterns determined by megascale geomorphic architecture, tectonics, oceanography, and climate. It contrasts with other sedimentary basins mentioned above (*e.g.*, the Paris Basin, the Paradox Basin, the Sydney Basin, amongst others) that have more laterally-extensive formational sheets. Indeed, the Quaternary Southern Carnarvon Basin *does not have latitudinally and longitudinally extensive formational sheets*, and the individual sedimentary packages of significant thicknesses are discrete and cannot (axiomatically) be correlated from depositional basin to depositional basin. Each of these sedimentary packages would appear in the geological record as discrete isolated lenses (each with its own internal sedimentary signatures and sedimentary sequences indicative of an internal relationship of lithofacies within

To highlight and contrast this facies-complicated array within the Southern Carnarvon Basin, we use the coastal zone of the Perth Basin in the southwest of Western Australia, the Canning Coast in northwest of Western Australia, and selected basins from around the World. In this comparison, we have direct field experience with the Perth Basin, Canning Basin, Kimberley Basin, Eucla Basin, the Paris Basin, the Tindouf Basin, and southern parts of the Karoo Basins. The remain-

The coastal zone of the Perth Basin extends for some 400 km and (apart from the occasional shore-normal narrow estuary) portrays a fairly consistent sequence

the package), and would be assigned to different formations.

ing information has been obtained from the literature.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

*Location of stratigraphic packages shown in Figure 3.*

*providing an estimate of their dimensions, are indicative only.*

*27, 28], and are in the process of being formally named [29].*

**Stratigraphic package (south** 

13. Holocene Ningaloo coral-reef complex [28] fringing the uplifted Tertiary limestone barrier of Cape Range

**to north)**

*1*

*2*

*3*

**Table 1.**

oped (*e.g.*, the Ningaloo Reef).

**4. Discussion and conclusions**

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*


*1 Location of stratigraphic packages shown in Figure 3.*

*2 These geomorphic and stratigraphic systems are variable and the figures for length, width, and height, while providing an estimate of their dimensions, are indicative only.*

*3 Some of the stratigraphic units were not properly defined in the various original publications on this region [15, 16, 27, 28], and are in the process of being formally named [29].*

#### **Table 1.**

*Geochemistry*

**to north)**

**Stratigraphic package (south** 

7. Mainly wave-built platforms and some seagrass bank deposits: extensive shoreparallel wedge of sediment western and eastern coast of the Peron Peninsula, central

8. Deep water marine embayment plains (10–15 m deep) underlain by calcareous mud, shelly mud, and sand [25]

9. The Boodalia, a Pleistocene reddened (quartzose) deltaic deposit, as a subset of the Gascoyne Delta, and its laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex north of Shark Bay [15]

10. Gascoyne Delta and laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex (Bejaling Beach Ridges) north of Shark

11. Tertiary-limestone-barred evaporite sequence of Lake

12. Barrier of Tertiary limestone and cemented Pleistocene aeolian sediments as a barrier to Lake McLeod [16]

McLeod [16]

Bay [27]

Shark Bay [25]

**Height, thickness, width, and length of the stratigraphic package2**

30 km long, 5–6 km wide; subtidal units up to 3 m thick, tidal units up to 1 m thick, beach-ridge units 3–15 m thick

100 km long, 20–25 km wide, 5–6 km wide, 0.5–1.5 m thick

25 km along coast, 25 km wide, up to 6 m thick [26], triangular seaward-lobed sedimentary deposit

30 km long, 5–6 km wide; subtidal units up to 3 m thick, tidal units up to 1 m thick, beach-ridge units 3–15 m thick

Evaporites 130 km long, 20–40 km wide, 8 m thick

Tertiary and Pleistocene limestone barrier 20–50 m above MSL 130 km long **Main stratigraphic units3**

Denham Sand3

metahaline wave-built sand platform and seagrass bank sediments

Freycinet formation3

Boodalia Formation3

Babbage Island Formation3

beach-ridge and tidal lagoon complexes at the river mouth; Gascoyne Sand3 —the offshore and near-shore crossbedded sand that forms the delta slope of the Gascoyne Delta; Bejaling Sand3

beach ridge complex to the north of the river mouth

MacLeod Evaporite comprised of the members Texada Halite, Ibis Gypsite, and Cygnet Carbonate Member [16]

Thickness depending on height (*i.e.*, 20–50 m thick)

—

—

 reddened deltaic sediment complex

—

**Relation to adjoining uplands and to adjoining stratigraphic packages**

Sharply adjoins the Wooramel (seagrass bank) Sand, and onlaps the red sand hinterland

Sharply adjoins the shallow water seagrass bank sediments and wave-built platform sediments

Sharply and laterally adjoins the Gascoyne Sand and Babbage Island Formation, and underlies and laterally adjoins the Wooramel (seagrass bank) Sand

Sharply and laterally adjoins the Wooramel (seagrass bank) Sand, and onlaps the red sand hinterland

Evaporite sequence cradled in a graben

Sharply bordered by Holocene sediments

**242**

*Description and settings of the 13 major stratigraphic packages in generalised sequences.1*

shallow-water submarine seagrass bank that evolved in the Faure Island area [31]. Seagrass bank sedimentation occurs in those parts of Shark Bay where there is oceanic and metahaline salinity, and is eliminated when salinity becomes hypersaline.

Much of Shark Bay is protected from the open ocean and, as such, many of the facies therein reflect this. Where the coast is exposed to the Indian Ocean, it is subject to prevailing swell, wind waves, and strong sea breezes, and wave-dominated conditions prevail, *e.g.*, the wave-dominated and asymmetric delta of the Gascoyne River. Further, where there is a rocky coast (such as the tectonically-uplifted Cape Range), with open ocean conditions and a tropical climate, coral reefs are developed (*e.g.*, the Ningaloo Reef).

#### **4. Discussion and conclusions**

The Quaternary Southern Carnarvon Basin in its modern sedimentology, palaeosedimentology, and palaeogeography is an array of facies-complicated patterns determined by megascale geomorphic architecture, tectonics, oceanography, and climate. It contrasts with other sedimentary basins mentioned above (*e.g.*, the Paris Basin, the Paradox Basin, the Sydney Basin, amongst others) that have more laterally-extensive formational sheets. Indeed, the Quaternary Southern Carnarvon Basin *does not have latitudinally and longitudinally extensive formational sheets*, and the individual sedimentary packages of significant thicknesses are discrete and cannot (axiomatically) be correlated from depositional basin to depositional basin. Each of these sedimentary packages would appear in the geological record as discrete isolated lenses (each with its own internal sedimentary signatures and sedimentary sequences indicative of an internal relationship of lithofacies within the package), and would be assigned to different formations.

To highlight and contrast this facies-complicated array within the Southern Carnarvon Basin, we use the coastal zone of the Perth Basin in the southwest of Western Australia, the Canning Coast in northwest of Western Australia, and selected basins from around the World. In this comparison, we have direct field experience with the Perth Basin, Canning Basin, Kimberley Basin, Eucla Basin, the Paris Basin, the Tindouf Basin, and southern parts of the Karoo Basins. The remaining information has been obtained from the literature.

The coastal zone of the Perth Basin extends for some 400 km and (apart from the occasional shore-normal narrow estuary) portrays a fairly consistent sequence

#### **Figure 4.**

*The disposition of the lithologically distinct and spatially discrete sedimentary packages arrayed along the length of the southern Carnarvon Basin. Also shown are the south-to-north uplands of Pleistocene aeolian and aeolianite bodies and the uplifted Tertiary and Cretaceous limestone formations that either act as barriers to or cradle the Holocene depositional sites.*

of beaches, beach ridges, and coastal dunes [23, 32, 33], that while largely shoreparallel and close to shore can extend inland for kilometres and, locally, have prograded seawards for over 10 km [33]. These coastal formations are composed of lithologically fairly uniform quartzose calcareous medium sand. Similarly, along 600 km of the Canning Coast [34], the coastal zone of the Canning Basin is relatively consistent comprising longitudinally-extensive beaches, beach ridges, and (in small embayments) limestone barriers sheltering calcilutite basins; the coastal sands are quartzose calcareous medium and coarse sand (*viz*., Shoonta Hill Sand and Cable Beach Sand of Semeniuk, respectively [34]).

However, prior to comparing the sedimentology and stratigraphy of the Southern Carnarvon Basin with other sedimentary basins globally, there are two

**245**

**Table 3**.

**Table 2.**

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary…*

Coquina

Coquina

and spits

Wooramel Sand1

Denham Sand1

Freycinet Formation1

Cross-bedded Gascoyne Sand1

**Fine scale stratigraphy**

carbonate crusts [24, 25]

Bioturbated Wooramel Sand1

Bioturbated Wooramel Sand1

—bioturbated shelly calcareous quartzose

overlain by laminated and

overlain by laminated and

, and onlaps

—bioturbated seagrass bank sand overlying a

—metahaline wave-built sand platform and

sharply adjoins the shallow water

overlain in the south by

and underlain by thin calcilutite, and overlain by laminated sheet laminated sand, laminated beach sand, and beach-ridge sand; inland, where hypersaline, there is development of

cemented Hutchinson Formation, stromatoliths and Hamelin

cemented Hutchinson Formation, stromatoliths and Hamelin

thin calcilutite and overlain by laminated sand of beach ridges

30 km long, 5–6 km wide; subtidal units up to 3 m thick, tidal units up to 1 m thick, beach-ridge units 3–15 m thick

seagrass bank sediments; sharply adjoins the Wooramel (seagrass bank) sand and the Boodalia Formation1

100 km long, 20–25 km wide, 5–6 km wide, 0.5–1.5 m thick

seagrass bank sediments and wave-built platform sediments

laminated to bioturbated (root-structured) beach-ridge sand and ribbons of tidal mud of the Baggage Island Formation, and overlain in the north by laminated to bioturbated (rootstructured) beach-ridge sand referred to the Bejaling Sand

crystalline 5–6 m thick Texada Halite and, in turn, by the Ibis

Coral framework (domal, arborescent, mixed, tabulate and encrusting corals), coral rubble, skeletal sand, and intercalated sheets of alluvial-fan sediment = Ningaloo

Gypsite (*in situ* and reworked gypsum crystals)

the red sand hinterland of Peron Sandstone

Boat Haven Sand1

inter-related factors that need discussion in order to establish a framework for these comparisons; these are: 1. systems can be inherently internally complex in terms of sedimentary dynamics and facies resulting in small-scale complex stratigraphy or, alternatively, relatively simple (even if reflecting an upward shoaling energy-related system) [35],and 2. the concept of a formation and its use within the comparative

*More detailed description of fine-scale stratigraphy of the Holocene stratigraphic packages.*

11. Evaporite sequence of Lake McLeod Thin unit of the Cygnet Carbonate Member overlain by the

Limestone

In the first instance, sedimentary systems can be inherently stratigraphically complex laterally and vertically. For example, floodplain sedimentology and the resulting stratigraphy, and the stratigraphic complexity associated with channel switching in fluvial settings are examples (*e.g.*, Figures 404, 409 & 410 in Reineck & Singh [37]) where there can be marked lateral and vertical lithological variation. So too for deltas –for instance, while a wave-dominated, sand-dominated delta

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

**Stratigraphic package (south to north) (numbering follows that in Table 1)**

2. Pocket seagrass bank carbonate complexes of central western Shark Bay

4. Shoaling sedimentary packages of south-eastern Shark Bay

5. Deltoid deposit of river sediments at the mouth of the Wooramel River central-western Shark Bay

6. Extensive shore-parallel wedge of seagrass bank sequence eastern coast,

7. Mainly wave-built platforms and some seagrass bank deposits: extensive shoreparallel wedge of sediment western and eastern coast of the Peron Peninsula,

8. Deep water marine embayment plains underlain by sheets of calcareous mud,

equivalent beach-ridge complex north

13. Coral-reef complex of the Ningaloo Reef fringing the uplifted Tertiary

*Stratigraphic nomenclature in preparation [29].*

northern Shark Bay

central Shark Bay [25]

shelly mud, and sand

of Shark Bay

limestone barrier

10. Gascoyne Delta and laterally

**Stratigraphic package (south to north) (numbering follows that in Table 1) Fine scale stratigraphy** 2. Pocket seagrass bank carbonate complexes of central western Shark Bay Boat Haven Sand1 —bioturbated shelly calcareous quartzose and underlain by thin calcilutite, and overlain by laminated sheet laminated sand, laminated beach sand, and beach-ridge sand; inland, where hypersaline, there is development of carbonate crusts [24, 25] 4. Shoaling sedimentary packages of south-eastern Shark Bay Bioturbated Wooramel Sand1 overlain by laminated and cemented Hutchinson Formation, stromatoliths and Hamelin Coquina 5. Deltoid deposit of river sediments at the mouth of the Wooramel River central-western Shark Bay Bioturbated Wooramel Sand1 overlain by laminated and cemented Hutchinson Formation, stromatoliths and Hamelin Coquina 6. Extensive shore-parallel wedge of seagrass bank sequence eastern coast, northern Shark Bay Wooramel Sand1 —bioturbated seagrass bank sand overlying a thin calcilutite and overlain by laminated sand of beach ridges and spits 7. Mainly wave-built platforms and some seagrass bank deposits: extensive shoreparallel wedge of sediment western and eastern coast of the Peron Peninsula, central Shark Bay [25] 30 km long, 5–6 km wide; subtidal units up to 3 m thick, tidal units up to 1 m thick, beach-ridge units 3–15 m thick Denham Sand1 —metahaline wave-built sand platform and seagrass bank sediments; sharply adjoins the Wooramel (seagrass bank) sand and the Boodalia Formation1 , and onlaps the red sand hinterland of Peron Sandstone 8. Deep water marine embayment plains underlain by sheets of calcareous mud, shelly mud, and sand 100 km long, 20–25 km wide, 5–6 km wide, 0.5–1.5 m thick Freycinet Formation1 sharply adjoins the shallow water seagrass bank sediments and wave-built platform sediments 10. Gascoyne Delta and laterally equivalent beach-ridge complex north of Shark Bay Cross-bedded Gascoyne Sand1 overlain in the south by laminated to bioturbated (root-structured) beach-ridge sand and ribbons of tidal mud of the Baggage Island Formation, and overlain in the north by laminated to bioturbated (rootstructured) beach-ridge sand referred to the Bejaling Sand 11. Evaporite sequence of Lake McLeod Thin unit of the Cygnet Carbonate Member overlain by the crystalline 5–6 m thick Texada Halite and, in turn, by the Ibis Gypsite (*in situ* and reworked gypsum crystals) 13. Coral-reef complex of the Ningaloo Reef fringing the uplifted Tertiary limestone barrier Coral framework (domal, arborescent, mixed, tabulate and encrusting corals), coral rubble, skeletal sand, and intercalated sheets of alluvial-fan sediment = Ningaloo Limestone *Stratigraphic nomenclature in preparation [29].*

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

#### **Table 2.**

*Geochemistry*

**244**

**Figure 4.**

*cradle the Holocene depositional sites.*

of beaches, beach ridges, and coastal dunes [23, 32, 33], that while largely shoreparallel and close to shore can extend inland for kilometres and, locally, have prograded seawards for over 10 km [33]. These coastal formations are composed of lithologically fairly uniform quartzose calcareous medium sand. Similarly, along 600 km of the Canning Coast [34], the coastal zone of the Canning Basin is relatively consistent comprising longitudinally-extensive beaches, beach ridges, and (in small embayments) limestone barriers sheltering calcilutite basins; the coastal sands are quartzose calcareous medium and coarse sand (*viz*., Shoonta Hill Sand

*The disposition of the lithologically distinct and spatially discrete sedimentary packages arrayed along the length of the southern Carnarvon Basin. Also shown are the south-to-north uplands of Pleistocene aeolian and aeolianite bodies and the uplifted Tertiary and Cretaceous limestone formations that either act as barriers to or* 

However, prior to comparing the sedimentology and stratigraphy of the Southern Carnarvon Basin with other sedimentary basins globally, there are two

and Cable Beach Sand of Semeniuk, respectively [34]).

*More detailed description of fine-scale stratigraphy of the Holocene stratigraphic packages.*

inter-related factors that need discussion in order to establish a framework for these comparisons; these are: 1. systems can be inherently internally complex in terms of sedimentary dynamics and facies resulting in small-scale complex stratigraphy or, alternatively, relatively simple (even if reflecting an upward shoaling energy-related system) [35],and 2. the concept of a formation and its use within the comparative **Table 3**.

In the first instance, sedimentary systems can be inherently stratigraphically complex laterally and vertically. For example, floodplain sedimentology and the resulting stratigraphy, and the stratigraphic complexity associated with channel switching in fluvial settings are examples (*e.g.*, Figures 404, 409 & 410 in Reineck & Singh [37]) where there can be marked lateral and vertical lithological variation. So too for deltas –for instance, while a wave-dominated, sand-dominated delta


#### **Table 3.**

*Global perspective: generalized and simplified description of selected sedimentary basins and their stratigraphy (for Australian stratigraphy, refer to Geoscience Australia [36]).*

**247**

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary…*

may produce a relatively even and repetitive sequence of subtidal to tidal to beachridge facies, *cf*., Allen [38], a mixed sand-and-mud river-dominated system can result in a plethora of facies which are randomly arrayed and which become more complex where there has been major channel switching [27, 37]. In contrast, coastal beach-to-dune sequences and marine shelf sequences result in relatively predictable shore-parallel sheets of stratigraphic sequences reflecting gradients in wave energy, tides, and aeolian effects for the former [35], or vertically stacked lithologies of

In the second instance, in literature reviews of ancient sedimentary sequences globally that are to be used for comparative analyses in this Chapter, it is important to address the concept and definition of a formation as used by a given author, *i.e.*, whether an author in defining a formation was focused on small-scale features, or used a broad-scale approach. Given that sedimentary systems can be inherently stratigraphically complex (*e.g.*, fluvial systems as noted above, or deltaic systems, *cf*. Figures 452, 453, & 456 in Reineck and Singh [37]) or, conversely, stratigraphically relatively simple (*e.g.*, shelf systems), in our selection for comparative purposes of the ancient stratigraphic case studies, we focused on those examples where there was enough lithological detail to ensure that the stratigraphic sequences were adequately described and could be validly compared between the basins listed in **Table 3**. Following the criteria set out in the International Codes and Standards (*e.g.*, the International Commission on Stratigraphy; http://www.stratigraphy.org/index. php/ics-stratigraphicguide) for assigning formational status to rock bodies, in our review of the literature we assessed a rock body could be defined as a 'formation' if it had one of the following characteristics: 1. dominantly of one lithology (*e.g.*, the Hawkesbury Sandstone in the Sydney Basin [3]); 2. mainly of two or three recurring interbedded lithologies mappable as a suite; or 3. a mixture of interbedded lithologies complexly inter-related but the whole suite being clearly recognised as a heterogeneous unit against underlying and overlying rock strata. Our conclusions were that is a formation was valid, and if it was mapped and correlated as being basin-extensive then its lithologically defining characteristics were present from

As noted in Section 1, globally, there are numerous sedimentary basins that are filled with laterally and longitudinally extensive formations. For comparison with the southern Carnarvon Basin, we have selected the Sydney Basin [3], the Kimberley Basin [6], the Eucla Basin [7], the Paris Basin [4, 5], the Paradox Basin [8, 9], the Tindouf Basin [11], the Karoo Basins [12], and the Gourara Basin [12]. Most of these basins have experienced some degree of tectonism resulting in normal faults and low-amplitude folds, but the sedimentary formations therein are easily correlated across large tracts of their respective basins. Information on the size of these basins and the composition of the laterally-extensive formations is presented in **Table 3**. As is evident in **Table 3**, most of the basins selected for comparison with the southern Carnarvon Basin have basin-wide and extensive formations and *contrast markedly* with the Quaternary formations of the southern Carnarvon Basin of this Chapter in that they are thick, not markedly discontinuous, and can be cor-

In this context, comparing the Quaternary Southern Carnarvon Basin with other Western Australia sedimentary basins and with other selected basins Worldwide, it is clear that the Southern Carnarvon Basin stands as an important model globally of basin development – there is interplay of megascale geomorphic architecture, tectonics, oceanography, and climate resulting in a series of disparate sedimentary

In summary, the onshore Carnarvon Basin is an example of a complex sedimentary array of facies-complicated sedimentary small basins where distinct

packages that are in relative close proximity to each other.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

energy-related sequences for the latter [37].

one end of the basin to the other.

related over large distances.

#### *The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

may produce a relatively even and repetitive sequence of subtidal to tidal to beachridge facies, *cf*., Allen [38], a mixed sand-and-mud river-dominated system can result in a plethora of facies which are randomly arrayed and which become more complex where there has been major channel switching [27, 37]. In contrast, coastal beach-to-dune sequences and marine shelf sequences result in relatively predictable shore-parallel sheets of stratigraphic sequences reflecting gradients in wave energy, tides, and aeolian effects for the former [35], or vertically stacked lithologies of energy-related sequences for the latter [37].

In the second instance, in literature reviews of ancient sedimentary sequences globally that are to be used for comparative analyses in this Chapter, it is important to address the concept and definition of a formation as used by a given author, *i.e.*, whether an author in defining a formation was focused on small-scale features, or used a broad-scale approach. Given that sedimentary systems can be inherently stratigraphically complex (*e.g.*, fluvial systems as noted above, or deltaic systems, *cf*. Figures 452, 453, & 456 in Reineck and Singh [37]) or, conversely, stratigraphically relatively simple (*e.g.*, shelf systems), in our selection for comparative purposes of the ancient stratigraphic case studies, we focused on those examples where there was enough lithological detail to ensure that the stratigraphic sequences were adequately described and could be validly compared between the basins listed in **Table 3**. Following the criteria set out in the International Codes and Standards (*e.g.*, the International Commission on Stratigraphy; http://www.stratigraphy.org/index. php/ics-stratigraphicguide) for assigning formational status to rock bodies, in our review of the literature we assessed a rock body could be defined as a 'formation' if it had one of the following characteristics: 1. dominantly of one lithology (*e.g.*, the Hawkesbury Sandstone in the Sydney Basin [3]); 2. mainly of two or three recurring interbedded lithologies mappable as a suite; or 3. a mixture of interbedded lithologies complexly inter-related but the whole suite being clearly recognised as a heterogeneous unit against underlying and overlying rock strata. Our conclusions were that is a formation was valid, and if it was mapped and correlated as being basin-extensive then its lithologically defining characteristics were present from one end of the basin to the other.

As noted in Section 1, globally, there are numerous sedimentary basins that are filled with laterally and longitudinally extensive formations. For comparison with the southern Carnarvon Basin, we have selected the Sydney Basin [3], the Kimberley Basin [6], the Eucla Basin [7], the Paris Basin [4, 5], the Paradox Basin [8, 9], the Tindouf Basin [11], the Karoo Basins [12], and the Gourara Basin [12]. Most of these basins have experienced some degree of tectonism resulting in normal faults and low-amplitude folds, but the sedimentary formations therein are easily correlated across large tracts of their respective basins. Information on the size of these basins and the composition of the laterally-extensive formations is presented in **Table 3**. As is evident in **Table 3**, most of the basins selected for comparison with the southern Carnarvon Basin have basin-wide and extensive formations and *contrast markedly* with the Quaternary formations of the southern Carnarvon Basin of this Chapter in that they are thick, not markedly discontinuous, and can be correlated over large distances.

In this context, comparing the Quaternary Southern Carnarvon Basin with other Western Australia sedimentary basins and with other selected basins Worldwide, it is clear that the Southern Carnarvon Basin stands as an important model globally of basin development – there is interplay of megascale geomorphic architecture, tectonics, oceanography, and climate resulting in a series of disparate sedimentary packages that are in relative close proximity to each other.

In summary, the onshore Carnarvon Basin is an example of a complex sedimentary array of facies-complicated sedimentary small basins where distinct

*Geochemistry*

**Sedimentary basin**

Kimberley Basin [4]

Paradox Basin [8, 9]

Tindouf Basin [10]

Gourara Basin [11]

Sydney Basin [3] New South Wales, Australia; 64,000 km2

Eucla Basin [5] Western Australia to South

Paris Basin [6, 7] Northern to central France; 140,000 km2

85,470 km2

100,000 km2

Karoo Basins [12] Scattered series of sub-basins

700,000 km2

1500 km long

*(for Australian stratigraphy, refer to Geoscience Australia [36]).*

Algeria; 260,000 km2

400,000 km2

; 450 km

Western Australia, Australia;

Australia; 1,141,000 km2

; 600 km

United States of America: Utah, SW Colorado, extending into NE Arizona and NW New Mexico;

; 280 km

Anti-Atlas, Morocco, and Algeria;

; 700 km

over northern to southern Africa and Madagascar, the largest of which are the main Karoo Basin

the Kalahari Basin 2,500,000 km2

, 1500 km long, and

,

*Global perspective: generalized and simplified description of selected sedimentary basins and their stratigraphy* 

; 500 km

; 1200 km

**Location, area, longest length Key laterally-extensive, relatively thick** 

**and thicknesses**

and shale (150–500 m thick)

**basin-wide formations, their lithologies** 

Basin-extensive Wianamatta Shale (300 m thick), Hawkesbury Sandstone (230–290 m thick), the Newcastle and Illawarra Coal Measures of coal seams, sandstone sheets,

Five major basin-extensive lithological sequences of Proterozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks, accounting for a stratigraphic thickness of some 5000 m and assigned to formational and/or group level; sandstone dominates the sequences; lithologies are quartzose sandstones, felspathic sandstones, minor siltstones, and minor volcanic rocks

Basin-extensive sheets of skeletal limestone (bryozoa, foraminifera, molluscs, calcareous algae forming calcarenites, rudstones, and calcareous muddy limestones) and some sandstone; lithologically fairly consistent and extensive across the basin (*e.g.*, Abrakurrie Limestone 120 m thick; Colville sandstone 25 m thick; Nullarbor Limestone 45 m thick; Wilson Bluff Limestone 335 m thick)

Basin-extensive sheets and lenses of limestone, sandstone, chalk, shale/marl, dolomite, oolite, and evaporites, each lithologic unit of relatively regular thickness, each either 300 m, 400 m, 500 m, or 600 m

Asymmetric basin with western basin dominated by thick salt (up to 2500 m thick) and eastern basin dominated by limestone with lesser dolomite, bioherms, shale

Basin-extensive sheets of sandstone, shale, limestone, marls, coral beds, conglomerate; individual formations comprise sandstone (500 m thick), interbedded limestone and shale (500 m thick), marls and marly limestone (700 m thick), and evaporite (up to

siltstone, total thickness some 4000 m

The main Karoo Basin: asymmetric, with basin-extensive sheets of mudstone and sandstone, totaling 7000 m in thickness for the uppermost unit, *viz*., the Beaufort Group of formations, sheets of shale, sandstones, wackestones, chert, dolomite and coal, totaling 3200 m for the middle unit, *viz*., the Ecca Group of formations, and diamictite, tillite, totaling 800 m for the lowermost unit, *viz*., the Dwyka Group of formations

thick

(1400 m thick)

100 m thick)

; 320 km Basin-extensive sheets of sandstone and

**246**

**Table 3.**

but separated sedimentary facies and sedimentary packages have formed over a relatively small scale. It is an example where sedimentary packages can be markedly diverse over short distances. As such, this coastal and near-coastal part of the southern Carnarvon Basin illustrates the complexities a geologist would face if analyzing a basin in the stratigraphic column.

### **Conflict of interest**

We have no conflict of interest.

### **Author details**

Vic Semeniuk1,2,3\* and Margaret Brocx3

1 V & C Semeniuk Research Group, Warwick, Western Australia

2 School of Arts and Sciences, Notre Dame University, Fremantle, Western Australia

3 Environmental and Conservation Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia

\*Address all correspondence to: vcsrg@iinet.net.au

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**249**

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary…*

[11] Baouche R, Nedjari A, El Adj S. A sedimentological approach to refining reservoir architecture using the well log data and core analysis in the Saharan Platform of Algeria. WSEAS Transactions on Environment and Development. 2009;**5**:519-534

[12] Catuneanu O, Wopfner H,

Earth Sciences. 2005;**43**:211-253

Cockbain AE, Low GH, Lowry DC. Carnarvon Basin. In: Geology of Western Australia; Western Australia Geological Survey. Memoir 2. 1975.

[14] Brocx M, Semeniuk V. Coastal geoheritage: A hierarchical approach to classifying coastal types as a basis for identifying diversity and sites of significance in Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western

[15] Logan BW, Read JF, Davies GR. History of carbonate sedimentation, Quaternary Epoch, Shark Bay, Western

[16] Logan BW. The MacLeod evaporite basin, Western Australia: Holocene environments, sediments and geological

evolution. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir.

[17] Barber PM. The Exmouth Plateau deep water frontier: A case history. The North West Shelf, Australia. In: Purcell PG, Purcell RR, editors. Proceedings of the North West Shelf Symposium, Perth, Western Australia,

Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Sedimentary environments of Shark Bay Western Australia. Vol. 13. Tulsa, Oklahoma: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1970.

Australia. 2010;**93**:81-113

[13] Playford PE, Cope RN,

pp. 269-318

pp. 38-84

1987;**44**:140

Eriksson PG, Cairncross B, Rubidge BS, Smith RMH, et al. The Karoo basins of south-central Africa. Journal of African

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

[1] Hocking RM, Moors HT, van de Graaf WJE. Geology of the Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia. Geological Survey of Western Australia Bulletin.

[2] Hocking RM. Carnarvon Basin. Geological Survey Memoir.

Memoir. 1990;**3**:293-304

[5] Hocking RM. Eucla Basin. In: Western Australia Geological Survey

[6] Claude M, Mégnien F, editors. Synthèse Géologique Du Bassin De Paris: Volume I. Orléans: du BRGM [Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et

[7] Duval BC. Villeperdue Field. In: Halbouty MT, editor. Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1978-1988. Vol. 54. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1992. p. 526. ISBN:

[8] Huffman AC Jr. Evolution of Sedimentary Basins: Paradox Basin. Washington, USA: United States Geological Survey Bulletin; 1993

[9] Nuccio VF, Condon SM. Burial and Thermal History of the Paradox Basin, Utah and Colorado, and Petroleum Potential of the Middle Pennsylvanian Paradox Formation. Washington, USA: United States Geological Survey

[10] Selley RC. African Basins. Vol. 3. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier

Memoir 3. 1990. pp. 548-561

Minières]; 1980. p. 101

0891813330

Bulletin. 1996

Science; 1997. p. 391

[3] Packham GH. The geology of New South Wales. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia. 1969;**16**(1):654

[4] Griffin TJ, Grey K. Kimberley Basin. Western Australia Geological Survey

**References**

1987;**133**:288

1990;**3**:457-495

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

#### **References**

*Geochemistry*

**Conflict of interest**

**248**

**Author details**

Western Australia

Western Australia

Vic Semeniuk1,2,3\* and Margaret Brocx3

1 V & C Semeniuk Research Group, Warwick, Western Australia

2 School of Arts and Sciences, Notre Dame University, Fremantle,

\*Address all correspondence to: vcsrg@iinet.net.au

provided the original work is properly cited.

3 Environmental and Conservation Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

but separated sedimentary facies and sedimentary packages have formed over a relatively small scale. It is an example where sedimentary packages can be markedly diverse over short distances. As such, this coastal and near-coastal part of the southern Carnarvon Basin illustrates the complexities a geologist would face if

analyzing a basin in the stratigraphic column.

We have no conflict of interest.

[1] Hocking RM, Moors HT, van de Graaf WJE. Geology of the Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia. Geological Survey of Western Australia Bulletin. 1987;**133**:288

[2] Hocking RM. Carnarvon Basin. Geological Survey Memoir. 1990;**3**:457-495

[3] Packham GH. The geology of New South Wales. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia. 1969;**16**(1):654

[4] Griffin TJ, Grey K. Kimberley Basin. Western Australia Geological Survey Memoir. 1990;**3**:293-304

[5] Hocking RM. Eucla Basin. In: Western Australia Geological Survey Memoir 3. 1990. pp. 548-561

[6] Claude M, Mégnien F, editors. Synthèse Géologique Du Bassin De Paris: Volume I. Orléans: du BRGM [Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières]; 1980. p. 101

[7] Duval BC. Villeperdue Field. In: Halbouty MT, editor. Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1978-1988. Vol. 54. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1992. p. 526. ISBN: 0891813330

[8] Huffman AC Jr. Evolution of Sedimentary Basins: Paradox Basin. Washington, USA: United States Geological Survey Bulletin; 1993

[9] Nuccio VF, Condon SM. Burial and Thermal History of the Paradox Basin, Utah and Colorado, and Petroleum Potential of the Middle Pennsylvanian Paradox Formation. Washington, USA: United States Geological Survey Bulletin. 1996

[10] Selley RC. African Basins. Vol. 3. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science; 1997. p. 391

[11] Baouche R, Nedjari A, El Adj S. A sedimentological approach to refining reservoir architecture using the well log data and core analysis in the Saharan Platform of Algeria. WSEAS Transactions on Environment and Development. 2009;**5**:519-534

[12] Catuneanu O, Wopfner H, Eriksson PG, Cairncross B, Rubidge BS, Smith RMH, et al. The Karoo basins of south-central Africa. Journal of African Earth Sciences. 2005;**43**:211-253

[13] Playford PE, Cope RN, Cockbain AE, Low GH, Lowry DC. Carnarvon Basin. In: Geology of Western Australia; Western Australia Geological Survey. Memoir 2. 1975. pp. 269-318

[14] Brocx M, Semeniuk V. Coastal geoheritage: A hierarchical approach to classifying coastal types as a basis for identifying diversity and sites of significance in Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. 2010;**93**:81-113

[15] Logan BW, Read JF, Davies GR. History of carbonate sedimentation, Quaternary Epoch, Shark Bay, Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Sedimentary environments of Shark Bay Western Australia. Vol. 13. Tulsa, Oklahoma: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1970. pp. 38-84

[16] Logan BW. The MacLeod evaporite basin, Western Australia: Holocene environments, sediments and geological evolution. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir. 1987;**44**:140

[17] Barber PM. The Exmouth Plateau deep water frontier: A case history. The North West Shelf, Australia. In: Purcell PG, Purcell RR, editors. Proceedings of the North West Shelf Symposium, Perth, Western Australia, 10-12 August. Perth: PESA; 1988. pp. 173-187

[18] Purcell PG, Purcell RR. The Sedimentary Basins of Western Australia. In: Proceedings of Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Symposium, Perth. 1994. p. 864

[19] Ghori KAR. Petroleum generating potential and thermal history of the Palaeozoic, Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia. In: Purcell PG, Purcell RR, editors. The Sedimentary Basins of Western Australia 2. Proceedings of the Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Symposium, Perth. 1998. pp. 553-567

[20] Iasky RP, Mory AJ, Shevchenko SI. A structural interpretation of the Gascoyne Platform, southern Carnarvon Basin, WA. In: Purcell PG, Purcell RR, editors. The Sedimentary Basins of Western Australia 2. Proceedings of the Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia, Perth. 1998. pp. 589-598

[21] Tindale K, Newell N, Keall J, Smith N. Structural evolution and charge history of the Exmouth Subbasin, northern Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia. In: Purcell PG, Purcell RR, editors. The Sedimentary Basins of Western Australia 2. Proceedings of Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Symposium, Perth. 1998. pp. 447-472

[22] Karner GD, Driscoll NW. Style, timing and distribution of tectonic deformation across the Exmouth Plateau, northwest Australia, determined from stratal architecture and quantitative basin modelling. In: MacNiocaill C, Ryan PD, editors. Continental Tectonics. The Geological Society of London; 1999. pp. 271-311

[23] Semeniuk V, Cresswell ID, Wurm PAS. The Quindalup Dunes: The regional system, physical framework and vegetation habitats. Journal of the

Royal Society of Western Australia. 1989;**71**:23-47

[24] Read JF. Carbonate bank and wavebuilt platform sedimentation, Edel Province, Shark Bay, Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Evolution and Diagenesis of Quaternary Carbonate Sequences, Shark Bay, Western Australia. Vol. 22. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1974. pp. 1-60

[25] Hagan GM, Logan BW. History of Hutchinson Embayment tidal flat, Shark Bay, Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Evolution and Diagenesis of Quaternary Carbonate Sequences, Shark Bay, Western Australia. Vol. 22. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1974. pp. 283-315

[26] Davies GR. Carbonate bank sedimentation, eastern Shark Bay, Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Carbonate Sedimentation and Environments Shark Bay Western Australia. Vol. 13. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1970. pp. 85-168

[27] Johnson DP. Sedimentary facies in an arid zone delta: Gascoyne delta, Western Australia. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology. 1982;**52**:547-563

[28] Collins LB, Zhu ZR, Wyrwoll KH, Eisenhauer A. Late Quaternary structure and development of the northern Ningaloo Reef, Australia. Sedimentary Geology. 2003;**159**:81-94

[29] Semeniuk V. Rationalization of stratigraphic nomenclature in the Southern Carnarvon Basin. 2020. In preparation for episodes

[30] Semeniuk V. Predicted response of coastal wetlands to climate changes—A Western Australian model. Hydrobiologia. 2013;**708**:23-43. DOI: 10.1007/s10750-012-1159-0

**251**

pp. 138-151

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

Sedimentary environments of Shark Bay Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Sedimentary Environments of Shark Bay Western Australia. Vol. 13. Tulsa, Oklahoma: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1970.

[32] Searle DJ, Semeniuk V. The natural sectors of the Rottnest Shelf Coast adjoining the Swan Coastal Plain. Journal of the Royal Society of Western

[33] Searle DJ, Semeniuk V, Woods PJ. The geomorphology, stratigraphy and Holocene history of the

Rockingham-Becher plain. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia.

[34] Semeniuk V. Sedimentation, stratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and Holocene history of the Canning Coast, north-western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia.

[35] Semeniuk V. Pleistocene coastal palaeogeography in southwestern Australia—Carbonate and quartz sand sedimentation in cuspate

forelands, barriers and ribbon shoreline deposits. Journal of Coastal Research.

[37] Reineck HE, Singh IB. Depositional Sedimentary Environments. 2nd ed.

[36] Australian Stratigraphic Units Database 2020. Available from: https://www.ga.gov.au/data-pubs/ datastandards/stratigraphic-units

Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1980

[38] Allen JRL. Sediments of the modern Niger Delta: A summary and review. In: Morgan JP, editor. Deltaic Sedimentation—Modern and Ancient. Vol. 15. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Society of Economic Palaeontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication; 1970.

[31] Logan BW, Cebulski DE.

Australia. 1985;**67**:116-136

1988;**70**:89-109

2008;**91**:53-148

1997;**13**:468-489

pp. 1-37

*The Onshore Southern Carnarvon Basin in Coastal Western Australia during the Quaternary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92866*

[31] Logan BW, Cebulski DE. Sedimentary environments of Shark Bay Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Sedimentary Environments of Shark Bay Western Australia. Vol. 13. Tulsa, Oklahoma: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1970. pp. 1-37

*Geochemistry*

pp. 173-187

pp. 553-567

10-12 August. Perth: PESA; 1988.

[18] Purcell PG, Purcell RR. The Sedimentary Basins of Western

Australia. In: Proceedings of Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Symposium, Perth. 1994. p. 864

Royal Society of Western Australia.

[24] Read JF. Carbonate bank and wavebuilt platform sedimentation, Edel Province, Shark Bay, Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Evolution and Diagenesis of Quaternary Carbonate Sequences, Shark Bay, Western

Australia. Vol. 22. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1974.

[25] Hagan GM, Logan BW. History of Hutchinson Embayment tidal flat, Shark Bay, Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Evolution and Diagenesis of Quaternary Carbonate Sequences, Shark Bay, Western Australia. Vol. 22. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1974. pp. 283-315

[26] Davies GR. Carbonate bank sedimentation, eastern Shark Bay, Western Australia. In: Logan BW, editor. Carbonate Sedimentation and Environments Shark Bay Western Australia. Vol. 13. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir; 1970.

[27] Johnson DP. Sedimentary facies in an arid zone delta:

Gascoyne delta, Western Australia. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology.

[28] Collins LB, Zhu ZR, Wyrwoll KH, Eisenhauer A. Late Quaternary structure and development of the northern Ningaloo Reef, Australia. Sedimentary

[29] Semeniuk V. Rationalization of stratigraphic nomenclature in the Southern Carnarvon Basin. 2020. In

[30] Semeniuk V. Predicted response of coastal wetlands to climate

changes—A Western Australian model. Hydrobiologia. 2013;**708**:23-43. DOI:

1989;**71**:23-47

pp. 1-60

pp. 85-168

1982;**52**:547-563

Geology. 2003;**159**:81-94

preparation for episodes

10.1007/s10750-012-1159-0

[19] Ghori KAR. Petroleum generating potential and thermal history of the Palaeozoic, Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia. In: Purcell PG, Purcell RR, editors. The Sedimentary Basins of Western Australia 2. Proceedings of the Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Symposium, Perth. 1998.

[20] Iasky RP, Mory AJ, Shevchenko SI. A

Gascoyne Platform, southern Carnarvon Basin, WA. In: Purcell PG, Purcell RR, editors. The Sedimentary Basins of Western Australia 2. Proceedings of the Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia, Perth. 1998. pp. 589-598

structural interpretation of the

[21] Tindale K, Newell N, Keall J, Smith N. Structural evolution and charge history of the Exmouth Subbasin, northern Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia. In: Purcell PG, Purcell RR, editors. The Sedimentary Basins of Western Australia 2.

Proceedings of Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Symposium, Perth.

[22] Karner GD, Driscoll NW. Style, timing and distribution of tectonic deformation across the Exmouth Plateau, northwest Australia,

determined from stratal architecture and quantitative basin modelling. In: MacNiocaill C, Ryan PD, editors. Continental Tectonics. The Geological Society of London; 1999. pp. 271-311

[23] Semeniuk V, Cresswell ID,

Wurm PAS. The Quindalup Dunes: The regional system, physical framework and vegetation habitats. Journal of the

1998. pp. 447-472

**250**

[32] Searle DJ, Semeniuk V. The natural sectors of the Rottnest Shelf Coast adjoining the Swan Coastal Plain. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. 1985;**67**:116-136

[33] Searle DJ, Semeniuk V, Woods PJ. The geomorphology, stratigraphy and Holocene history of the Rockingham-Becher plain. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. 1988;**70**:89-109

[34] Semeniuk V. Sedimentation, stratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and Holocene history of the Canning Coast, north-western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. 2008;**91**:53-148

[35] Semeniuk V. Pleistocene coastal palaeogeography in southwestern Australia—Carbonate and quartz sand sedimentation in cuspate forelands, barriers and ribbon shoreline deposits. Journal of Coastal Research. 1997;**13**:468-489

[36] Australian Stratigraphic Units Database 2020. Available from: https://www.ga.gov.au/data-pubs/ datastandards/stratigraphic-units

[37] Reineck HE, Singh IB. Depositional Sedimentary Environments. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1980

[38] Allen JRL. Sediments of the modern Niger Delta: A summary and review. In: Morgan JP, editor. Deltaic Sedimentation—Modern and Ancient. Vol. 15. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Society of Economic Palaeontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication; 1970. pp. 138-151

**253**

**Chapter 13**

**Abstract**

Efficiency

of nodules and host materials.

**1. Introduction**

platform sediments [2].

(NaCl) are the most common evaporites.

Middle Miocene Evaporites from

Northern Iraq: Petrography,

*Ali I. Al-Juboury, Rana A. Mahmood* 

*and Abulaziz M. Al-Hamdani*

Geochemistry, and Cap Rock

Evaporites (gypsum and anhydrite) of the middle Miocene age (Fat'ha Formation) form one of the main sulfate cap rocks in the Middle East oilfields. Detailed petrographic and diagenetic investigations accompanied with geochemical analysis of these evaporite rocks in Mosul and Kirkuk areas of northern Iraq have revealed that nodular gypsum is the dominant type, whereas laminated, structureless, and secondary (selenite and satin spar) also are present. Nodular gypsum was deposited in a very shallow, arid, and semi-restricted lagoonal environment which has undergone influx and reflux processes, while laminated gypsum may represent pulses of freshwater into the lagoonal basin of Fat'ha Formation. Low strontium values of the secondary and laminated gypsum may attribute to their secondary origin by hydration processes from the original anhydrite. Based on petrographic, diagenetic, and petrophysical (porosity and permeability) properties, it appears that the efficiency of the Fat'ha sulfates as petroleum cap rocks increases with increasing nodular growth and compaction degree. The occasional presence of bitumen inclusions with both nodular gypsum and host materials relates to early leakage of the hydrocarbons which were being halt due to the growing and packing

**Keywords:** evaporites, petrography, geochemistry, cap rock potential, miocene, Iraq

More than 70% of the world's giant oilfields in carbonate rocks bear a relationship to evaporites [1]. The association among evaporates, carbonates, and hydrocarbons is more than fortuitous as evaporates constitute less than 2% of the world's

Evaporites form about 50% of the total thickness of the middle Miocene Fat'ha Formation in Iraq [3]. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is the most common type in surface (outcrop) sections, while in subsurface sections, anhydrite (CaSO4) and halite

#### **Chapter 13**
