**2. What happens as we age?**

## **2.1 Getting older- what changes cognitively?**

Being 'older' used to apply to people aged over 50, but in modern times it largely refers to people who are at least past retirement age, which would be between 65 and 70 in most countries, right up to 100+. It is possible now to find large numbers of people aged over 80 who are highly active. However increasing longevity brings not only more fit older people, it also means more older people with limitations and disabilities and more people generally with low levels of computer literacy [1].

Some things do deteriorate with age, including many cognitive functions, for example memory and retention, but also some skills such as navigation and situational awareness. Response times, such as reaction times in the event of an emergency also slow with age, even more so when there are multiple demands on attention and attention-switching and/or distractors (for example see [2]).

### *2.1.1 Cognitive age-related declines and gains*

Between the ages 20–80, there is a decade-by-decade reduction in processing speeds, working memory, cued and free recall: these are real reductions in every decade, although a steeper decline between 70 and 80 [3].

There are also age-related gains:


#### *2.1.2 Distracters and slower processing*

There is ample research showing the distraction of cellphones causing a deterioration in driving performance in terms of reduced ability to react and respond; whilst this occurs at all ages, it can be a particular problem for older people because it involves switching attention [7]. We also know that visual field declines with age but this is not universal by any means [8]: we cannot assume that all older people necessarily have poor eyesight, and transport or other policies reflecting this that restrict driving privileges for older people have no scientific foundation- in other words, restrict drivers if you wish by testing visual field, but do not do it by age. Decline in situation awareness relates to shrinkage in the field of view but not to cognitive decline: these constitute an issue in perception of travel-related information but mean that training to improve situation awareness may have some real value.

The findings of slower processing, working memory and attention-switching declines, are clear but there is huge variability for all of these: reasons might include health status and fitness being huge positive indicators for self-efficacy

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detail.

*Attitudes and Behaviours in Relation to New Technology in Transport and the Take-Up…*

and achievement for older people whereas stress levels have negative impacts etc.. Not only that, but pathological age-related changes (such as Alzheimers') can be undiagnosed for up to 10 years, so not only might abilities decline with age, but also there will be declines associated with diseases of which the individual is unaware; for example perceived difficulty in using everyday technology increases in people with mild cognitive impairment [but may be attributed simply to just 'getting

Older people displaying lower levels of cognitive skills may actually be due to mechanisms that were present earlier in life that generate *life-long* differences rather than due to ageing, for example due to less-enriched environments; indeed, research on the brain's plasticity implies that changes continue throughout life and thus the option to enrich the environment to facilitate positive changes at any age point presents a distinct possibility [11], such as improving 'situation awareness' by

From this, an unwillingness to engage with new technology may be a life-long issue but at the same time it is not too late to change, albeit with much training and support. In terms of transport and developments of travel 'apps', many older people may have relatively little experience of journeys, some may have travelled only by plane to a holiday resort and little else by way of organized or unorganized travel (see [12] showing for example lower bus use than planes) and so an 'app' to help

Other psychological mechanisms that decline with age include situation awareness as mentioned above, navigating skills, episodic and autobiographical memory, etc. [13–15]. Losses of episodic memory involve the link between an image [venue] and its name being lost, but better signage linking a name to a picture can help in this situation, and could be adapted to be possible with wearable devices, which could also help those with early dementia be able to travel without worrying about knowing where they need to be. There are many 'visual' or 'conceptual' maps that show imagery linked to names; for example as early as 1968, Fisher developed a 'conceptual map' of Newcastle upon Tyne, using image-name links plus perspective to enable travellers to negotiate the city centre [16]. Sustrans maps showing cycle routes utilize a similar approach. To be amenable to older travellers with memory loss, this approach could be developed for a touch screen with increasing levels of

Performance of tasks can be impaired or counteracted, enhanced or neutrally effected by age [17]. Older people may learn how to counteract any inability to perform a task or their experience or knowledge might actually enhance what they are doing- examples include driving different routes to avoid difficult situations, driving more slowly to compensate for perceived slower response times, or driving in daylight only, or to avoid glare, or using familiar routes [18, 19]. Age-impaired tasks are not only those that rely on complex switching of attention or speed of response, they may also be impaired by high levels of emotion or stress [such as frustration of being late], both of which directly affect memory. An age-impaired task may be one at a forced pace, whereas an age-counteracted one would be where the older person, aware they may be slower, works at their own pace. Inhibitory responses are less efficient with age so it becomes more difficult to access relevant information and delete old information from our processing; again, many people

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94963*

using driving simulators.

older'] and accentuates in mild-stage dementia [9, 10].

with trip-planning may make little or no sense to them.

*2.1.3 Other psychological mechanisms that decline*

*2.1.4 Age-impaired task performance*

### *Attitudes and Behaviours in Relation to New Technology in Transport and the Take-Up… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94963*

and achievement for older people whereas stress levels have negative impacts etc.. Not only that, but pathological age-related changes (such as Alzheimers') can be undiagnosed for up to 10 years, so not only might abilities decline with age, but also there will be declines associated with diseases of which the individual is unaware; for example perceived difficulty in using everyday technology increases in people with mild cognitive impairment [but may be attributed simply to just 'getting older'] and accentuates in mild-stage dementia [9, 10].

Older people displaying lower levels of cognitive skills may actually be due to mechanisms that were present earlier in life that generate *life-long* differences rather than due to ageing, for example due to less-enriched environments; indeed, research on the brain's plasticity implies that changes continue throughout life and thus the option to enrich the environment to facilitate positive changes at any age point presents a distinct possibility [11], such as improving 'situation awareness' by using driving simulators.

From this, an unwillingness to engage with new technology may be a life-long issue but at the same time it is not too late to change, albeit with much training and support. In terms of transport and developments of travel 'apps', many older people may have relatively little experience of journeys, some may have travelled only by plane to a holiday resort and little else by way of organized or unorganized travel (see [12] showing for example lower bus use than planes) and so an 'app' to help with trip-planning may make little or no sense to them.
