**Author details**

Amin Shaban National Council for Scientific Research, Beirut, Lebanon

\*Address all correspondence to: geoamin@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**References**

229 pp.

[1] Shaban, A. Water Resources of Lebanon. Springer Science Publisher. 2020. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-48717-1.

NY. 2017. DOI:10.1007/978-3-

[3] Schumm, S. The elevation of drainage systems and slopes in badlands at Perth Amboy, New Jersey. Geol.

Soc. Amer. Bull., Vol. 67. 1956.

[4] Horton E. Drainage-basin characteristics. Trans. American Geophysical Union. 1932;**13**:350-361

[5] Pike, R., Wilson, S. Elevation-relief ratio. Hypsometric Integral and Geomorphic Area-Altitude Analysis." GSA Bull. 1971. 82: 1079-1084.

[6] Al Saud, Mashael.. Use of Remote Sensing and GIS to Analyze Drainage System in Flood Occurrence, Jeddah - Western Saudi Coast (Chapter in Book entitled: Drainage Systems. InTech Open Science. Croatia. 2012. 139-164pp.

[7] Raven, P., Holmes, N., Naura, M., Dawson, F. Using river habitat survey for environmental assessment and catchment planning in the U.K.

Hydrobioloigia. 2000. Vol. 422(0):359–

[8] Morisawa, M. Geomorphology Laboratory Manual, John Wiley & Sons

[9] Shaban, A., Bou Kheir, R; Khawlie, M., Froidefond, J, Girard, M-C. Caractérisation des facteurs morphométriques des réseaux hydrographiques correspondant aux capacités d'infiltrations des roches au Liban occidental. Zeitschrift fur

Inc. N.Y. 1976. pp.1-253.

ISBN13: 978-953-51-0243-4.

367.

**91**

030-48717-1. p 150.

pp. 597-646.

[2] Shaban, A., Hamzé, M. Shared water resources of Lebanon, Nova Publishing,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94152*

*Rivers of Lebanon: Significant Water Resources under Threats*

Geimorphologie. 2004. Vol. 48/1, pp

[10] Horton R. Erosional developments of streams and their drainage basins:

quantitative morphology. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 1845;**56**:

[11] Smith K. Standards for grading texture of erosional topography. American Journal of Science. 1950;**248**:

[12] TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Mapping Mission). Rainfall archives. NASA. 2015. <http:// disc2.nascom.nasa.gov/ Giovanni/tovas/TRMM\_V6.3B42.2.sh

[13] CHIRPS (Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data). 2017. Available at: http://chg.geog

[14] NOAA (National Oceanographic Data Center). Lebanon Climatological Data. Library. 2013. Available at: http:// docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/data\_rescue\_

[15] LRA (Litani River Authority). Rivers discharge records database.2017.

Anthropogenic Challenges of Water Resources in Lebanon. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports. 2014.

[17] Shaban, A., Hamzé, M. The Litani River, Lebanon: An Assessment and Current challenges. Springer

International Publisher. 2018. 179 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-76300-2.

[18] Nehme, N., Haidar, C. The Physical,

Characteristics of Litani River Water.

.ucsb.edu/data/chirps/

lebanon.html

Unpublished Report.

[16] Shaban, A. Physical and

Vol.3 Issue 3. 2014. 164-179.

and Chemical and Microbial

Hydro-physical approach to

79-94.

275-370

655-668

tml>

*Rivers of Lebanon: Significant Water Resources under Threats DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94152*

## **References**

[1] Shaban, A. Water Resources of Lebanon. Springer Science Publisher. 2020. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-48717-1. 229 pp.

[2] Shaban, A., Hamzé, M. Shared water resources of Lebanon, Nova Publishing, NY. 2017. DOI:10.1007/978-3- 030-48717-1. p 150.

[3] Schumm, S. The elevation of drainage systems and slopes in badlands at Perth Amboy, New Jersey. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., Vol. 67. 1956. pp. 597-646.

[4] Horton E. Drainage-basin characteristics. Trans. American Geophysical Union. 1932;**13**:350-361

[5] Pike, R., Wilson, S. Elevation-relief ratio. Hypsometric Integral and Geomorphic Area-Altitude Analysis." GSA Bull. 1971. 82: 1079-1084.

[6] Al Saud, Mashael.. Use of Remote Sensing and GIS to Analyze Drainage System in Flood Occurrence, Jeddah - Western Saudi Coast (Chapter in Book entitled: Drainage Systems. InTech Open Science. Croatia. 2012. 139-164pp. ISBN13: 978-953-51-0243-4.

[7] Raven, P., Holmes, N., Naura, M., Dawson, F. Using river habitat survey for environmental assessment and catchment planning in the U.K. Hydrobioloigia. 2000. Vol. 422(0):359– 367.

[8] Morisawa, M. Geomorphology Laboratory Manual, John Wiley & Sons Inc. N.Y. 1976. pp.1-253.

[9] Shaban, A., Bou Kheir, R; Khawlie, M., Froidefond, J, Girard, M-C. Caractérisation des facteurs morphométriques des réseaux hydrographiques correspondant aux capacités d'infiltrations des roches au Liban occidental. Zeitschrift fur

Geimorphologie. 2004. Vol. 48/1, pp 79-94.

[10] Horton R. Erosional developments of streams and their drainage basins: Hydro-physical approach to quantitative morphology. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 1845;**56**: 275-370

[11] Smith K. Standards for grading texture of erosional topography. American Journal of Science. 1950;**248**: 655-668

[12] TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Mapping Mission). Rainfall archives. NASA. 2015. <http:// disc2.nascom.nasa.gov/ Giovanni/tovas/TRMM\_V6.3B42.2.sh tml>

[13] CHIRPS (Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data). 2017. Available at: http://chg.geog .ucsb.edu/data/chirps/

[14] NOAA (National Oceanographic Data Center). Lebanon Climatological Data. Library. 2013. Available at: http:// docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/data\_rescue\_ lebanon.html

[15] LRA (Litani River Authority). Rivers discharge records database.2017. Unpublished Report.

[16] Shaban, A. Physical and Anthropogenic Challenges of Water Resources in Lebanon. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports. 2014. Vol.3 Issue 3. 2014. 164-179.

[17] Shaban, A., Hamzé, M. The Litani River, Lebanon: An Assessment and Current challenges. Springer International Publisher. 2018. 179 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-76300-2.

[18] Nehme, N., Haidar, C. The Physical, and Chemical and Microbial Characteristics of Litani River Water.

**Author details**

National Council for Scientific Research, Beirut, Lebanon

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: geoamin@gmail.com

provided the original work is properly cited.

Amin Shaban

*Hydrology*

**90**

Chapter in Book entitled: The Litani River, Lebanon: An Assessment and Current challenges. 2018. Springer. 179 p.

[19] Fadel A, Atoui A, Lemaire BJ, Vinçon-Leite B, Slim K. Environmental factors associated with phytoplankton succession in a Mediterranean reservoir with a highly fluctuating water level. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2015;**187**:633 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015- 4852-4

[20] Fadel, A., Faour, G., Slim, K., 2016. Assessment of The trophic state and Chlorophyll-a concentrations using Landsat OLI in Karaoun reservoir , Lebanon. Leban. Sci. Journal, 17, 130– 145. 2016. https://doi.org/10.22453/LSJ-017.2.130145

[21] Fadel, A. , Slim, K. Evaluation of the Physicochemical and Environmental Status of Qaraaoun Reservoir. Chapter in Book entitled: The Litani River, Lebanon: An Assessment and Current challenges. 2018. Springer. 179 p.

[22] Darwich T, Atallah T, Baydoun S, Jomaa I, Kassem M. Environmental risk of nitrate accumulation in the soilgroundwater system in Central Bekaa Valley, Lebanon. 2014. International Conference on: The Water-Food-Energy-Climate Nexus in Global Drylands, Rabat, Morocco, 12-13 June 2014.

[23] CPA (Consumer Protection Association). Analysis of water quality in bottled water of Lebanon. 2018. Unpublished Report. 7 pp.

**93**

**Chapter 7**

Subcontinent

*Rajendra K. Trivedi*

primary isotopic variables (δ

function, skewness, kurtosis

**1. Introduction**

**Abstract**

Statistical Analysis of the

Precipitation Isotope Data

*Supriyo Chakraborty, Siddharth Birmal,* 

*Aravind G.H., PM. Mohan, Neha Trivedi and* 

with Reference to the Indian

*Pramit Kumar Deb Burman, Amey Datye, Fousiya A.A.,* 

The isotopic analysis of precipitation provides useful information on a variety of hydrological and atmospheric processes. The dynamical characteristics of precipitation isotopes have been well investigated, but a systematic study of their statistical behavior seems to be lacking. We have performed the statistical analysis, basically the distribution characteristics of precipitation isotopes vis-a-vis rainfall data for specific regions. The probability distribution functions of precipitation isotopes have been calculated from local to global scales. It has been observed that the isotopic values, in general, followed a pattern that is similar to the normal distribution, though the rainfall distribution patterns are very different. Under certain circumstances, the isotopic distribution patterns closely resemble the normal distribution, implying a well-constrained moisture source contributing to precipitation. The distribution patterns of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes on continental and global scales show similar behavior. It was observed that the distribution patterns of

the contrary, the secondary parameter, d-excess, is very sensitive to outliers, which offers an effective means to quality control of the precipitation isotopic values.

Systematic collection and analysis of the isotopic content of precipitation across the globe have been carried out under the GNIP (Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation) framework to study the temporal and spatial variabilities of the environmental stable isotopes. A large number of precipitation isotope data, mostly on a monthly timescale, is available with GNIP. Various investigators have used the data in understanding a variety of atmospheric and hydrological processes [1–8]. Specific statistical techniques have also been proposed to interpret the data [9, 10]. But one

**Keywords:** precipitation isotopes, Indian monsoon, probability distribution

18O and δD) are not very sensitive to the outliers. On

## **Chapter 7**

Chapter in Book entitled: The Litani River, Lebanon: An Assessment and Current challenges. 2018. Springer. 179 p.

[19] Fadel A, Atoui A, Lemaire BJ, Vinçon-Leite B, Slim K. Environmental factors associated with phytoplankton succession in a Mediterranean reservoir with a highly fluctuating water level. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2015;**187**:633 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-

[20] Fadel, A., Faour, G., Slim, K., 2016. Assessment of The trophic state and Chlorophyll-a concentrations using Landsat OLI in Karaoun reservoir , Lebanon. Leban. Sci. Journal, 17, 130– 145. 2016. https://doi.org/10.22453/LSJ-

[21] Fadel, A. , Slim, K. Evaluation of the Physicochemical and Environmental Status of Qaraaoun Reservoir. Chapter in Book entitled: The Litani River, Lebanon: An Assessment and Current challenges. 2018. Springer. 179 p.

[22] Darwich T, Atallah T, Baydoun S, Jomaa I, Kassem M. Environmental risk of nitrate accumulation in the soilgroundwater system in Central Bekaa Valley, Lebanon. 2014. International

Food-Energy-Climate Nexus in Global Drylands, Rabat, Morocco, 12-13

Conference on: The Water-

[23] CPA (Consumer Protection Association). Analysis of water quality in bottled water of Lebanon. 2018.

Unpublished Report. 7 pp.

June 2014.

**92**

4852-4

*Hydrology*

017.2.130145
