Interlinking of River: Issues and Challenges

*Pawan Jeet, Alok Kumar and Prem K. Sundaram*

### **Abstract**

Climate change events cause erratic spatial and temporal variability in rainfall, temperature, humidity, etc. in long term, and are most severely affecting irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply. At the same time, water availability is also under pressure due to climate change and overexploitation of water resources. In a monsoonal climate that is already erratic and highly seasonal in nature, this increased variability due to climate change will further impact water availability and salt water intrusion. To overcome such problems, one of the most effective ways is interlinking of rivers. It is the interbasin water transfer from the water surplus rivers to water deficit rivers or regions. It will increase water supply, irrigation potential, mitigate floods, and droughts and reduce regional imbalance in the availability of water. Interlinking of rivers will reduce regional imbalances significantly and provide benefits by the way of additional irrigation potential, domestic and industrial water supply, hydropower generation, and transport facilities.

**Keywords:** rainfall, river interlinking, surface water, groundwater, droughts, floods

#### **1. Introduction**

The rainfall occurrence in India is mainly due to orographic effect, coupled with tropical depressions originating in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. It accounts for about 85% of the total rainfall in the country. The uncertainty in rainfall occurrence is a serious problem for the country marked by extended dry spells and fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall pattern. Most parts of the country are facing deficit rainfall trend and are subjected to large variations resulting in frequent droughts and floods conditions. Floods cause immense hardship to the population and enormous loss to the country. In the summer seasons as the rivers dry up and the ground water level goes down, the water availability for agricultural, industrial and drinking purposes becomes critical. While, some parts of the country do not have enough water even for raising a single crop due to regional rainfall alteration, on the other hand, surplus rainfall occurs in some parts of the country causing floods or waterlogged situation.

Irrigation has been the prime factor for increasing the food grain production in India from a mere 50 million tons in 1950s to more than 291 million tons in 2019–2020. In 1950–1951, the canal irrigated area was 8.3 million hectares while in 2013–2014 at 17 million hectares. Despite that, the relative importance of canals has fallen from 40% in 1951 to 26% in 2010–2011. On the other hand, in 1950–1951, the well and tube well accounted for 29% of gross irrigated area and they share 64% of the gross irrigated area in 2012–2013. Irrigated area has increased from 22 million

hectares to 66 million hectares in the year 2012–2013 [1]. The population of India, which is around 1.2 billion at present, is expected to increase to 1.5 to 1.8 billion in the year 2050 and that would require about 450 million tons of food grains. The irrigation potential has to be increased to 160 million hectares for all crops for meeting food requirements by 2050. Through conventional sources, the maximum irrigation potential that could be created is about 140 million hectares. Other strategies shall have to be evolved for attaining a potential of 160 million hectares.

The Brahmaputra and Ganga rivers are the main Indian rivers in which almost 60 per cent of the Indian river drain. They also cause recurring floods and hence damages. Flood damages, which were Rs. 520 million in 1953, have gone up to Rs. 957.36 billion in 2018 mostly affecting the States of Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal along with loss of lives. In other side large areas in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu face recurring droughts with approximately 85% areas of these states falls under drought prone.

One of the most effective means to enlarge the irrigation potential of river command areas is the Inter Basin Water Transfer (IBWT). It refers to the water transfer from water surplus rivers to the water deficit rivers or regions. Brahmaputra and Ganga rivers particularly their northern tributaries, Godavari, Mahanadi and West Flowing rivers originating from the Western Ghats of India are found to be surplus in surface water resources. If storage reservoirs can be built on these rivers and connected to other parts of the country, regional water imbalances could be reduced and many benefits by way of additional irrigation potential created, industrial and domestic water supply, hydropower generation, waterways facilities, etc. would be ensured.

## **2. History behind interlinking of rivers**

The initial plan to interlink India's rivers came in 1858 from a British irrigation engineer, Sir Arthur Thomas Cotton, but the idea of interlinking Indian rivers was revived a few decades ago independently by M. Visveswarayya, K. L. Rao and D. J. Dastur. In 2002, the Supreme Court of India ordered the Indian Government to complete river interlinking project within the next 12–15 years. In response to this order, the Government of India appointed a Task Force and scientists, engineers, ecologists, biologists and policy makers started to deliberate over the technical, economic and eco-friendly feasibility of this gigantic project [2].

Since 2015, Indian Government has implemented river interlinking projects in several segments such as the Godavari-Krishna river interlining in Andhra Pradesh and the Ken-Betwa rivers interlink in Madhya Pradesh. These projects are built with aims that it will enhance annual per capita water availability for increasing population of the country. The Godavari-Krishna rivers interlinking projects also envisions an area more than twice the size of Andhra Pradesh receiving extra water for irrigation and to even out the unwarranted swings between droughts and floods. Yet even as the project moves forward there is a large possibility that it could dislocate nearly 1.5 million countries population due to the flooding of 27.66 lakh hectares of land [3].

#### **3. Proposals for interlinking of rivers (ILR) in India**

#### **3.1 Earlier proposals**

Transferring surplus water available in some regions to water deficit areas have been made suggested through formation of a National Water Grid from time to time. The two such proposals which attracted considerable attention put forth in the 1970s were:

**67**

of 185 MW.

*Interlinking of River: Issues and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93594*

*3.1.1 National Water Grid by Dr. K.L. Rao (1972)*

*3.1.2 Garland Canal by Capt. Dastur (1977)*

estimated cost of the projects was Rs. 24,095 crores.

**3.2 Existing proposals**

• Periyar river project

• Parambikulam Aliyar river project

that the overall cost of the project was about Rs. 12,500 crores.

In 1972, Dr. K.L. Rao presents a 2640 km long Ganga—Cauvery river interlinking project. Its major component includes a large scale pumping of water over a head of 550 m. The power requirement for water lifting from the head was estimated to be 5000–7000 MW, used for irrigating an additional culturable area of 4 million hectares. This project had not any flood control benefits. It had estimated

In 1977, Capt. Dastur presented a proposal for construction of two canals in Himalayan regions of India. The first proposed canal was 4200 km long Himalayan Canal run along the foothills of the Himalayas from the Ravi river to the Brahmaputra river near Chittagong. The second proposed canal is 9300 km long Garland Canal covering the Central Deccan and Southern Plateau region of the country. Both of the canals integrated with numerous lakes/reservoirs and interconnected with water pipelines at two points such as Delhi and Patna. The total

Many large scale water transfer projects have been planned and few of them implemented and constructed as a landmark for the overall development of the water scarce regions. A few successfully implemented projects are briefly explained here.

The project was started in 1895 with the aim to provide irrigation facility to water deficit Vaigai river basin. This river project is one of the most outstanding endeavors of the nineteenth century in trans-basin diversion. The project envisages the transfer of water from Periyar river basin to Vaigai river basin. A masonry gravity dam at Periyar river has been constructed across a gorge on west flowing. Its height is about 47.28 m. A 1740 m long tunnel across the mountain with a discharge capacity of 40.75 cumecs has been driven to supply the water to Vaigai river basin. Initially, it provided irrigation to 57,923 ha culturable land, which has been extended to 81,069 ha. There is also a hydropower station of 140 MW capacities.

It is an interstate multipurpose project completed in late 1960s and functioning based on an agreement between the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Nine dams and two weirs had been constructed and their reservoirs interlinked by tunnels. The project envisages transfer of water from Chelakudi basin to Bharatapuzha and Cauvery basins. This project transfer water from the basins of three west flowing rivers originating from the western ghats of India along the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border such as Bharathapuzha Chalakkudipuzha Periyar river. These rivers are mainly dependent on the southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon rainfall. The water released to the east is mainly used for irrigation purpose. The water is being delivered to drought prone areas in Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu and the Chittur area of Kerala states. The gross command area for irrigation is about 1,62,000 ha. There are four hydropower stations with an overall capacity

*Interlinking of River: Issues and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93594*

*Hydrology*

hectares to 66 million hectares in the year 2012–2013 [1]. The population of India, which is around 1.2 billion at present, is expected to increase to 1.5 to 1.8 billion in the year 2050 and that would require about 450 million tons of food grains. The irrigation potential has to be increased to 160 million hectares for all crops for meeting food requirements by 2050. Through conventional sources, the maximum irrigation potential that could be created is about 140 million hectares. Other strategies shall

The Brahmaputra and Ganga rivers are the main Indian rivers in which almost 60 per cent of the Indian river drain. They also cause recurring floods and hence damages. Flood damages, which were Rs. 520 million in 1953, have gone up to Rs. 957.36 billion in 2018 mostly affecting the States of Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal along with loss of lives. In other side large areas in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu face recurring droughts

One of the most effective means to enlarge the irrigation potential of river command areas is the Inter Basin Water Transfer (IBWT). It refers to the water transfer from water surplus rivers to the water deficit rivers or regions. Brahmaputra and Ganga rivers particularly their northern tributaries, Godavari, Mahanadi and West Flowing rivers originating from the Western Ghats of India are found to be surplus in surface water resources. If storage reservoirs can be built on these rivers and connected to other parts of the country, regional water imbalances could be reduced and many benefits by way of additional irrigation potential created, industrial and domestic water supply, hydropower generation, waterways facilities, etc. would be ensured.

The initial plan to interlink India's rivers came in 1858 from a British irrigation engineer, Sir Arthur Thomas Cotton, but the idea of interlinking Indian rivers was revived a few decades ago independently by M. Visveswarayya, K. L. Rao and D. J. Dastur. In 2002, the Supreme Court of India ordered the Indian Government to complete river interlinking project within the next 12–15 years. In response to this order, the Government of India appointed a Task Force and scientists, engineers, ecologists, biologists and policy makers started to deliberate over the technical,

Since 2015, Indian Government has implemented river interlinking projects in several segments such as the Godavari-Krishna river interlining in Andhra Pradesh and the Ken-Betwa rivers interlink in Madhya Pradesh. These projects are built with aims that it will enhance annual per capita water availability for increasing population of the country. The Godavari-Krishna rivers interlinking projects also envisions an area more than twice the size of Andhra Pradesh receiving extra water for irrigation and to even out the unwarranted swings between droughts and floods. Yet even as the project moves forward there is a large possibility that it could dislocate nearly 1.5 million countries population due to the flooding of 27.66 lakh hectares of land [3].

Transferring surplus water available in some regions to water deficit areas have been made suggested through formation of a National Water Grid from time to time. The two such proposals which attracted considerable attention put forth in the 1970s were:

economic and eco-friendly feasibility of this gigantic project [2].

**3. Proposals for interlinking of rivers (ILR) in India**

have to be evolved for attaining a potential of 160 million hectares.

with approximately 85% areas of these states falls under drought prone.

**2. History behind interlinking of rivers**

**66**

**3.1 Earlier proposals**

*3.1.1 National Water Grid by Dr. K.L. Rao (1972)*

In 1972, Dr. K.L. Rao presents a 2640 km long Ganga—Cauvery river interlinking project. Its major component includes a large scale pumping of water over a head of 550 m. The power requirement for water lifting from the head was estimated to be 5000–7000 MW, used for irrigating an additional culturable area of 4 million hectares. This project had not any flood control benefits. It had estimated that the overall cost of the project was about Rs. 12,500 crores.

#### *3.1.2 Garland Canal by Capt. Dastur (1977)*

In 1977, Capt. Dastur presented a proposal for construction of two canals in Himalayan regions of India. The first proposed canal was 4200 km long Himalayan Canal run along the foothills of the Himalayas from the Ravi river to the Brahmaputra river near Chittagong. The second proposed canal is 9300 km long Garland Canal covering the Central Deccan and Southern Plateau region of the country. Both of the canals integrated with numerous lakes/reservoirs and interconnected with water pipelines at two points such as Delhi and Patna. The total estimated cost of the projects was Rs. 24,095 crores.

#### **3.2 Existing proposals**

Many large scale water transfer projects have been planned and few of them implemented and constructed as a landmark for the overall development of the water scarce regions. A few successfully implemented projects are briefly explained here.

• Periyar river project

The project was started in 1895 with the aim to provide irrigation facility to water deficit Vaigai river basin. This river project is one of the most outstanding endeavors of the nineteenth century in trans-basin diversion. The project envisages the transfer of water from Periyar river basin to Vaigai river basin. A masonry gravity dam at Periyar river has been constructed across a gorge on west flowing. Its height is about 47.28 m. A 1740 m long tunnel across the mountain with a discharge capacity of 40.75 cumecs has been driven to supply the water to Vaigai river basin. Initially, it provided irrigation to 57,923 ha culturable land, which has been extended to 81,069 ha. There is also a hydropower station of 140 MW capacities.

• Parambikulam Aliyar river project

It is an interstate multipurpose project completed in late 1960s and functioning based on an agreement between the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Nine dams and two weirs had been constructed and their reservoirs interlinked by tunnels. The project envisages transfer of water from Chelakudi basin to Bharatapuzha and Cauvery basins. This project transfer water from the basins of three west flowing rivers originating from the western ghats of India along the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border such as Bharathapuzha Chalakkudipuzha Periyar river. These rivers are mainly dependent on the southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon rainfall. The water released to the east is mainly used for irrigation purpose. The water is being delivered to drought prone areas in Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu and the Chittur area of Kerala states. The gross command area for irrigation is about 1,62,000 ha. There are four hydropower stations with an overall capacity of 185 MW.

• Kurnool Cudappah Canal project

A private company started this scheme in 1863. The project envisages transfer of water from Krishna basin to Pennar basin.

It takes off from right flank of Anicut constructed across Tungabhadra River near Sunkesula Village in Kurnool District. The total length of canal is 306 km i.e. from Sunkesula Anicut up to 235 km in Kurnool district and the remaining length of 71 km in Cuddapah district. The canal has total storage capacity of 84.9 cumecs which extends from Krishna to Pennar basin and irrigates area of about 52,746 ha.

• Telugu Ganga river Project

This project has been implemented primarily to meet the pressing need of water supply to Chennai metropolitan area as well as to irrigate 5.75 lakh acres in drought prone areas of Rayalaseema and uplands of Nellore District in Andhra Pradesh. It brings Krishna water from Srisailam reservoir through an open canal, first to Somasila reservoir in Pennar valley. The scheme consists of 408 km long canal from Srisailam Reservoir to Andhra Pradesh. From Somasila, water is capture to Kandaleru through a 45 km long canal and then to Poondi reservoir in Tamil Nadu through another 200 km long constructed canal. By mutual agreement, 12 TMC of water is to be delivered to Tamil Nadu at the border from Krishna basin. This greatly augments the water supply to Chennai city. The canal also irrigates 2.33 lakh hectares in Andhra Pradesh.

• Ravi-Beas-Sutlej-Indira Gandhi Nahar Project

This project presents an excellent example of the way the big inter basin water transfers initiatives added all round socio-economic improvement with typical enhancement inside the ecological and environmental factors of the vicinity. As per the Indus Water Treaty (1960) water of three eastern rivers viz. Beas, Sutlej and Ravi have been issued to India. As the land to be benefited from this interlinking river project in India, lies mainly to the east and south of these rivers basins, the rivers needed to be interlinked and the water transfer to canal systems for serving large tracts in India. Bhakra garage is the principal water garage on Sutlej river while Pong garage is the principal water garage on Beas river. Bhakra basin system provides irrigation to about 26.3 lakh hectares of new culturable area except stabilization of present irrigation facility to 9 lakh hectares. The gross hydropower generation capacity of Bhakra Nangal Project is 1379 MW. A Pondoh diversion dam is situated 140 km upstream of Pong reservoir on Beas which transfer water from Beas to Bhakra reservoir and generates hydropower of 165 MW. The Beas-Sutlej link is 37.25 km long of which 25.45 km is in tunnel through difficult hard rock formations. The overall discharge potential of the tunnel is 254.70 cumecs. Ranjit Sagar dam is also constructed at Ravi river that gives additional water to Beas and additionally generate a big block of hydropower.

#### **4. Inter Basin water transfers in other countries**

Many large-scale water transfer schemes have been planned and implemented in other countries also.

**69**

*Interlinking of River: Issues and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93594*

• Tagus-Segura transfer project, Spain

• Lesotho highlands water projects, South Africa

• California's State Water Project, United States

Plan etc. for transfer from Canada to USA.

**5. Need for Inter Basin water transfers (IBWT)**

and canals.

diverts 4 km3

Joaquin Valley.

An ambitious plan to link Yangtze river basin in the south with the yellow river basin in the north, construction of the South-north water transfer project (SNWTP) began on 2002. Two third of the country's water is in the south, while half its people and nearly 65% of its agricultural land are in north. The project is set to cost nearly \$80 billion and has necessitated the relocation of 330,000 people. He will transfer 45 billion cubic meter (BCM) of water through 3000 km long tunnels

This project was completed in 1978 that connects four river basins Tagus, Jucar, Segura and Guadiana, to irrigate 1.7 lakh hectares and provide water to 76 municipalities in south eastern Spain. The project has resulted in reduced in flows in Tagus.

This project was started in 1950 and completed in 1986 by South Africa and its neighbor Lesotho, the project involves transferring water from the upper reaches of the Orange river in Lesotho to the Vaal river in south Africa, and also generate hydel power. This project transferred 750 million cubic meter water (MCM) annually.

The 1st phase of the project was completed in the year 1973. The California State Water Project is a water storage and delivery system of reservoirs, aqueducts, power plants and pumping plants. The major purpose of the project was water supply. It

and southern parts. The conveyance system consists of 715 km long aqueduct, a complex system of lined and unlined canals, siphons, tunnels and pumping stations, etc. The water also irrigates about 750,000 acres of farmland, mainly in the San

Similarly, importantly major under construction and existing inter basin water diverted in Canada include Kemano, Churchill Diversion, Well and Canal, Bay d' Espoir, James Bay, Churchill Falls, etc. Proposed river inter basin transfers in Canada include Long Lake, Ogoki (for transfer within Canada) and North American Water and Power Alliance (NAWAPA), Canadian Water, Grand Canal Concept, Central North American Water Project (CNAWP), Magnum Plan, Smith

Inter Basin Water Transfers is necessarily required to overcome the water scarcity situations in the regions/basins. These are needed to enhance water utility and

• Large variation in rainfall and available water resources in space and time

• Diversion of water from water surplus basins to water deficit basins/regions

• Use of the surplus water which is otherwise flowing into the sea unutilized

• To mitigate likely adverse impact of climate change, short term and long term

reduce water wastage of water surplus areas in the following manner:

of water from excess watered northern California to the drier central

• South-north water transfer project, China

#### *Interlinking of River: Issues and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93594*

*Hydrology*

• Kurnool Cudappah Canal project

water from Krishna basin to Pennar basin.

• Telugu Ganga river Project

hectares in Andhra Pradesh.

• Ravi-Beas-Sutlej-Indira Gandhi Nahar Project

**4. Inter Basin water transfers in other countries**

• South-north water transfer project, China

A private company started this scheme in 1863. The project envisages transfer of

This project has been implemented primarily to meet the pressing need of water supply to Chennai metropolitan area as well as to irrigate 5.75 lakh acres in drought prone areas of Rayalaseema and uplands of Nellore District in Andhra Pradesh. It brings Krishna water from Srisailam reservoir through an open canal, first to Somasila reservoir in Pennar valley. The scheme consists of 408 km long canal from Srisailam Reservoir to Andhra Pradesh. From Somasila, water is capture to Kandaleru through a 45 km long canal and then to Poondi reservoir in Tamil Nadu through another 200 km long constructed canal. By mutual agreement, 12 TMC of water is to be delivered to Tamil Nadu at the border from Krishna basin. This greatly augments the water supply to Chennai city. The canal also irrigates 2.33 lakh

This project presents an excellent example of the way the big inter basin water transfers initiatives added all round socio-economic improvement with typical enhancement inside the ecological and environmental factors of the vicinity. As per the Indus Water Treaty (1960) water of three eastern rivers viz. Beas, Sutlej and Ravi have been issued to India. As the land to be benefited from this interlinking river project in India, lies mainly to the east and south of these rivers basins, the rivers needed to be interlinked and the water transfer to canal systems for serving large tracts in India. Bhakra garage is the principal water garage on Sutlej river while Pong garage is the principal water garage on Beas river. Bhakra basin system provides irrigation to about 26.3 lakh hectares of new culturable area except stabilization of present irrigation facility to 9 lakh hectares. The gross hydropower generation capacity of Bhakra Nangal Project is 1379 MW. A Pondoh diversion dam is situated 140 km upstream of Pong reservoir on Beas which transfer water from Beas to Bhakra reservoir and generates hydropower of 165 MW. The Beas-Sutlej link is 37.25 km long of which 25.45 km is in tunnel through difficult hard rock formations. The overall discharge potential of the tunnel is 254.70 cumecs. Ranjit Sagar dam is also constructed at Ravi river that gives additional water to Beas and additionally generate a big block of

Many large-scale water transfer schemes have been planned and implemented in

It takes off from right flank of Anicut constructed across Tungabhadra River near Sunkesula Village in Kurnool District. The total length of canal is 306 km i.e. from Sunkesula Anicut up to 235 km in Kurnool district and the remaining length of 71 km in Cuddapah district. The canal has total storage capacity of 84.9 cumecs which extends from Krishna to Pennar basin and irrigates area of about 52,746 ha.

**68**

hydropower.

other countries also.

An ambitious plan to link Yangtze river basin in the south with the yellow river basin in the north, construction of the South-north water transfer project (SNWTP) began on 2002. Two third of the country's water is in the south, while half its people and nearly 65% of its agricultural land are in north. The project is set to cost nearly \$80 billion and has necessitated the relocation of 330,000 people. He will transfer 45 billion cubic meter (BCM) of water through 3000 km long tunnels and canals.

• Tagus-Segura transfer project, Spain

This project was completed in 1978 that connects four river basins Tagus, Jucar, Segura and Guadiana, to irrigate 1.7 lakh hectares and provide water to 76 municipalities in south eastern Spain. The project has resulted in reduced in flows in Tagus.

• Lesotho highlands water projects, South Africa

This project was started in 1950 and completed in 1986 by South Africa and its neighbor Lesotho, the project involves transferring water from the upper reaches of the Orange river in Lesotho to the Vaal river in south Africa, and also generate hydel power. This project transferred 750 million cubic meter water (MCM) annually.

• California's State Water Project, United States

The 1st phase of the project was completed in the year 1973. The California State Water Project is a water storage and delivery system of reservoirs, aqueducts, power plants and pumping plants. The major purpose of the project was water supply. It diverts 4 km3 of water from excess watered northern California to the drier central and southern parts. The conveyance system consists of 715 km long aqueduct, a complex system of lined and unlined canals, siphons, tunnels and pumping stations, etc. The water also irrigates about 750,000 acres of farmland, mainly in the San Joaquin Valley.

Similarly, importantly major under construction and existing inter basin water diverted in Canada include Kemano, Churchill Diversion, Well and Canal, Bay d' Espoir, James Bay, Churchill Falls, etc. Proposed river inter basin transfers in Canada include Long Lake, Ogoki (for transfer within Canada) and North American Water and Power Alliance (NAWAPA), Canadian Water, Grand Canal Concept, Central North American Water Project (CNAWP), Magnum Plan, Smith Plan etc. for transfer from Canada to USA.
