**Appendix**

*Hydrology*

more precise [105–108].

**9. Conclusions**

Modern technologies such as advanced weather balloons, radars, satellites, and mathematical and numerical models have allowed to mitigate the impact of weather-related disasters on human beings and environment. In addition, innovative hydrometeorological devices and synoptic stations have provided concrete

Despite these advances, the complexity of climate requires the development of more accurate models and instruments to manage the natural disasters more efficiently [9]. Overall, the future of the science of meteorology and hydrometeorology relies on new sophisticated instruments and prediction models, which enhance our ability to forecast weather and mitigate related hazards [9]. Having said that, the fourth industrial revolution (IR 4.0) may help the science of hydrometeorology by developing microchips, microcontrollers and more accurate sensors (i.e., multi-

Today, hydrometeorologists take advantage of satellite data at different spatial and temporal scales [100, 101]. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) approaches can use long-term remotely sensed data from satellites to improve weather prediction and climate modeling capabilities [102–104]. Also, the advancement in Internet of Things (IoT) will make real-time data observations

This study provides a thorough review of the historical evolution of the science of hydrometeorology and its significant milestones from past civilizations to contemporary times. Hence, it can expand our knowledge of the advances in hydrometeorology through different centuries. In the past civilizations, the first steps were taken to understand weather changes. Today, the availability of robust numerical models, remote sensing data, and high computational capabilities have allowed humankind to predict meteorological and climatological events. Five major periods are considered in this study: 1) the prehistoric, 2) the archaic and medieval, 3) the early and mid-modern, 4) the modern, and finally 5) the contemporary periods.

The theocratic explanation of meteorology was dominant until the 7th century BC. In the prehistoric period, weather was unpredictable. Also, religion, folklore, tradition, culture, and beliefs were the main elements for studying hydrometeorology. In the late Archaic times, the Ionian philosophers explained hydrometeorological processes for the first time. Beginning in the historical period, Anaxagoras (*ca* 500–428 BC) used the ideas of the Ionian philosophers to develop rain gauge instruments in Athens. Also, in this period, the first evidence of measuring rainwater was seen in Greece and India. Later, Plato (*ca* 428–348 BC) developed the concept of the hydrological cycle in his academy in Athens. In the early Hellenistic times, Theophrastus of Eresos (*ca* 371–287 BC) wrote the book *Signs De Signis Tempestatum*,

From 27 BC to 200 AD, Pomponius Mela, the Roman Emperor in Spain, worked on geographical maps and divided the earth into five climate zones. Investigating weather and atmospheric phenomena was almost stopped from the end of the Roman period to the Middle Ages of the Renaissance. However, there were considerable attempts from *ca* 1400 to 1900 AD to monitor hydrometeors and forecast weather by meteorological instruments, which were invented during this period. From 1950 until present, theoretical approaches and mathematical analyses have

been extensively used in the science of hydrometeorology. Sophisticated instruments have been developed to measure hydrometeorological variables. Computers

The key advancements and achievements in each period are presented.

which was the first weather forecasting manual.

weather data to further lessen the effect of extreme weather events.

sensor meteorology) that can be utilized in weather sites [94–99].

**14**


**17**

*Hydrometeorology: Review of Past, Present and Future Observation Methods*

*Umidaria*

(1677–1704 AD)

*Ca* 1670 Robert Hooke invented the first mercury glass-thermometer

*Ca* 1687 Isaac Newton (1643–1727) detailed his three laws of motion

point hygrometer

London

1867 Father Secchi invented the first Meteorograph

via telegraph

information

Nations

1880's The Meteorological Society of Japan were formed

Meteorological Society (RMS)

wind shield for rain gauges

hygrometer *Ca* 1667 Robert Hooke invented the anemometer

*Ca* 1643 Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) invented the barometer

*Ca* 1648 Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) invented a barometer based on variations of atmospheric pressure with altitude

*Ca* 1663 Robert Hooke (1635–1703) collaborated with Sir Christopher Wren to

*Ca* 1665 Grand Duke Ferdinand II de' Medici (1610–1670) created the condensation

*Ca* 1675 Horace-Benedict de Saussure (1740–1799) created the first hair hygrometer

*Ca* 1743 Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) realized the northeastward movement of a

*Ca* 1777 David Dobson developed the ideas to measure evaporation and raindrop size

1818 Ernst Ferdinand August (1795–1870) developed ideas to create psychrometer 1820 John Frederic Daniell (1790–1845) invented a new hygrometer, called dew

1850 The British Meteorological Society was established and then renamed to Royal

1860 Meteorological observations were being made routinely by the Met Office in

1861 William Jevons (1835–1882) reduced errors in rainfall measurements using a

1861 The Met Office began reporting weather forecasts for the public in England

1870's Weather observations from 20 stations were transmitted to Washington DC

1870 President Ulysses S. Grant established a weather bureau, which is now called the National Weather Service (NWS) 1870 Alexander Wilson used weather balloons in the UK to collect weather

1873 The International Meteorological Organization was formed. It is now named

1879 George James Symons (1838–1900) expanded Jevons' theory and founded the

1894 Weather kits were used to collect air temperature, pressure, humidity and

1896 Léon Teisserenc de Bort (1855–1913), a French meteorologist, used weather balloons to measure air temperature and humidity

British Rainfall Organization

wind speed at higher altitudes

1898 The Richard brothers of France invented barothermograph

the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and is an entity of the United

*Ca* 1660 Francesco Folli (1624–1685) created a paper-ribbon hygrometer, called *Mostra* 

build the first automatic rain gauge called tipping bucket rain gauge. However, the first measurements of rainfall were done by Richard Towneley

hurricane from eclipse observations at Philadelphia and Boston.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94939*

**Modern times (1800–1900)**

*Ca* 1643 Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) invented the barometer *Ca* 1648 Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) invented a barometer based on variations of atmospheric pressure with altitude *Ca* 1660 Francesco Folli (1624–1685) created a paper-ribbon hygrometer, called *Mostra Umidaria Ca* 1663 Robert Hooke (1635–1703) collaborated with Sir Christopher Wren to build the first automatic rain gauge called tipping bucket rain gauge. However, the first measurements of rainfall were done by Richard Towneley (1677–1704 AD) *Ca* 1665 Grand Duke Ferdinand II de' Medici (1610–1670) created the condensation hygrometer *Ca* 1667 Robert Hooke invented the anemometer *Ca* 1670 Robert Hooke invented the first mercury glass-thermometer *Ca* 1675 Horace-Benedict de Saussure (1740–1799) created the first hair hygrometer *Ca* 1687 Isaac Newton (1643–1727) detailed his three laws of motion *Ca* 1743 Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) realized the northeastward movement of a hurricane from eclipse observations at Philadelphia and Boston. *Ca* 1777 David Dobson developed the ideas to measure evaporation and raindrop size **Modern times (1800–1900)** 1818 Ernst Ferdinand August (1795–1870) developed ideas to create psychrometer 1820 John Frederic Daniell (1790–1845) invented a new hygrometer, called dew point hygrometer 1850 The British Meteorological Society was established and then renamed to Royal Meteorological Society (RMS) 1860 Meteorological observations were being made routinely by the Met Office in London 1861 William Jevons (1835–1882) reduced errors in rainfall measurements using a wind shield for rain gauges 1861 The Met Office began reporting weather forecasts for the public in England 1867 Father Secchi invented the first Meteorograph 1870's Weather observations from 20 stations were transmitted to Washington DC via telegraph 1870 President Ulysses S. Grant established a weather bureau, which is now called the National Weather Service (NWS) 1870 Alexander Wilson used weather balloons in the UK to collect weather information 1873 The International Meteorological Organization was formed. It is now named the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and is an entity of the United Nations 1879 George James Symons (1838–1900) expanded Jevons' theory and founded the British Rainfall Organization 1880's The Meteorological Society of Japan were formed 1894 Weather kits were used to collect air temperature, pressure, humidity and wind speed at higher altitudes 1896 Léon Teisserenc de Bort (1855–1913), a French meteorologist, used weather balloons to measure air temperature and humidity 1898 The Richard brothers of France invented barothermograph

*Hydrometeorology: Review of Past, Present and Future Observation Methods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94939*

*Hydrology*

*Ca* 345 BC Aristotle (*ca* 384–322 BC) founded the Lykeion of Aristotle, also known as the

*Ca* 340 BC Aristotle summarized his meteorological knowledge in his book entitled

*Ca*330 BC Theophrastus of Eresos, Lesbos (*ca* 371–287 BC) Book on *Signs De Signis* 

*Ca*300 BC Theophrastus On Winds (De Ventis) accepted the Presocratic's hypothesis

*Ca*240 BC Eratosthenes (*ca* 276–194 BC) reported that the earth is a globe with the circumference of 40,000 km *Ca*240 BC Philo of Byzantium (*ca* 280–220 BC) invented a device that measured

*Ca*25 AD In Spain, the Pomponius Mela, Roman Emperor introduced the climate zone

*Ca* 60 AD Hero (Heron) of Alexandria (*ca* 10–75 AD) is mostly known as an engineer

*Ca* 70 AD In Rome, Gaius Pliny Secundus (Pliny the Elder) (ca 23/24–79 AD) developed

*Ca* 200 AD In Tunisia, the Quintus Septimus Florens Tertullianus (160–225 AD) ended

*Ca* 380 AD Based on the prophecies of Isaiah and the Epistle to the Ephesians, St. Jerome

*Ca* 400 AD In Algeria, St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo (354–430 AD) whole heartedly supported the diabolical origin of storms.

*Ca* 1000 AD Ibn Wahshiyya translated the book entitled "*Nabataean Agriculture*". The

*Ca* 1247 AD Gauges (made of large bamboo segments) were used to measure precipitation

*Ca* 1328 AD William of Ockham (1285–1347 AD) attempted to advance natural sciences

*Ca* 1300 AD - 1400 AD Air temperature (1400 BC) and rainfall (1216 BC) were recorded in ancient

*Ca* 1442 A simple cylindrical container was used to collect precipitation in Korea

*Ca* 1500 Leonardo Da Vinci (1452–1519) improved the hygrometer, which was developed by Nicholas of Cusa *Ca* 1593 Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) invented a thermometer in Italy

*Ca* 1639 Benedetto Castelli (1578–1643) constructed the first scientific rain gauge in

*Ca* 1450 Leon Battista Alberti invented a flat plate anemometer in Italy

*Ca* 1450 Nicholas of Cusa invented a hygroscopic hygrometer

Italy and Europe

advanced the science of physics

*Ca*250 BC Archimedes (*ca* 287–212 BC) explained the buoyancy principle

*Ca*332 BC Alexandria was founded in a small ancient Egyptian town by Alexander the

*Tempestatum* is considered as the first weather forecasting manual

of wind's origin. He also introduced a basic understanding of atmospheric

the expansion and contraction of air as it warmed up and cooled down,

and designed a basic thermometer. Also, his treatise *Pneumatica* (Pneumatics)

the encyclopedic Natural History, which later became an editorial version for

the observation-based science, and began the "sacred science" based on the

(*ca* 347–420 AD) considered a doctrine of the diabolical origin of storms.

importance of weather forecasting for agriculture was discussed in this book.

and atmospheric physics by improving the quality of observations.

"*Peripatec School*"

*Meteorologica*.

Great

pressure

respectively.

encyclopedias

"authority" of scripture

*Ca* 900 AD Chinese weighted charcoals to measure the air moisture

in China

China

**Early and mid-modern times (***ca* **1400–1800)**

systems

**16**


#### **Table A.***1.*

*Milestones in hydrometeorology in the (1) prehistoric times (ca 3500–750 BC), (2) historical to medieval times (ca 750 BC-1400 AD), (3) early and mid-modern times (ca 1400–1800), (4) modern times (1800–1900), and (5) contemporary times (1900-present).*

**19**

**Author details**

Mohammad Valipour1

Mansour Almazroui3

Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA

CA 91109, USA

*Hydrometeorology: Review of Past, Present and Future Observation Methods*

\*, Sayed M. Bateni1

King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia

\*Address all correspondence to: valipour@hawaii.edu

provided the original work is properly cited.

, Essam Heggy4,5, Zekai Şen3

1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA

3 Center of Excellence for Climate Change Research/Department of Meteorology,

6 HAO-Demeter, Agricultural Research Institution of Crete, 71300, Iraklion, Greece

7 Union of Hellenic Water Supply and Sewerage Operators, 41222, Larissa, Greece

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

2 Department of Civil Engineering, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece

4 Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California,

5 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena,

, Nicolas R. Dalezios2

,

and Andreas N. Angelakis6,7

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94939*

*Hydrometeorology: Review of Past, Present and Future Observation Methods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94939*
