**2. Watersheds of the Lebanese Rivers**

There is remarkable hydrologic feature that characterizes the Lebanese rivers where all of them are almost controlled by the rugged topography, and then distributed within the three geomorphological units of Lebanon (i.e. Mount-Lebanon, Bekaa Plain and the Anti-Lebanon). Hence, Lebanon with its small area represents as a regional hydrologic junction where water flows into three regional directions. These are regional flows: 1) northward to comprise a tributary of the Orates River Flow System, 2) southward forming a major tributary for Jordan River Flow System and 3) eastward where the Lebanese Coastal Rivers System flow to the Mediterra-

Rivers in Lebanon have diverse orientations of distribution on terrain surfaces,

1.Coastal Rivers: These are 10 rivers in Lebanon span along Mount-Lebanon where they have originated from, and then trending from east and discharge in the Mediterranean Sea (**Figure 1**), and then described as "Coastal rivers". These rivers are essentially fed from the snowmelt. The coastal rivers are relatively short where the longest one is El-Awali River which is about 61 km (curved). In addition, these rivers have nearly similar basin characteristics where the channel slope is relatively high and averages at 35–40 m/km, and this makes water flows rapidly between 5- and 10 km/hour in average [2]. This

2. Inner Rivers: Other than the 10 coastal rivers, there are 4 rivers in Lebanon that are characterized by diverse catchment morphometry and hydrology including mainly the flow direction and discharge regime. One of these rivers (i.e. El-Kabir River) is originated from the most northern part of Lebanon and outlets into the Mediterranean Sea (**Figure 1**); another two rivers (i.e. Al-Assi River and Litani River) are originated from the Bekaa Plain where the first one flows northward to Syria and the second flows southward and then diverted

and more specifically they are characterized by different flow directions and

dimensions. Therefore, these rivers can be classified as follows:

in turn results water loss into the sea.

nean Sea [1].

*Hydrology*

**Figure 1.**

**80**

*Rivers of Lebanon [1].*

Elaborating the dimensions and mapping of drainage systems, including the catchment and the streams inside, is usually applied as a primary phase for detailed hydrological analysis and surface water assessment. Therefore, the geometric and morphometric analysis are utmost significant in watershed management to presume, for example, site suitability for surface water accumulation and harvesting, agricultural projects, dams' construction, hydro-power sites, etc.

Drainage systems of Lebanon including rivers were extracted directly from the stereoscopic satellite images (i.e. SRTM DEM) where digital elevation models were generated by magnifying the pixel details, and then slopes were extracted to determine flow directions and then stream delineation. Therefore, the digital extraction of drainage systems enabled calculating a number of geometric and morphometric measurements.

#### **2.1 Geometry of the Lebanese rivers**

Geometric measurements represent the calculations of the variables for the boundary of watershed (or catchment), and this will be totally separated from the properties of the streams (primary or secondary) included in the catchment. In this view, catchments with relatively large areas are usually subdivided into subcatchments, which is dependent of the purpose of study applied.

For Lebanon, the area of rivers catchments is small and averaging about 250 km<sup>2</sup> for the coastal rivers if excluding the Litani River, which is an inner-coastal river. Hence, the largest area belongs to this river (i.e. Litani) and the smallest one belongs to Siniq River (**Figure 1** and **Table 1**).

1.Basin maximum length (B*l*): This represents the maximum straight length of the catchment where it extends almost parallel to the primary watercourse, and it reflects the topographic orientation of a catchment

BL is a function of water arrival time to reach the outlet, and thus it controls the time of leakage, evaporation, and transpiration **Table 1** shows the maximum length of catchments of the Lebanese rivers


$$E\_i = \frac{2\sqrt{A}}{B\sqrt{\pi}}\tag{1}$$


*\* Catchment area within Lebanon.*

*R = River.*

#### **Table 1.**

*Geometric measurements of the Lebanese rivers' catchments [1].*

**Table 1** shows the calculated E*<sup>i</sup>* for the catchments of the Lebanese rivers. According to Schumm [3], E*<sup>i</sup>* is: < 0.5, 0.5–0.7, 0.7–0.8, 0.8–0.9 and 0.9–1 for more elongated, elongated, less elongated, oval and circular; respectively.

4.Form Factor (F*f*): It is the numerical index used to determine ratio of the basin area to square of the basin length [1]. It is a function of the flow energy in the catchment. Thus, form factors for the catchments of the Lebanese rivers are shown in **Table 1**.

Hence, F*<sup>f</sup>* must be less than 0.7854 [4]. Therefore, smaller F*<sup>f</sup>* value indicates more elongated, while high F*<sup>f</sup>* value experience larger peak flows of shorter duration. According to Horton (1932) form factor is expressed as:

$$F\_f = \frac{A}{L^2} \tag{2}$$

geology of the underlying stratum. For this reason, stream morphometry controls water flow regime and mainly the flow energy. **Table 2** shows the main morphometric calculations for the streams (primary and secondary) in the Lebanese rivers'

**No Catchment Length (km) S***<sup>s</sup>* **C***<sup>s</sup>* **D***<sup>d</sup>* **M***<sup>r</sup>* **T***<sup>t</sup>*

1 El-Kabir R. 46 59 17 25 3.00 78 3.77 2 Al-Bared R. 37 49 13 14 1.00 76 2.75 3 Abou-Ali R. 42 54 54 46 1.75 78 6.95 4 Ej-Jouz R. 33 37 27 44 2.40 89 5.51 5 Ibrahim R. 44 50 63 45 5.30 88 16.30 6 El-Kaleb R. 35 41 66 45 6.10 85 17.25 7 Beirut R. 48 58 52 50 5.80 83 14.89 8 Ed-Damour R. 45 54 51 46 5.30 83 18.15 9 El-Awali R. 50 61 36 44 4.35 82 10.90 10 Siniq R. 18 21 7 9 2.35 86 7.54 11 Ez-Zahrani R. 36 41 8 13 2.10 88 8.16 12 Litani R. 163 174 5 8 0.84 83 0.54 13 Al-Assi R. 31 33 19 21 1.27 94 13.03 14 Hasbani-Wazzani R. 22 25 14 11 1.14 88 5.06

**Straight Curved m/km** — **S/km<sup>2</sup> % —**

1.Mean stream slope (S*s*): It is the difference between the altitude at the source and the altitude at the outlet with respect to the total stream length. Thus, higher S*<sup>s</sup>* results high flow rate along the primary stream in the catchment and

*Ss* <sup>¼</sup> Elevation at source–Elevation at outlet point

2.Mean catchment slope (C*s*): This is calculated by dividing the difference in elevation between points at defined lengths of the catchment (e.g. 0.85 L towards the upper and 0.10 L near the lower part of the catchment) over the length of the catchment. Hence, C*<sup>s</sup>* is expressed by the following formula [8]:

*Sb* <sup>¼</sup> ð Þ Elevation at 0*:*85 L –ð Þ Elevation at 0*:*10 L

3.Drainage density (D*d*): This represents the degree of streams congestion in an identified area of the catchment. Thus, it is calculated by dividing the total length of streams within the identified area in the catchment. Hence, streams with high density indicate lower permeability of terrain surface if compared with lower density stream [9]. D*<sup>s</sup>* is calculated according to the following

Length of stream (4)

Elevation at 0*:*75 L (5)

vice versa. The following formula represents S*<sup>s</sup>* [7]:

*Major morphometric measurements of the Lebanese rivers' catchments [1].*

*Rivers of Lebanon: Significant Water Resources under Threats*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94152*

catchments.

**Table 2.**

formula:

**83**

5.Relief gradient (Rr): This is the ratio between the altitude at the highest and lowest points on the catchment, and it is calculated according to following formula [5]:

$$E = \frac{\text{Mean Elviation-Minimum Elviation}}{\text{Maximum Elviation-Minimum elevation}} \tag{3}$$

#### **2.2 Morphometry of the Lebanese Rivers**

These represent measurements for the dimensions, orientation and the connection between different streams in a catchment [6]. Thus stream morphometry evidences the origin and evolution of drainage networks, geomorphology and


*Rivers of Lebanon: Significant Water Resources under Threats DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94152*

**Table 2.**

**Table 1** shows the calculated E*<sup>i</sup>* for the catchments of the Lebanese rivers. According to Schumm [3], E*<sup>i</sup>* is: < 0.5, 0.5–0.7, 0.7–0.8, 0.8–0.9 and 0.9–1 for more elongated, elongated, less elongated, oval and circular; respectively.

 El-Kabir R. 303\* 43 7.5 0.35 0.10 0.34 El-Bared R. 284 27 11 0.70 0.38 0.25 Abou-Ali R. 482 35 16 0.69 0.38 0.46 El-Jaouz R. 196 32 6.5 0.49 0.20 0.42 Ibrahim R. 326 40 8.5 0.57 0.20 0.47 El-Kaleb R. 237 36 12 0.48 0.18 0.57 Beirut R. 216 31 9 0.44 0.22 0.53 8 Ed-Damour R. 333 32 10 0.65 036 0.51 9 El-Awali R. R. 291 33 9.5 0.58 0.27 0.33 Siniq R. 102 19 5.5 0.60 0.28 0.26 11 El-Zahrani R. 140 28 6.5 0.48 0.18 0.28 Litani R. 2110 145 16 0.36 0.10 0.21 Al-Assi R. 1930\* 51 31 0.98 0.76 0.25 14 Hasbani-Wazzani R. 645\* 52 11 0.55 0.24 0.27

4.Form Factor (F*f*): It is the numerical index used to determine ratio of the basin area to square of the basin length [1]. It is a function of the flow energy in the catchment. Thus, form factors for the catchments of the Lebanese rivers are

Hence, F*<sup>f</sup>* must be less than 0.7854 [4]. Therefore, smaller F*<sup>f</sup>* value indicates more elongated, while high F*<sup>f</sup>* value experience larger peak flows of shorter

*<sup>F</sup> <sup>f</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>A</sup>*

5.Relief gradient (Rr): This is the ratio between the altitude at the highest and lowest points on the catchment, and it is calculated according to following

*<sup>E</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> Mean Elevation–Minimum Elevation

tion between different streams in a catchment [6]. Thus stream morphometry evidences the origin and evolution of drainage networks, geomorphology and

These represent measurements for the dimensions, orientation and the connec-

Maximum Elevation–Minimum elevation (3)

*<sup>L</sup>*<sup>2</sup> (2)

**) B***<sup>l</sup>* **(km) B***<sup>w</sup>* **(km) E***<sup>i</sup>* **F***<sup>f</sup>* **R***<sup>r</sup>*

duration. According to Horton (1932) form factor is expressed as:

shown in **Table 1**.

*Catchment area within Lebanon.*

*Geometric measurements of the Lebanese rivers' catchments [1].*

*\**

*R = River.*

*Hydrology*

**Table 1.**

**No. Catchment A (km<sup>2</sup>**

formula [5]:

**82**

**2.2 Morphometry of the Lebanese Rivers**

*Major morphometric measurements of the Lebanese rivers' catchments [1].*

geology of the underlying stratum. For this reason, stream morphometry controls water flow regime and mainly the flow energy. **Table 2** shows the main morphometric calculations for the streams (primary and secondary) in the Lebanese rivers' catchments.

1.Mean stream slope (S*s*): It is the difference between the altitude at the source and the altitude at the outlet with respect to the total stream length. Thus, higher S*<sup>s</sup>* results high flow rate along the primary stream in the catchment and vice versa. The following formula represents S*<sup>s</sup>* [7]:

$$S\_t = \frac{\text{Elevation at source} - \text{Elevation at outlet point}}{\text{Length of stream}} \tag{4}$$

2.Mean catchment slope (C*s*): This is calculated by dividing the difference in elevation between points at defined lengths of the catchment (e.g. 0.85 L towards the upper and 0.10 L near the lower part of the catchment) over the length of the catchment. Hence, C*<sup>s</sup>* is expressed by the following formula [8]:

$$\text{S}\_b = \frac{(\text{Elevation at 0.85 L}) - (\text{Elevation at 0.10 L})}{\text{Elevation at 0.75 L}} \tag{5}$$

3.Drainage density (D*d*): This represents the degree of streams congestion in an identified area of the catchment. Thus, it is calculated by dividing the total length of streams within the identified area in the catchment. Hence, streams with high density indicate lower permeability of terrain surface if compared with lower density stream [9]. D*<sup>s</sup>* is calculated according to the following formula:

*Hydrology*

$$D\_d = \frac{\Sigma L \text{ (total of all stream segments)}}{A \text{ (area of the basin)}} \tag{6}$$

4.Meandering ratio (M*r*): It is ratio between straight and curved length of the primary stream in the catchment [2]. Therefore, higher M*<sup>r</sup>* ratio reflects low run-off energy and higher sedimentation rate. M*<sup>r</sup>* can be calculated as follows:

$$M\_r = \frac{\text{L (straight)}}{\text{L (current)}} \tag{7}$$

5.Texture topography (T*t*): This evidences the ability of a terrain to infiltrate water as it is controlled by rock types and structures in the catchment. It is calculated as the total number of streams (Ns) of all order in a basin per perimeter (Bp) of the basin [10]. Hence, T*<sup>t</sup>* is calculated by the following equation [11]

$$T\_t = \sum N\_s / B\_p \tag{8}$$

247 million m<sup>3</sup>

**Table 3.**

*\*Transboundary River*

and for groundwater recharge [1].

**4. Water pollution in rivers**

groundwater resources.

/year. This indicates that the Lebanese rivers are discharging only

**/year % Mm3**

**/km<sup>2</sup>**

about 51% of the precipitated where the rest 49% goes to the evapotranspiration

*Volume of precipitated water discharged water from the Lebanese rivers' catchments [1].*

**No. Catchment Area (***A***) Rainfall (***R***) Discharge (***D***)** *D/R R/A* **km2 Mm<sup>3</sup>**

*Rivers of Lebanon: Significant Water Resources under Threats*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94152*

10 Siniq R. 102 100 60 60 0.98 11 Ez-Zahrani R. 140 145 200 137 1.03 12 Litani R. 2110 2078 360 17 0.98 13 Al-Assi R.\* 1930 1254 420 — 0.65 14 Hasbani-Wazzani R.\* 645 598 225 — 0.89

It is estimated that in Lebanon, more than 50% of water resources are under physiochemical and biological contamination, and rarely a source of water in Lebanon is pure [16]. Lately, the problem of water quality deterioration has become one of the major is striking challenges that acts on the national level, and it severely hurts human life. This includes mainly the pollution of surface and then followed by

This unfavorable problem is being increased by the absence of the controls and

agronomical wastes) is widespread, notably in river courses and streams. Hence, the bad geo-environmental situation, due to water pollution, added a challenging issue for the water sector in Lebanon, while it is surprising that no effective actions have been taken by the concerned governmental bodies and even there is unethical

therefore, disposal of liquid and solid wastes (i.e. industrial, municipal and

The Litani River, the largest river in Lebanon, gives a typical example on water pollution in the country. This rivers, which includes more than 370.000 people in 246 towns and encompasses 174 km length, has been lately witnessing intensive pollution pressure. This implies the river Couse and its reservoir (i.e. Qaraaoun Reservoir). Therefore, it was described as "Death of a River" [17]. In this respect, pollution sources were determined including direct dumping of huge amounts of solid wastes and high volume of sewage water into the river course and its tributaries, excessive use of fertilizers and well as the presence of many landfills within the

Many surveys and studies have been done to investigate water quality in Lebanon where some of them aimed also at identifying the sources of pollution. The largest number of these studies were either applied to selective regions, or sometime they were applied for a limited time period specific, while other studies investigated

It is still a paradox that even with the large number of studies, nothing has been improved yet in regard to water quality in all resources; besides the pollution level in being continuously increased. Moreover, no effective management plans have been addressed to resolve the problem, and if they are proposed/exist, they remain

behavior by some inhabitants in different regions of the country.

catchment of the river and thus acting on groundwater purity.

only one aspect of pollution (e.g. microbiological pollution).

propositions or without creditable implementation.

**85**

Smith [11] classified the texture topography as: very coarse (<2), coarse (2 to 4), moderate (4 to 6), fine (6 to 8) and very fine (>8).

#### **3. Volumetric measures of the Lebanese rivers**

It is significant to calculate the volume of water that enters the drainage system of rivers. This assists in characterizing the catchment ability to capture and outlet water. This requires elaborating quantitative analysis in the each catchment, where the volume of precipitated water and discharged water are measured.

For the precipitated water, data were collected from the available meteorological ground stations, as well as form remotely sensed products, with emphasis to Tropical Rainfall Mapping Mission - TRMM [12]; Climate Hazards group Infrared Precipitation with Stations - CHIRPS [13]; and from National Oceanographic Data Center – NOAA [14]. While, the discharge from the Lebanese rivers is periodically measured by the Litani River Authority (LRA) [15]. Therefore, water volume enters and outlet, along rivers, from each watershed was calculated as shown in **Table 3**.


**Table 3** shows that the average volume water enters the catchments is



**Table 3.**

*Dd* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>Σ</sup>L total of all stream segments ð Þ

*Mr* <sup>¼</sup> L straight ð Þ

5.Texture topography (T*t*): This evidences the ability of a terrain to infiltrate water as it is controlled by rock types and structures in the catchment. It is calculated as the total number of streams (Ns) of all order in a basin per perimeter (Bp) of the basin [10]. Hence, T*<sup>t</sup>* is calculated by the following

Smith [11] classified the texture topography as: very coarse (<2), coarse (2 to 4),

It is significant to calculate the volume of water that enters the drainage system of rivers. This assists in characterizing the catchment ability to capture and outlet water. This requires elaborating quantitative analysis in the each catchment, where

For the precipitated water, data were collected from the available meteorological

/year, and the average discharge is approximately

**No. Catchment Area (***A***) Rainfall (***R***) Discharge (***D***)** *D/R R/A* **km2 Mm<sup>3</sup>**

1 El-Kabir R.\* 303 260 222 — 0.38 Al-Bared R. 284 225 165 73 0.79 3 Abou-Ali R. 482 505 365 72 1.04 Ej-Jouz R. 196 125 80 64 0.64 Ibrahim R. 326 380 495 131 1.16 El-Kaleb R. 237 330 225 66 1.39 Beirut R. 216 260 100 38 1.20 8 Ed-Damour R. 333 335 255 76 1.00 El-Awali R. 291 320 280 88 1.09

the volume of precipitated water and discharged water are measured.

ground stations, as well as form remotely sensed products, with emphasis to Tropical Rainfall Mapping Mission - TRMM [12]; Climate Hazards group Infrared Precipitation with Stations - CHIRPS [13]; and from National Oceanographic Data Center – NOAA [14]. While, the discharge from the Lebanese rivers is periodically measured by the Litani River Authority (LRA) [15]. Therefore, water volume enters and outlet, along rivers, from each watershed was calculated as shown in **Table 3**. **Table 3** shows that the average volume water enters the catchments is

4.Meandering ratio (M*r*): It is ratio between straight and curved length of the primary stream in the catchment [2]. Therefore, higher M*<sup>r</sup>* ratio reflects low run-off energy and higher sedimentation rate. M*<sup>r</sup>* can be calculated as

follows:

*Hydrology*

equation [11]

about 480 million m<sup>3</sup>

**84**

moderate (4 to 6), fine (6 to 8) and very fine (>8).

**3. Volumetric measures of the Lebanese rivers**

*<sup>A</sup>* ð Þ area of the basin (6)

*<sup>L</sup>* ð Þ curved (7)

*Tt* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>X</sup>*Ns=Bp* (8)

**/year % Mm3**

**/km<sup>2</sup>**

*Volume of precipitated water discharged water from the Lebanese rivers' catchments [1].*

247 million m<sup>3</sup> /year. This indicates that the Lebanese rivers are discharging only about 51% of the precipitated where the rest 49% goes to the evapotranspiration and for groundwater recharge [1].

#### **4. Water pollution in rivers**

It is estimated that in Lebanon, more than 50% of water resources are under physiochemical and biological contamination, and rarely a source of water in Lebanon is pure [16]. Lately, the problem of water quality deterioration has become one of the major is striking challenges that acts on the national level, and it severely hurts human life. This includes mainly the pollution of surface and then followed by groundwater resources.

This unfavorable problem is being increased by the absence of the controls and therefore, disposal of liquid and solid wastes (i.e. industrial, municipal and agronomical wastes) is widespread, notably in river courses and streams. Hence, the bad geo-environmental situation, due to water pollution, added a challenging issue for the water sector in Lebanon, while it is surprising that no effective actions have been taken by the concerned governmental bodies and even there is unethical behavior by some inhabitants in different regions of the country.

The Litani River, the largest river in Lebanon, gives a typical example on water pollution in the country. This rivers, which includes more than 370.000 people in 246 towns and encompasses 174 km length, has been lately witnessing intensive pollution pressure. This implies the river Couse and its reservoir (i.e. Qaraaoun Reservoir). Therefore, it was described as "Death of a River" [17]. In this respect, pollution sources were determined including direct dumping of huge amounts of solid wastes and high volume of sewage water into the river course and its tributaries, excessive use of fertilizers and well as the presence of many landfills within the catchment of the river and thus acting on groundwater purity.

Many surveys and studies have been done to investigate water quality in Lebanon where some of them aimed also at identifying the sources of pollution. The largest number of these studies were either applied to selective regions, or sometime they were applied for a limited time period specific, while other studies investigated only one aspect of pollution (e.g. microbiological pollution).

It is still a paradox that even with the large number of studies, nothing has been improved yet in regard to water quality in all resources; besides the pollution level in being continuously increased. Moreover, no effective management plans have been addressed to resolve the problem, and if they are proposed/exist, they remain propositions or without creditable implementation.

#### *Hydrology*

There are many examples can be illustrated to expose the current situation on the deteriorated water quality in Lebanon. Below are some example [18]:

resources to be invested in Lebanon, notably that these rivers and their major tributaries are widespread over short distances between urban clusters and among the arable lands where water is competitive. Hence, many rivers' tributaries are

dated and effective environmental controls to regulate the behavior of people towards the exploitation of water from rivers. This can be also attributed to many other reasons including mainly the political situation in the country. Therefore, unfavorable works are widespread in all the Lebanese rivers, and illegal water abstraction from rivers plus dumping of liquid and solid wastes are commonly

In addition to this geographic aspect of the Lebanese rivers, there is no consoli-

1.Direct water pumping from rivers and the surrounding springs where this pumping does not follow and control or measuring approaches (i.e. illegal), and this is very common in upstream regions of the Lebanese rivers. The largest part (>90%) of the pumped water goes to irrigation (Example in

2.Uncontrolled water use from rivers where several private water systems are connected with rivers, and then conveying water along private-owned canals

3.Chaotic water abstraction whether from the recharge zones of rivers, where rivers receive their water from, or from the recharge zones of springs and

for irrigation. These canals can be for hundreds of meters long.

groundwater aquifers which in turn replenish rivers.

In spite of the small surface area of Lebanon (i.e. 10,452 km<sup>2</sup>

*Illegal pumping of water from rivers in Lebanon, a common observation.*

of the country makes its water resources shared with the neighboring regions. Therefore, about 2631 km<sup>2</sup> of Lebanon's surface area constitutes shared groundwater reservoirs with the neighboring regions, and this is equal to approximately 25% of the Lebanese area [2]. In addition, there are approximately 2878 km<sup>2</sup> (27.5%) of Lebanon's surface area comprises basins for transboundary rivers with the

), the geography

only few kilometers from each other.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94152*

**Figure 2**).

**6. Transboundary rivers**

**Figure 2.**

**87**

observed. These works can be summarized as follows:

*Rivers of Lebanon: Significant Water Resources under Threats*

1.The analysis of selective water samples from the Litani River shows:


2.The analysis of water quality the Qaraaoun Reservoir shows [19–21]:

Sodium (Na): 10 mg/l (WHO max. 200 mg/l)


Due to its significance and the resulted severe impact on human health and even life, there are some implementations done for waste disposal management, and thus several national and international projects were applied. Moreover, field campaigns, capacity building, inter-ministerial committees and business plans were established to identify the required measures and secure water quality and the existing ecosystems, but no enhancement in this concern could be touched yet [17].

#### **5. Uncontrolled water pumping**

In the view of shortened water supply besides an exacerbated demand, inhabitants are always searching for any available sources of water to compensate the difference between supply and demand. This primarily accounts the ease and the low-cost of exploitation of these sources. Hence, rivers are the most applicable

*Rivers of Lebanon: Significant Water Resources under Threats DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94152*

There are many examples can be illustrated to expose the current situation on

the deteriorated water quality in Lebanon. Below are some example [18]:

• Nitrite (NO2) 19 ppm (max. 0.1 ppm)

*Hydrology*

• Staphylococcus 8750 (0 in 100 ml)

• Total coliform 183,000 (0 in 100 ml)

• Fecal coliform 180,000 (0 in 250 ml).

Sodium (Na): 10 mg/l (WHO max. 200 mg/l)

• Zinc (Zn) 0.09 mg/l (WHO max. 3 mg/l)

300 mg L<sup>1</sup> [22].

**5. Uncontrolled water pumping**

**86**

• Copper (Cu) 0.019 mg/l (WHO max. 2 mg/l)

• Chromium (Cr3+) 0.27 (max. 0.05 ppm)

1.The analysis of selective water samples from the Litani River shows:

2.The analysis of water quality the Qaraaoun Reservoir shows [19–21]:

• Cylindrospermopsin toxin 1.7 μg/L (WHO guidelines 0.7 μg/l)

3.The analyzed samples of groundwater analysis in different boreholes located in

4.The analyzed bottled water which were taken form 48 major water companies in Lebanon showed that approximately 80% were contaminated either

Due to its significance and the resulted severe impact on human health and even life, there are some implementations done for waste disposal management, and thus several national and international projects were applied. Moreover, field campaigns, capacity building, inter-ministerial committees and business plans were established to identify the required measures and secure water quality and the existing ecosys-

In the view of shortened water supply besides an exacerbated demand, inhabitants are always searching for any available sources of water to compensate the difference between supply and demand. This primarily accounts the ease and the low-cost of exploitation of these sources. Hence, rivers are the most applicable

• Chromium (Cr) 0.02 mg/l (WHO max. 0.05 mg/l)

• Cyanobacteria up to 200 μg/l (WHO limits 10 μg/l)

• Carlson trophic state index 66 to 84 (CTSI max. 40).

chemically or biologically or combination of both [23].

tems, but no enhancement in this concern could be touched yet [17].

the Bekaa Plain showed that Nitrate (NO3) concentration exceeded

resources to be invested in Lebanon, notably that these rivers and their major tributaries are widespread over short distances between urban clusters and among the arable lands where water is competitive. Hence, many rivers' tributaries are only few kilometers from each other.

In addition to this geographic aspect of the Lebanese rivers, there is no consolidated and effective environmental controls to regulate the behavior of people towards the exploitation of water from rivers. This can be also attributed to many other reasons including mainly the political situation in the country. Therefore, unfavorable works are widespread in all the Lebanese rivers, and illegal water abstraction from rivers plus dumping of liquid and solid wastes are commonly observed. These works can be summarized as follows:


**Figure 2.** *Illegal pumping of water from rivers in Lebanon, a common observation.*
