**1. Introduction**

The original landscapes of our planet have been undergoing transformations by human activities. In Europe, a large part of the original forests existing during the human hunter-gatherer stage has been replaced by agricultural territories and large cities. At the same time, there is remarkably an uneven distribution of the population that results in very low densities in some territories, rural, and very high in urban areas, where significant percentage of inhabitants has been concentrated, throughout a process that has gone developing in the last 150 years [1]. The city was the focus of growth of the states, due, in large part, to the industrialization that led to an increase in the economy, which in turn led to a very rapid expansion and a first concentration of the industries and then of the services. But this great growth caused a disorganized and chaotic development.

Urban planning techniques try to eliminate and prevent urban chaos. In this context, when comparing the pre- and post-industrial revolution growth of the cities, a key difference appears "(…) compared to the old cities with clear boundaries enclosed by walls, post-industrial revolution growth leads to the invasion of the surrounding landscape [2]." The exterior goes from being a threat to the city to being an element threatened by it. The city has evolved in recent centuries toward the need to develop an urban planning concept in which the existence of green spaces became more important. The Industrial Revolution caused the exodus from the countryside to the city and the emergence of epidemics related to lack of health; together with the growing demand for leisure and free time by the population, the need for public green spaces increased.

The Urban Parks Movement (eighteenth century) appears, whose objective was to recreate the presence of nature in the urban environment, in order to improve the quality of life of its citizens [3, 4]. This concept resulted in the creation of the main parks, the first of them in the United Kingdom: "Victoria Park" in London and "Birckenhead Park" in Liverpool; a little later, also in London, "Hyde Park" and "St. James Park"; while in Paris the "Bois de Boulogne" and "Bois de Vincennes" were built and in Madrid "El Retiro." Urban green spaces are urban areas in which natural or seminatural ecosystems became urban spaces by human influence [4]. They provide a connection between the urban and nature [5]. Green spaces include street trees, green roads, green roof walls, urban parks, and even abandoned unbuilt land. In fact, its creation can be from scratch, modified from existing vegetation, generated by colonization or existing as a natural enclave [6]. Vegetation in cities has multiple benefits that have been the subject of vindication and study throughout the evolution of current urbanism and that have been enriched and concretized by the contribution of research from related fields such as ecology.

The presence of abundant vegetation in cities is ideal with a universal appeal, which goes beyond temporal, spatial, and cultural divisions, associating itself with the concept of environmental quality, which leads to a better quality of life. In recent years there is an important interest in the environmental benefits of green spaces. Thus, a significant number of studies attempt to demonstrate, quantify, and incorporate them into planning. However, they still coexist with the marginality which they are treated in practice [7]. The presence of natural elements and values in the city is today a fundamental condition for the environmental recovery of urban territory. The natural and urban systems are part of the same space, and their integrated management is a requirement of the regional space and a condition of sustainability of the territories and cities. In addition, the agroforestry existence in the peripheries of cities and green spaces within the urban fabric represents an increase in environmental quality, which urban planning must strengthen and improve [3, 8–11].

The visual approach of the green areas constitutes a powerful tool to activate and inspire the daily life of citizens. Besides, a deeper understanding of the ecological processes that occurs in nature, along with the economic and socio-cultural, can help city managers to better integrate all the above-mentioned aspects. This approach must go beyond the superficial, appreciating the stories that landscapes tell and helping to understand the place of humans in nature [12].

Studies on the valuation of ecosystem services (ES) focused on urban areas represent a small percentage in relation to the total number of articles devoted to the subject. Furthermore, Delgado and Marín [13] analyzed the growth of publications in a 24-year interval (from 1990 to 2013), demonstrating their exponential growth, which increased from 1 article in 1991 to less than 250 in 2007 and 1500 in 2013. Of these, only 6% focused on the direct services of the ecosystems associated

**111**

ing services.

*Assessing Ecosystem Services Delivered by Public Green Spaces in Major European Cities*

with urban areas. According to Ibes [14], the valuation of the ES was originally designed for non-urban systems, so that new models are necessary for a correct assimilation of the services provided by the urbanized environments. In addition, it reflects on the difficulty of finding a balance between geographical, conceptual, and spatial considerations when the ES valuation paradigm applies to urban parks. Therefore, bearing in mind that urban parks cannot generate all the possible ES, excluding the necessary compensation, it will lead more often in losses rather than

The key components that contribute to the total economic value of ES can be divided into three main blocks [15–16]. The first is related to the direct use and includes both (a) the provision of services (e.g., the production of plant and/or animal biomass) and (b) social and cultural services (e.g., recreational activities, sports, family). The benefits associated with urban parks are mainly framed in the second group, presenting the contributions to the first residual character in general. The second block refers to indirect services (indirect use) that involve (c) regulating (such as the control of air, water or soil quality) and (d) supporting services that are necessary for the production of the rest of services of the ecosystem (e.g.,

The parks contribute to a greater extent in the section of regulating services, with benefits that include the improvement of the air quality or the decrease of the load of nutrients that reach the water courses and are potential causes of eutrophication. The third block is dedicated to other aspects not contemplated in the previous ones. It comprises two sections: (e) option services, referring to the possibility of using a service in the future and maintaining resilience (ability to reverse changes in the ecosystem) and (f) nonuse/exploitation of resources of ecosystem resources for cultural reasons and of preservation for future generations or their intrinsic values. The ES of urban parks contribute more to the aspects related to the

Several authors have evaluated the benefits of the parks valuing some specific ES. Also, Breuste et al. [17] analyzed in three megalopolis the importance from the recreational point of view (Buenos Aires and Shanghai) and climate regulation (Karachi). They demonstrated that urban parks play an extremely important role by offering ES related to recreation and contact with nature. With regard to Karachi, they highlighted the importance of parks in the regulation of extreme weather conditions. Residential areas located near parks had a considerable higher degree of thermal comfort. Setälä et al. [18] assessed the retention of heavy metals and nutrients in the soil, highlighting the role of parks especially in cities with high levels of pollution. Regarding the contribution of the ES in urban parks, Gratani et al. [19] studied and quantified four parks located in Rome to carbon sequestration. Mediterranean-type parks, such as the Romans, sequestered CO2 throughout the year highlighting the results in those in which the native species of the Mediterranean basin were dominant. The annual economic

. Moreover,

value of the CO2 elimination would be equivalent to \$23,537 ha<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

Giedych and Maksymiuk [20] studied the Warsaw parks, concluding that the ES contributed by each of them depend on the local conditions and specific characteristics of each of them, the surface being one of the key variables in the regulat-

Less abundant are the works that analyze and value the set of ES that generate concrete parks. An example would be the holistic valuation of the ES generated by Central Park (New York, USA), estimated at \$ 70 million/hectare/year [21]. Contextually, the present chapter through a case study research method aims to analyze the green urban areas surfaces evolution in seven European major cities.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91415*

nutrient cycles, soil formation, or water cycle).

benefits.

second section.

### *Assessing Ecosystem Services Delivered by Public Green Spaces in Major European Cities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91415*

with urban areas. According to Ibes [14], the valuation of the ES was originally designed for non-urban systems, so that new models are necessary for a correct assimilation of the services provided by the urbanized environments. In addition, it reflects on the difficulty of finding a balance between geographical, conceptual, and spatial considerations when the ES valuation paradigm applies to urban parks. Therefore, bearing in mind that urban parks cannot generate all the possible ES, excluding the necessary compensation, it will lead more often in losses rather than benefits.

The key components that contribute to the total economic value of ES can be divided into three main blocks [15–16]. The first is related to the direct use and includes both (a) the provision of services (e.g., the production of plant and/or animal biomass) and (b) social and cultural services (e.g., recreational activities, sports, family). The benefits associated with urban parks are mainly framed in the second group, presenting the contributions to the first residual character in general. The second block refers to indirect services (indirect use) that involve (c) regulating (such as the control of air, water or soil quality) and (d) supporting services that are necessary for the production of the rest of services of the ecosystem (e.g., nutrient cycles, soil formation, or water cycle).

The parks contribute to a greater extent in the section of regulating services, with benefits that include the improvement of the air quality or the decrease of the load of nutrients that reach the water courses and are potential causes of eutrophication. The third block is dedicated to other aspects not contemplated in the previous ones. It comprises two sections: (e) option services, referring to the possibility of using a service in the future and maintaining resilience (ability to reverse changes in the ecosystem) and (f) nonuse/exploitation of resources of ecosystem resources for cultural reasons and of preservation for future generations or their intrinsic values. The ES of urban parks contribute more to the aspects related to the second section.

Several authors have evaluated the benefits of the parks valuing some specific ES. Also, Breuste et al. [17] analyzed in three megalopolis the importance from the recreational point of view (Buenos Aires and Shanghai) and climate regulation (Karachi). They demonstrated that urban parks play an extremely important role by offering ES related to recreation and contact with nature. With regard to Karachi, they highlighted the importance of parks in the regulation of extreme weather conditions. Residential areas located near parks had a considerable higher degree of thermal comfort. Setälä et al. [18] assessed the retention of heavy metals and nutrients in the soil, highlighting the role of parks especially in cities with high levels of pollution. Regarding the contribution of the ES in urban parks, Gratani et al. [19] studied and quantified four parks located in Rome to carbon sequestration. Mediterranean-type parks, such as the Romans, sequestered CO2 throughout the year highlighting the results in those in which the native species of the Mediterranean basin were dominant. The annual economic value of the CO2 elimination would be equivalent to \$23,537 ha<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> . Moreover, Giedych and Maksymiuk [20] studied the Warsaw parks, concluding that the ES contributed by each of them depend on the local conditions and specific characteristics of each of them, the surface being one of the key variables in the regulating services.

Less abundant are the works that analyze and value the set of ES that generate concrete parks. An example would be the holistic valuation of the ES generated by Central Park (New York, USA), estimated at \$ 70 million/hectare/year [21]. Contextually, the present chapter through a case study research method aims to analyze the green urban areas surfaces evolution in seven European major cities.

*Landscape Architecture - Processes and Practices Towards Sustainable Development*

the contribution of research from related fields such as ecology.

need for public green spaces increased.

Urban planning techniques try to eliminate and prevent urban chaos. In this context, when comparing the pre- and post-industrial revolution growth of the cities, a key difference appears "(…) compared to the old cities with clear boundaries enclosed by walls, post-industrial revolution growth leads to the invasion of the surrounding landscape [2]." The exterior goes from being a threat to the city to being an element threatened by it. The city has evolved in recent centuries toward the need to develop an urban planning concept in which the existence of green spaces became more important. The Industrial Revolution caused the exodus from the countryside to the city and the emergence of epidemics related to lack of health; together with the growing demand for leisure and free time by the population, the

The Urban Parks Movement (eighteenth century) appears, whose objective was to recreate the presence of nature in the urban environment, in order to improve the quality of life of its citizens [3, 4]. This concept resulted in the creation of the main parks, the first of them in the United Kingdom: "Victoria Park" in London and "Birckenhead Park" in Liverpool; a little later, also in London, "Hyde Park" and "St. James Park"; while in Paris the "Bois de Boulogne" and "Bois de Vincennes" were built and in Madrid "El Retiro." Urban green spaces are urban areas in which natural or seminatural ecosystems became urban spaces by human influence [4]. They provide a connection between the urban and nature [5]. Green spaces include street trees, green roads, green roof walls, urban parks, and even abandoned unbuilt land. In fact, its creation can be from scratch, modified from existing vegetation, generated by colonization or existing as a natural enclave [6]. Vegetation in cities has multiple benefits that have been the subject of vindication and study throughout the evolution of current urbanism and that have been enriched and concretized by

The presence of abundant vegetation in cities is ideal with a universal appeal, which goes beyond temporal, spatial, and cultural divisions, associating itself with the concept of environmental quality, which leads to a better quality of life. In recent years there is an important interest in the environmental benefits of green spaces. Thus, a significant number of studies attempt to demonstrate, quantify, and incorporate them into planning. However, they still coexist with the marginality which they are treated in practice [7]. The presence of natural elements and values in the city is today a fundamental condition for the environmental recovery of urban territory. The natural and urban systems are part of the same space, and their integrated management is a requirement of the regional space and a condition of sustainability of the territories and cities. In addition, the agroforestry existence in the peripheries of cities and green spaces within the urban fabric represents an increase in environmental quality, which urban planning must strengthen and

The visual approach of the green areas constitutes a powerful tool to activate and inspire the daily life of citizens. Besides, a deeper understanding of the ecological processes that occurs in nature, along with the economic and socio-cultural, can help city managers to better integrate all the above-mentioned aspects. This approach must go beyond the superficial, appreciating the stories that landscapes

Studies on the valuation of ecosystem services (ES) focused on urban areas represent a small percentage in relation to the total number of articles devoted to the subject. Furthermore, Delgado and Marín [13] analyzed the growth of publications in a 24-year interval (from 1990 to 2013), demonstrating their exponential growth, which increased from 1 article in 1991 to less than 250 in 2007 and 1500 in 2013. Of these, only 6% focused on the direct services of the ecosystems associated

tell and helping to understand the place of humans in nature [12].

**110**

improve [3, 8–11].
