**4. Hunting in the context of landscape valorization**

According to the above classifications, the key problem in Central Europe is a decrease of areas covered by trees and resources of surface, flowing and standing water. For example, the current assessments place Poland among the countries in which the water deficit is going to get worse. It is especially bad for ponds and wetlands. Land drainage works carried out in Poland on a massive scale, especially in the 1960s, have significantly reduced the level of groundwater. The recent dry years and the lack of any work aimed at water retention (deepening overgrown ponds, repairing weirs) have aggravated the long-unfavourable tendencies. In Sweden, eco melioration solutions were introduced in design practice as early as in the years 1980–1990. Straight-line courses of drainage ditches were abandoned in favour of ones which, by meandering, slow down the outflow of water. Adaptation of straight-line ditches to their new functions consisted in creating, in each ditch crown, at 50-meter intervals, 2.5–3-meter-wide enclaves covered with rush vegetation, bushes and low trees. Similar solutions were also proposed for water outlets from drainage system collectors. Such solutions not only improve water conditions in agricultural areas but also significantly valorize the landscape. The most important functions of wetlands still visible in a given area are water retention, water supply to adjacent areas, maintenance of high quality habitats (plant and animal communities), aestheticisation of the agricultural landscape, education and recreation. Despite the currently unfavourable situation, the water

**99**

**Figure 4.**

*Water enclaves with rush vegetation, bushes and low trees.*

*Methods of Landscape Valorization and Possibilities of Its Application in Hunting Area…*

retention capabilities of agricultural areas in Poland are still considerable. In an average hunting district with an area of about 4 thousand ha located in an agricultural area in southern Poland, there are about 12 wetlands with a total area of over

In 2006, the vast majority of hunting grounds located in southern Poland still had moderate natural values (valorization class III: 6.5 site index points). Currently, the number of site index points has dropped to 4 (valorization class IV), which indicates low values of the natural environment. By limiting the range of the tree cover and removing the oldest trees, mid-field stretches of land covered by trees and such areas extending along watercourses are degraded to a large extent and fall into valorization class II. This condition is recorded within field hunting areas throughout the region. Such a clear decrease in area quality should be worrying

If the above division of ecosystem services (landscapes) was used in the aspect of game management in larger areas, individual homogeneous areas should be assigned a specific function or even many functions. Only such a matrix would allow for hunting district valorization in terms of the selected species or a given

Many contemporary research issues focus on modelling animal migration routes and species mobility intensity, the occurrence of natural or artificial barriers on a migration route, and the so-called landscape permeability. Identification of land cover patches or plant communities or ecosystems as components of routes (corridors) is helpful in spatial planning at various levels of detail [24], including the construction of animal crossings ("footbridges") over highways and expressways, or as a consequence of rational hunting economy. From the point of view of hunting area categorisation, guidelines for landscape valorization and formulation of recommendations and conclusions regarding landscaping and landscape protection can help in assessing the breeding and hunting value of a given area. Assessed

are natural, cultural, historical and architectural, urban, rural complexes,

of water (**Figure 4**).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94048*

. They retain approx. 40 thousand m3

27,000 m<sup>2</sup>

(**Figures 5** and **6**).

activity profile.

*Methods of Landscape Valorization and Possibilities of Its Application in Hunting Area… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94048*

retention capabilities of agricultural areas in Poland are still considerable. In an average hunting district with an area of about 4 thousand ha located in an agricultural area in southern Poland, there are about 12 wetlands with a total area of over 27,000 m<sup>2</sup> . They retain approx. 40 thousand m3 of water (**Figure 4**).

In 2006, the vast majority of hunting grounds located in southern Poland still had moderate natural values (valorization class III: 6.5 site index points). Currently, the number of site index points has dropped to 4 (valorization class IV), which indicates low values of the natural environment. By limiting the range of the tree cover and removing the oldest trees, mid-field stretches of land covered by trees and such areas extending along watercourses are degraded to a large extent and fall into valorization class II. This condition is recorded within field hunting areas throughout the region. Such a clear decrease in area quality should be worrying (**Figures 5** and **6**).

If the above division of ecosystem services (landscapes) was used in the aspect of game management in larger areas, individual homogeneous areas should be assigned a specific function or even many functions. Only such a matrix would allow for hunting district valorization in terms of the selected species or a given activity profile.

Many contemporary research issues focus on modelling animal migration routes and species mobility intensity, the occurrence of natural or artificial barriers on a migration route, and the so-called landscape permeability. Identification of land cover patches or plant communities or ecosystems as components of routes (corridors) is helpful in spatial planning at various levels of detail [24], including the construction of animal crossings ("footbridges") over highways and expressways, or as a consequence of rational hunting economy. From the point of view of hunting area categorisation, guidelines for landscape valorization and formulation of recommendations and conclusions regarding landscaping and landscape protection can help in assessing the breeding and hunting value of a given area. Assessed are natural, cultural, historical and architectural, urban, rural complexes,

**Figure 4.** *Water enclaves with rush vegetation, bushes and low trees.*

*Landscape Architecture - Processes and Practices Towards Sustainable Development*

Another landscape classification method developed in recent years is based on the concept of ecosystem services (ES) or so-called landscape benefits. Its main

• regulatory services (water and air purification, decomposition and detoxifica-

• cultural benefits (spiritual, aesthetic and recreational benefits, scientific

According to the above classifications, the key problem in Central Europe is a decrease of areas covered by trees and resources of surface, flowing and standing water. For example, the current assessments place Poland among the countries in which the water deficit is going to get worse. It is especially bad for ponds and wetlands. Land drainage works carried out in Poland on a massive scale, especially in the 1960s, have significantly reduced the level of groundwater. The recent dry years and the lack of any work aimed at water retention (deepening overgrown ponds, repairing weirs) have aggravated the long-unfavourable tendencies. In Sweden, eco melioration solutions were introduced in design practice as early as in the years 1980–1990. Straight-line courses of drainage ditches were abandoned in favour of ones which, by meandering, slow down the outflow of water. Adaptation of straight-line ditches to their new functions consisted in creating, in each ditch crown, at 50-meter intervals, 2.5–3-meter-wide enclaves covered with rush vegetation, bushes and low trees. Similar solutions were also proposed for water outlets from drainage system collectors. Such solutions not only improve water conditions in agricultural areas but also significantly valorize the landscape. The most important functions of wetlands still visible in a given area are water retention, water supply to adjacent areas, maintenance of high quality habitats (plant and animal communities), aestheticisation of the agricultural landscape, education and recreation. Despite the currently unfavourable situation, the water

• supply, e.g. food production, water supply, production of organic raw

• supportive services (nutrient circulation, primary production);

**4. Hunting in the context of landscape valorization**

**98**

categories [23] include:

*A digital terrain model (DTM).*

tion, climate regulation);

materials;

**Figure 3.**

discoveries).

**Figure 5.** *Destroyed roadside trees.*

**Figure 6.** *Intensive large-scale agriculture.*

including built-up areas distinguished by their local architectural form, as well as aesthetic-visual values, in particular elements of terrain exposure, such as the exposure foreground, view axes and viewpoints. In relation to field and forest areas, cultural features are of some importance; however, the most important are the natural environment features and indicators, e.g. compositional features of plant clusters important for maintaining the diversity of field habitats:


**101**

**Figure 8.**

*Cultural landscape 1.*

**Figure 7.**

*Natural tree group along watercourse.*

*Methods of Landscape Valorization and Possibilities of Its Application in Hunting Area…*

• avenues - are arranger in a linear way in so-called bands forming the walls of a landscape interior; these forms are strongly geometrized and extend along the

• lines - types of clusters formed along a line, dividing landscape interiors;

Recognition of the above components of architectural and landscape interiors creates opportunities for content and meaning assessment and for determination of

• a mature linear form that follows natural terrain intersections is more favourable than that which cuts through uniform terrain or opposes its original shape.

• streaks - they run freely along watercourses or terrain irregularities.

their functional role [9]. Below are some selected examples of assessment:

• clumps - form compact clusters consisting of many trees;

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94048*

transport axes;

*Methods of Landscape Valorization and Possibilities of Its Application in Hunting Area… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94048*


Recognition of the above components of architectural and landscape interiors creates opportunities for content and meaning assessment and for determination of their functional role [9]. Below are some selected examples of assessment:

• a mature linear form that follows natural terrain intersections is more favourable than that which cuts through uniform terrain or opposes its original shape.

**Figure 7.** *Natural tree group along watercourse.*

**Figure 8.** *Cultural landscape 1.*

*Landscape Architecture - Processes and Practices Towards Sustainable Development*

including built-up areas distinguished by their local architectural form, as well as aesthetic-visual values, in particular elements of terrain exposure, such as the exposure foreground, view axes and viewpoints. In relation to field and forest areas, cultural features are of some importance; however, the most important are the natural environment features and indicators, e.g. compositional features of

• double or triple clusters - are a transitional form between a lonely tree and a

• gates, frames, wings - these forms are created by trees growing at such a distance that only the edges of their crowns touch. Such a cluster forms view windows which direct the viewing axes; such forms connect landscape

plant clusters important for maintaining the diversity of field habitats:

**100**

**Figure 6.**

**Figure 5.**

*Destroyed roadside trees.*

*Intensive large-scale agriculture.*

larger cluster of trees;

interiors;

A classic example are natural tree groups along watercourses. i.e. streaks. Such conditions are extremely favourable for game (**Figure 7**);

• a system of clumps separated by arable fields and rural buildings creates a cultural landscape that is extremely beneficial for small animals and roe deer.

**Figure 9.** *Cultural landscape 2.*

**103**

*Methods of Landscape Valorization and Possibilities of Its Application in Hunting Area…*

Relatively small, varied acreages constitute their food base, and tree groups create ecological corridors. Large-field crops, which have become frequent in recent years, are a particular threat to such an environment. They radically change the food base to one that is beneficial for wild boars, and definitely too

• landscape interiors are divided by linear tree clusters, but - assuming the diversification of crops – they determine the separation of homogeneous fragments in terms of form. This way of farming gives animals the ability to move along

In recent years, dynamically progressing changes in the use of field and forest space

shelters and reduces the pressure of predators (**Figures 10** and **11**).

have been visible throughout Poland. Areas intensively developed with buildings, road infrastructure, power networks, GSM poles and wind farms are growing. They all affect the landscape, changing it irreversibly and leaving their mark. These are certainly factors adversely affecting the existence of game, especially small animals. Changing the landscape from purely agricultural to one enriched with natural succession areas may contribute to an increase in the population of selected animal species,

A varied cultural field-forest landscape is certainly the most beneficial for maintaining the stability of small game populations. The above short presentation of methods of its valorization can be helpful in assessing the quality of hunting districts. Related to the growth of intensive farming economy, there is a visible process of gradual degradation of the environmental valorization class of a given area and a decrease in the value of landscape interiors that determine the living capabilities of game. The cultural landscape shaped over the centuries has quickly managed to reach, in many places, an environmentally and architecturally

The Polish Forest Act (1991) rightly points out the close relationship between classic pro-environmental conservation measures and the preservation of landscape values. Therefore, the link between the above activities is landscape ecology,

poor for e.g. partridges (**Figures 8** and **9**);

**5. Discussion and conclusions**

important for hunting.

**Figure 11.** *Linear tree clusters 2.*

degenerated landscape.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94048*

**Figure 10.** *Linear tree clusters 1.*

*Methods of Landscape Valorization and Possibilities of Its Application in Hunting Area… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94048*

**Figure 11.** *Linear tree clusters 2.*

*Landscape Architecture - Processes and Practices Towards Sustainable Development*

conditions are extremely favourable for game (**Figure 7**);

A classic example are natural tree groups along watercourses. i.e. streaks. Such

• a system of clumps separated by arable fields and rural buildings creates a cultural landscape that is extremely beneficial for small animals and roe deer.

**102**

**Figure 10.** *Linear tree clusters 1.*

**Figure 9.**

*Cultural landscape 2.*

Relatively small, varied acreages constitute their food base, and tree groups create ecological corridors. Large-field crops, which have become frequent in recent years, are a particular threat to such an environment. They radically change the food base to one that is beneficial for wild boars, and definitely too poor for e.g. partridges (**Figures 8** and **9**);

• landscape interiors are divided by linear tree clusters, but - assuming the diversification of crops – they determine the separation of homogeneous fragments in terms of form. This way of farming gives animals the ability to move along shelters and reduces the pressure of predators (**Figures 10** and **11**).

## **5. Discussion and conclusions**

In recent years, dynamically progressing changes in the use of field and forest space have been visible throughout Poland. Areas intensively developed with buildings, road infrastructure, power networks, GSM poles and wind farms are growing. They all affect the landscape, changing it irreversibly and leaving their mark. These are certainly factors adversely affecting the existence of game, especially small animals. Changing the landscape from purely agricultural to one enriched with natural succession areas may contribute to an increase in the population of selected animal species, important for hunting.

A varied cultural field-forest landscape is certainly the most beneficial for maintaining the stability of small game populations. The above short presentation of methods of its valorization can be helpful in assessing the quality of hunting districts. Related to the growth of intensive farming economy, there is a visible process of gradual degradation of the environmental valorization class of a given area and a decrease in the value of landscape interiors that determine the living capabilities of game. The cultural landscape shaped over the centuries has quickly managed to reach, in many places, an environmentally and architecturally degenerated landscape.

The Polish Forest Act (1991) rightly points out the close relationship between classic pro-environmental conservation measures and the preservation of landscape values. Therefore, the link between the above activities is landscape ecology, understood as the identification and quantification of relationships occurring between the spatial structure of the landscape (e.g. the number of forest patches) and processes occurring within and between ecosystems [24]. What is particularly important is quantitative assessment of the impact of spatial heterogeneity of the landscape on such phenomena as distribution and movement of animals, which is crucial for conducting sustainable game management as well as active protection of valuable habitats.

Due to the growing human impact on the landscape, in 2000 the Council of Europe adopted the European Landscape Convention, which Poland ratified on 27th September 2004, thus recognising the landscape as an important part of people's quality of life and a key element of the well-being of society. For the needs of the landscape audit, a special typology of landscapes has been developed [14] as well as a classification based in particular on criteria such as: the nature of the factors dominant in the landscape, land relief and land cover. The inventorying of landscape values consists in an analysis and assessment of the values of individual landscapes, taking into consideration the following resources: abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic, i.e. historical, cultural and aesthetic ones [25]. The goal of landscape audits is identification of landscapes which occur within a given voivodeship (province), determination of their characteristics, conducting their valorization and distinguishing the priority landscapes, i.e. those regarded as the most valuable and requiring special protection [26]. An important task is a detailed assessment and presentation of recommendations and conclusions regarding formation and landscape protection, which can be used in many other studies, e.g. in the categorisation of areas managed by hunting clubs. Conducting a landscape audit requires the use of multi-source data, environmental information and field inspections. The detailed results of an audit are to enable its practical application in spatial planning processes at the communal level, or in local strategic-planning documents, including those related to the valorization of landscapes at a microscale. Characteristics of landscapes are prepared by determination of the following analytical features:


Visible in recent years across Europe, a decline in small game has attracted the attention of practitioners and scientists to the causes of this regression. An indication of the reasons for this phenomenon constitutes the starting point for possible corrective actions; the next task should be to assess (valorise) adverse effects. This assessment is extremely important, because by ranking threats, it sets a schedule for corrective actions. Research methods that could be used in the situation described

**105**

**Author details**

and Monika Winczek

*Methods of Landscape Valorization and Possibilities of Its Application in Hunting Area…*

factor creates an inseparable whole with environmental components.

are different than in the case of standard assessments used at the stage of categorisation of hunting districts: area, forest cover, number of forest complexes, fertility of forest habitats, lack of continuity of a given district. The factors included in it do not necessarily have to reflect the actual value of a field area. In relation to small game, the field-forest mosaic, large spatial fragmentation and interweaving of natural environment elements with buildings do not have to be the factors limiting its number. Hunters, obviously interested in maintaining such game numbers that are appropriate for the capacity of hunting areas, should be particularly sensitive to the landscape values of the area in which they hunt. Contrary to appearances, this

Szewczyk Grzegorz\*, Krzysztof Lipka, Piotr Wężyk, Karolina Zięba-Kulawik

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

University of Agriculture in Krakow, Kraków, Poland

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: rlszewcz@cyf-kr.edu.pl

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94048*

### *Methods of Landscape Valorization and Possibilities of Its Application in Hunting Area… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94048*

are different than in the case of standard assessments used at the stage of categorisation of hunting districts: area, forest cover, number of forest complexes, fertility of forest habitats, lack of continuity of a given district. The factors included in it do not necessarily have to reflect the actual value of a field area. In relation to small game, the field-forest mosaic, large spatial fragmentation and interweaving of natural environment elements with buildings do not have to be the factors limiting its number. Hunters, obviously interested in maintaining such game numbers that are appropriate for the capacity of hunting areas, should be particularly sensitive to the landscape values of the area in which they hunt. Contrary to appearances, this factor creates an inseparable whole with environmental components.
