Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate and Ameliorate Soil Contamination

*Oluwatosin Ayobami Ogunsola, Odunayo David Adeniyi and Victoria Abimbola Adedokun*

## **Abstract**

The chapter mainstreamed Soil Management and Conservation approach as a potent remedy for Soil Contamination. Largely, microbial activities play significant role in maintaining balance within the ecosystem however changes in Land-use has a direct influence on soil biota, including the floral and fauna components. The introduction of contaminants, from varying sources such as agrochemicals, petrochemicals, landfills, sludge, effluents, etc., into the soil builds up the amount of heavy metals present in the deposits hence degrading the soil and polluting groundwater. Integrating soil management options to enhance biodiversity and strengthen microbial activities improve the soil ecology thus creating a buffer for neutralizing potential contaminants.

**Keywords:** degradation, land-use, ecology, biodiversity, soil conservation

## **1. Introduction**

One of the central component of terrestrial ecosystem is soil. Loss in ecosystem is a representation of the degradation of soil. The soil plays a key role in the health of ecosystem, however, over-exploitation of these ecosystem by humans causes considerable degradation and migration of contaminants. The use of land for agriculture occupies 36.5% of the earth's land mass [1]. Though this human activities may be justified to provide greater benefit in other services termed development, but consistent degradation of this ecosystem and exposure of it to various contaminants is not in the best interest of the society and it is detrimental to the environment that sustains all life forms.

Soil conservation are various practices of farming operations and management strategies which are conducted with the purpose of controlling soil erosion by avoiding or minimizing soil particle detachment and movement of water or/and air. It also helps in preventing the loss of the top-most layer of the soil and fertility which could also be caused by soil contamination. Understanding the processes and factors that govern soil erosion is very important to implementing its control practice and will help to manage soil erosion thus leading to soil conservation. The mechanics involve fluid (wind/water) detachment or entrainment which is being

accompanied by the transportation of soil particles and its subsequent deposition as soil sediments. Conservation approaches and management strategies that ensures these include crop rotation, cover cropping, planting windbreaks and conservation tillage, which have been harnessed for millennia. Soil conservation practices are said to be farming operations and soil management strategies carried out with the aim of achieving a goal which is to control soil erosion by preventing or reducing soil particle detachment and transport in air or water [2]. Soil conservation started with the aim to protect an ecology from agricultural production by making use of largely unproven technology that failed to adapt with the natural requirements of the land. The evolving land degradation trend could only be understood by determining if the causes were as a result of natural occurrences or by unwise use [3].

In Europe, Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is put in place in a bid to target the application of best management practices such as winter cover crops, reduced tillage, plant residues and grass margins in order to address conservation [4]. This traditional approaches which enhanced the productivity, environmental benefits and profits are based on procedures of no-tillage, and the broader concepts of agricultural conservation and land management sustainability. These concepts are one and not divided, but part of a continuous land management practices which range from detailed soil management practices such as zero-tillage, to the enhnaced concepts, principles and objectives of agricultural conservation and land management for sustainability.

## **2. Soil conservation methods**

#### **2.1 Cover cropping and mulching**

This method is effective in reducing migration of top soil by leaving a cover over the soil in a bid to reduce soil displacement which is associated with the impacts from raindrops on the soil particles. Cover crops and mulching also reduces the amount of runoff and its velocity over the soil. Mulching, which is the application of organic materials over exposed soil to confer a form of covering to it over a period before decomposing. Straw can be used as mulch but hay is proven to be the best and it is important to ensure that it is harvested before the weeds mature. These crops are necessary to control erosion especially when the main crops planted do not give sufficient residue for more conventional residue management-based erosion control [5]. Where precipitation is adequate, cover crops like peas can help protect against wind erosion and also add nitrogen to the soil. The nitrogen released from the roots of these legumes are energy source for microbial metabolic activities hence such live mulch or cover crop give rise to an active microbial community in the rhizosphere soil.

## **2.2 Crop rotation**

Crop rotation is an indigenous and practical way for managing agro-ecosystem biodiversity by enhancing soil health, minimizing pests and disease outbreaks [6]. This method enables farmers to improve the structure of the soil, increase the soil organic matter and rooting depth. This happens when secondary crops are grown in order to enhance soil health. As a result of the extensive shattering of soil aggregrates during seedbed preparation and harvesting, root crops are particularly destructive to the soil structure. Therefore, it is advised that root crops should be grown once in every three years. Corn can be grown in the following year with two years of silage followed in succession by three or more years of forage. Leguminous crops (such as pea and chickpea) during crop rotation helps in modifying soil functional microbial communities. In the rotation, cover cropping or mulching, and zero tillage should

**247**

*Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate and Ameliorate Soil…*

and increase soil microbial biomass as well as enhance C and N cycling [7, 8].

soil organic matter and also increase microbial and earthworm activity [13].

The ridges are made across wind and they consist of tall listed seed beds that are being formed over the entire field or as trap strips which is in a position perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind. The formation of an earthen embankment along a common elevation contour gives an elevated terrace structure that can directly reduce wind erosion by potential reduction in wind speed and interception of soil particles. Indirect wind erosion control benefits of terraces and the related contour tillage and cropping practices expand overall crop grain and residue productivity by controlling runoff for increased water storage in the soil [14]. The underlying layer of soil becomes relatively less disturbed by the action of erosion hence making room for an increased microbial population

This is another method of conserving the soil and for controlling wind erosion. A windbreak serves as a barrier with the purpose of deflecting the flow of air and reducing leeward wind speed [15]. However, the availability of irrigation makes this conservation method useful in a difficult environment. The crops may be cultured in strips perpendicular to the prevailing wind where field orientation is not restricted as a means to reduce the near surface wind speed [16]. This practice is broadly accommodating of various width of crop strips depending on the crop tolerance to eroding soil or potential to trap soil grains. The interplay between erosivity and erodibility potential of soil determines the gradient of detachment experienced within varying soil types. This confers significance on the efficacy of windbreaks/strip crops to band soil particles together thereby

This method is aimed atpreserving soil aggregates, organic matter and crop residues [9, 10]. Conservation tillage include changes in making use of less destructive tillage implements (for instance, instead of using mouldboard plow, use chisel plow), minimum tillage (that is, one turn instead of two), leaving crop residue on the soil surface to prevent erosion. Plowing and tilling land for the preparation of the seed bed are basis of the traditional agricultural practices. However, these practices have been proven to be highly destructive to the soil with 24% of global agricultural land degraded as a result of this [11]. New approach which is centered on conserving and improving soil is gradually replacing soil tillage. The soil is typically inverted to a depth of less than 20 cm using mouldboard plow during conventional tillage system, however, in conservation tillage system, the soil is not disturbed or disturbed to a lesser degree [12]. This conservation method has shown to improve soil structure, reduce soil erosion, improve drainage and water holding capacity of the soil, increase

be incorporated too. Crop rotations can provide better opportunities for the growth of some soil functional microorganisms. This brings about rich biodiversity within the soil ecosystem as both the shallow feeding crops and deep rooted crops activates varying species of microorganismsper time thus creating a build up of microbes exhibiting varying characteristics to colonize the soil. Thus, different crops can produce various residues and root exudates to boost soil microbial diversity and activity,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94526*

**2.3 Conservation tillage**

**2.4 Ridges, terraces and contours**

within the micro-climate.

curtailing dislodgement.

**2.5 Strip cropping/planting windbreaks**

*Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate and Ameliorate Soil… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94526*

be incorporated too. Crop rotations can provide better opportunities for the growth of some soil functional microorganisms. This brings about rich biodiversity within the soil ecosystem as both the shallow feeding crops and deep rooted crops activates varying species of microorganismsper time thus creating a build up of microbes exhibiting varying characteristics to colonize the soil. Thus, different crops can produce various residues and root exudates to boost soil microbial diversity and activity, and increase soil microbial biomass as well as enhance C and N cycling [7, 8].

### **2.3 Conservation tillage**

*Soil Contamination - Threats and Sustainable Solutions*

**2. Soil conservation methods**

**2.1 Cover cropping and mulching**

accompanied by the transportation of soil particles and its subsequent deposition as soil sediments. Conservation approaches and management strategies that ensures these include crop rotation, cover cropping, planting windbreaks and conservation tillage, which have been harnessed for millennia. Soil conservation practices are said to be farming operations and soil management strategies carried out with the aim of achieving a goal which is to control soil erosion by preventing or reducing soil particle detachment and transport in air or water [2]. Soil conservation started with the aim to protect an ecology from agricultural production by making use of largely unproven technology that failed to adapt with the natural requirements of the land. The evolving land degradation trend could only be understood by determining if the causes were as a result of natural occurrences or by unwise use [3].

In Europe, Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is put in place in a bid to target the application of best management practices such as winter cover crops, reduced tillage, plant residues and grass margins in order to address conservation [4]. This traditional approaches which enhanced the productivity, environmental benefits and profits are based on procedures of no-tillage, and the broader concepts of agricultural conservation and land management sustainability. These concepts are one and not divided, but part of a continuous land management practices which range from detailed soil management practices such as zero-tillage, to the enhnaced concepts, principles and objectives of agricultural conservation and land management for sustainability.

This method is effective in reducing migration of top soil by leaving a cover over the soil in a bid to reduce soil displacement which is associated with the impacts from raindrops on the soil particles. Cover crops and mulching also reduces the amount of runoff and its velocity over the soil. Mulching, which is the application of organic materials over exposed soil to confer a form of covering to it over a period before decomposing. Straw can be used as mulch but hay is proven to be the best and it is important to ensure that it is harvested before the weeds mature. These crops are necessary to control erosion especially when the main crops planted do not give sufficient residue for more conventional residue management-based erosion control [5]. Where precipitation is adequate, cover crops like peas can help protect against wind erosion and also add nitrogen to the soil. The nitrogen released from the roots of these legumes are energy source for microbial metabolic activities hence such live mulch or

cover crop give rise to an active microbial community in the rhizosphere soil.

Crop rotation is an indigenous and practical way for managing agro-ecosystem biodiversity by enhancing soil health, minimizing pests and disease outbreaks [6]. This method enables farmers to improve the structure of the soil, increase the soil organic matter and rooting depth. This happens when secondary crops are grown in order to enhance soil health. As a result of the extensive shattering of soil aggregrates during seedbed preparation and harvesting, root crops are particularly destructive to the soil structure. Therefore, it is advised that root crops should be grown once in every three years. Corn can be grown in the following year with two years of silage followed in succession by three or more years of forage. Leguminous crops (such as pea and chickpea) during crop rotation helps in modifying soil functional microbial communities. In the rotation, cover cropping or mulching, and zero tillage should

**246**

**2.2 Crop rotation**

This method is aimed atpreserving soil aggregates, organic matter and crop residues [9, 10]. Conservation tillage include changes in making use of less destructive tillage implements (for instance, instead of using mouldboard plow, use chisel plow), minimum tillage (that is, one turn instead of two), leaving crop residue on the soil surface to prevent erosion. Plowing and tilling land for the preparation of the seed bed are basis of the traditional agricultural practices. However, these practices have been proven to be highly destructive to the soil with 24% of global agricultural land degraded as a result of this [11]. New approach which is centered on conserving and improving soil is gradually replacing soil tillage. The soil is typically inverted to a depth of less than 20 cm using mouldboard plow during conventional tillage system, however, in conservation tillage system, the soil is not disturbed or disturbed to a lesser degree [12]. This conservation method has shown to improve soil structure, reduce soil erosion, improve drainage and water holding capacity of the soil, increase soil organic matter and also increase microbial and earthworm activity [13].

#### **2.4 Ridges, terraces and contours**

The ridges are made across wind and they consist of tall listed seed beds that are being formed over the entire field or as trap strips which is in a position perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind. The formation of an earthen embankment along a common elevation contour gives an elevated terrace structure that can directly reduce wind erosion by potential reduction in wind speed and interception of soil particles. Indirect wind erosion control benefits of terraces and the related contour tillage and cropping practices expand overall crop grain and residue productivity by controlling runoff for increased water storage in the soil [14]. The underlying layer of soil becomes relatively less disturbed by the action of erosion hence making room for an increased microbial population within the micro-climate.

#### **2.5 Strip cropping/planting windbreaks**

This is another method of conserving the soil and for controlling wind erosion. A windbreak serves as a barrier with the purpose of deflecting the flow of air and reducing leeward wind speed [15]. However, the availability of irrigation makes this conservation method useful in a difficult environment. The crops may be cultured in strips perpendicular to the prevailing wind where field orientation is not restricted as a means to reduce the near surface wind speed [16]. This practice is broadly accommodating of various width of crop strips depending on the crop tolerance to eroding soil or potential to trap soil grains. The interplay between erosivity and erodibility potential of soil determines the gradient of detachment experienced within varying soil types. This confers significance on the efficacy of windbreaks/strip crops to band soil particles together thereby curtailing dislodgement.

#### **2.6 Residue management**

This is the most preferred method for controlling wind erosion for most crops and climates [17]. It is made up of several tillage practices that maintain residue from a previously harvested crop as a surface cover to prevent soil erosion. Residue management also maintains mulches which may be standing or flat to intercept soil grains by trapping their movement [18]. Leaving the residue of the previous crop on the surface of the soil is beneficial in that it improves soil water storage regardless of the runoff controlling contours, it helps to increase rain infiltration and reduce evaporation from the soil. The micro-climate here is well adapted for microbial activities as there exists a steady retrieval of energy from the decomposing biomass of residues thereby giving rise to mineralization of organic compounds and disintegration of complex molecules.

## **3. Effects of agriculture on environmental health**

Soil health is the innate potential of a soil to function within ecosystem boundaries (either natural or managed), sustain plant productivity, maintain water and air quality, support human well-being, and provide habitats for biodiversity [19–21]. Agricultural intensification is placing huge pressure on the soil's potential to maintain its functions which is progressively leading to large-scale ecosystem degradation and loss of productivity in the long term [22–24]. Over a few decades, significant efforts have been made to enhance agricultural productivity through increased fertilization and pesticide application, improved irrigation, soil management regimes and crops, and massive land conversions [25]. However, there is a growing concern that the use of natural ecosystems for agricultural purposes has incurred substantial environmental costs, including desertification, increased emissions of greenhouse gasses, decreased organic matter in soils, loss of biodiversity, and alterations to biogeochemical and hydrological cycles [26, 27].

The quality of the soil, conversely, is an extrinsic feature of soils and changes with the desired usage of that soil by humans. This may be related to agricultural production and its capacity to support wildlife, watershed production, or recreation outputs provision. Some of the environmental challenges that are related to agriculture are expressed as pollutants, climate change, soil degradation, and deforestation [28].

#### **3.1 Climate change**

Climate is described as general or average weather conditions of a certain region, including temperature, rainfall and wind, over a long period. Climate change has direct and indirect effect in speeding up or slowing down terrestrial microbial community composition and their functional activities. Climatic change alters the relative population of microorganisms and their functions within soil communities since soil community members differ in their physiology, temperature sensitivity, and growth rates [29–34]. The direct effects of climatic change on microbial population, composition and function have been reviewed extensively [35–39]. Temperature and water are essential environmental factors for microbial growth. Increased temperature alters microbial community structures and processes such as respiration, fermentation and methanogenesis are also accelerated. This directly affects enzyme activity and microbial physiological property. Both agriculture and climate change are interrelated processes, of which they both take place on a global scale. Climate change impacts microbial community structure and activities both directly, through alteration of the soil chemical and physical environment,

**249**

**3.4 Soil degradation**

*Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate and Ameliorate Soil…*

and indirectly through changes in land use. Environmental changes such as global warming are directly altering microbial soil respiration rates because soil microorganisms, and the processes they mediate, are temperature sensitive. The role of the prevailing changing climate, visibly expressed with elevated temperature, in microbial metabolism has been accorded considerable attention of recent [40–43]. This stresses the effects of climatic changes on soil microorganisms which are essential components in the ecosystem since they play a key role in maintaining soil

Deforestation is a major driver of climate change and cause of the loss of habitat for millions of species. The soil is the basis for agriculture, natural plant communities and natural climate regulation, with 75% organic carbon stored in terrestrial habitat [44–46]. Vegetation has extensive contribution in sustaining ecosystem services of both surface and subsurface soil. Deforestation exacerbates climate change in that trees are completely or selectively removed to create farmland. Land use changes have several undesirable consequences, with significant effect on radical losses in soil fertility, soil carbon and nitrogen stocks have been recorded in the

Synthetic pesticides are the most common and widely use method of controlling pests in agriculture. A large number of agricultural chemicals (such as fertilizer, pesticides, etc.) are used and some become pollutants through their use, misuse or ignorance hence leaching through the soil to pollute the groundwater. Soil erosion has been instrumental in the horizontal and vertical movement of these pollutants (earlier bonded with soil particles but displaced) from agricultural fields to other places, especially water bodies (both surface and underground). Consequently, pollutants from agricultural fields do have large effect on the quality of water. Poorly managed animal feeding operations, overgrazing, heavy use of fertilizers, plowing, and improper, heavy use, or wrongly timed use of pesticides, causes pollution. These pollutants find their ways through the soil profile and across the gradient of slope hence affecting rivers, groundwater, wetlands, lakes, and estuaries [28] through continued deposition over a long period. In the same vein, untreated industrial pollutants discharged from the industries and factories have prevalent toxic concentration. Oftentimes, these wastes are discharged into the water body and affect aquatic cultures as well as flora and fauna life cycles. Usage of unsuitable contaminated water and the discharge of untreated industrial wastewater into water bodies form a main source of water pollution. Soil pollution occurs due to untreated disposal of industrial wastes (laden with high toxic contaminants) into soil. Wastes from industries have varying amount of toxic chemicals such that when deposited in soil, they cause the soil layer strength in the top soil to deteriorate, thus reducing fertility and microbial activity of the soil. In addition, the hazardous effect

of these pollutants leads to ecological imbalances within the soil ecosystem.

Soil degradation is the decrease in the quality of soil that can be as a result of many factors, most especially from agriculture. Soils hold the majority of the world's biodiversity, and healthy soils are essential for food production and adequate water supply [49]. Soil degradation shows expression in salting, waterlogging,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94526*

health through ecological intensification.

first 20–25 years after deforestation [47, 48].

**3.2 Deforestation**

**3.3 Pollutants**

*Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate and Ameliorate Soil… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94526*

and indirectly through changes in land use. Environmental changes such as global warming are directly altering microbial soil respiration rates because soil microorganisms, and the processes they mediate, are temperature sensitive. The role of the prevailing changing climate, visibly expressed with elevated temperature, in microbial metabolism has been accorded considerable attention of recent [40–43]. This stresses the effects of climatic changes on soil microorganisms which are essential components in the ecosystem since they play a key role in maintaining soil health through ecological intensification.

#### **3.2 Deforestation**

*Soil Contamination - Threats and Sustainable Solutions*

This is the most preferred method for controlling wind erosion for most crops and climates [17]. It is made up of several tillage practices that maintain residue from a previously harvested crop as a surface cover to prevent soil erosion. Residue management also maintains mulches which may be standing or flat to intercept soil grains by trapping their movement [18]. Leaving the residue of the previous crop on the surface of the soil is beneficial in that it improves soil water storage regardless of the runoff controlling contours, it helps to increase rain infiltration and reduce evaporation from the soil. The micro-climate here is well adapted for microbial activities as there exists a steady retrieval of energy from the decomposing biomass of residues thereby giving rise to mineralization of organic compounds and disinte-

Soil health is the innate potential of a soil to function within ecosystem bound-

The quality of the soil, conversely, is an extrinsic feature of soils and changes with the desired usage of that soil by humans. This may be related to agricultural production and its capacity to support wildlife, watershed production, or recreation outputs provision. Some of the environmental challenges that are related to agriculture are expressed as pollutants, climate change, soil degradation, and deforestation [28].

Climate is described as general or average weather conditions of a certain region, including temperature, rainfall and wind, over a long period. Climate change has direct and indirect effect in speeding up or slowing down terrestrial microbial community composition and their functional activities. Climatic change alters the relative population of microorganisms and their functions within soil communities since soil community members differ in their physiology, temperature sensitivity, and growth rates [29–34]. The direct effects of climatic change on microbial population, composition and function have been reviewed extensively [35–39]. Temperature and water are essential environmental factors for microbial growth. Increased temperature alters microbial community structures and processes such as respiration, fermentation and methanogenesis are also accelerated. This directly affects enzyme activity and microbial physiological property. Both agriculture and climate change are interrelated processes, of which they both take place on a global scale. Climate change impacts microbial community structure and activities both directly, through alteration of the soil chemical and physical environment,

aries (either natural or managed), sustain plant productivity, maintain water and air quality, support human well-being, and provide habitats for biodiversity [19–21]. Agricultural intensification is placing huge pressure on the soil's potential to maintain its functions which is progressively leading to large-scale ecosystem degradation and loss of productivity in the long term [22–24]. Over a few decades, significant efforts have been made to enhance agricultural productivity through increased fertilization and pesticide application, improved irrigation, soil management regimes and crops, and massive land conversions [25]. However, there is a growing concern that the use of natural ecosystems for agricultural purposes has incurred substantial environmental costs, including desertification, increased emissions of greenhouse gasses, decreased organic matter in soils, loss of biodiversity,

and alterations to biogeochemical and hydrological cycles [26, 27].

**2.6 Residue management**

gration of complex molecules.

**3. Effects of agriculture on environmental health**

**248**

**3.1 Climate change**

Deforestation is a major driver of climate change and cause of the loss of habitat for millions of species. The soil is the basis for agriculture, natural plant communities and natural climate regulation, with 75% organic carbon stored in terrestrial habitat [44–46]. Vegetation has extensive contribution in sustaining ecosystem services of both surface and subsurface soil. Deforestation exacerbates climate change in that trees are completely or selectively removed to create farmland. Land use changes have several undesirable consequences, with significant effect on radical losses in soil fertility, soil carbon and nitrogen stocks have been recorded in the first 20–25 years after deforestation [47, 48].

#### **3.3 Pollutants**

Synthetic pesticides are the most common and widely use method of controlling pests in agriculture. A large number of agricultural chemicals (such as fertilizer, pesticides, etc.) are used and some become pollutants through their use, misuse or ignorance hence leaching through the soil to pollute the groundwater. Soil erosion has been instrumental in the horizontal and vertical movement of these pollutants (earlier bonded with soil particles but displaced) from agricultural fields to other places, especially water bodies (both surface and underground). Consequently, pollutants from agricultural fields do have large effect on the quality of water. Poorly managed animal feeding operations, overgrazing, heavy use of fertilizers, plowing, and improper, heavy use, or wrongly timed use of pesticides, causes pollution. These pollutants find their ways through the soil profile and across the gradient of slope hence affecting rivers, groundwater, wetlands, lakes, and estuaries [28] through continued deposition over a long period. In the same vein, untreated industrial pollutants discharged from the industries and factories have prevalent toxic concentration. Oftentimes, these wastes are discharged into the water body and affect aquatic cultures as well as flora and fauna life cycles. Usage of unsuitable contaminated water and the discharge of untreated industrial wastewater into water bodies form a main source of water pollution. Soil pollution occurs due to untreated disposal of industrial wastes (laden with high toxic contaminants) into soil. Wastes from industries have varying amount of toxic chemicals such that when deposited in soil, they cause the soil layer strength in the top soil to deteriorate, thus reducing fertility and microbial activity of the soil. In addition, the hazardous effect of these pollutants leads to ecological imbalances within the soil ecosystem.

#### **3.4 Soil degradation**

Soil degradation is the decrease in the quality of soil that can be as a result of many factors, most especially from agriculture. Soils hold the majority of the world's biodiversity, and healthy soils are essential for food production and adequate water supply [49]. Soil degradation shows expression in salting, waterlogging, compaction, pesticide contamination, decline in soil structure, loss of fertility, increase in soil acidity, alkalinity, salinity, and prevalence of erosion. Soil erosion is the wearing away of topsoil by water, wind, or farming activities [50]. At the same time, agriculture has been shown to contribute significantly to degradation, mainly through the continued dependence and improper use of inorganic fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, etc., which culminates in production and release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Moreover, agriculture that practices conventional practices such as tillage, fertilization, and pesticide application also release ammonia, nitrate, phosphorus, and many other gases that pollute the air, water, and soil quality, as well as biodiversity. Agriculture also changes the land cover of the Earth, which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light, hence contributing to radiative forcing. Soil degradation also has a large impact on biological degradation, which influence the microbial community of the soil negatively and alters nutrient cycling, pest and disease control, and chemical transformation properties of the soil.

## **4. Effects of microbial activities on soil contaminants**

By 2050, it is projected that the world population will increase to 8.9 billion people and this will lead to higher demand for agricultural produce [51]. In the future, the high demand of food and shortage of new agricultural land development will require increasing crop yields making use of sustainable means. Improvement of soil conservation increases soil organic matter and reduces erosion in other to have a sustainable agricultural land management and improved soil health [52]. Assessment of soil is based on the quality of soil variables that guarantee crop production sustainability in agricultural lands [19, 53]. Soil biota components such as microbial community, activity, abundance, stability and diversity which are improved by soil conservation have been discussed in several studies to be important indicators of soil quality [19, 54]. The rhizosphere of the plant is the narrow zone of the soil that is closed to the root system and sustains the production of crops with agrochemical inputs level that is balance or minimized [55]. Rhizoremediation of organic pollutants [8] and organic compounds creates nutrient-rich environment that influence microbial communities and the degradation of organic contaminants [56]. Soil biota plays a great role in residues of plant mineralization to form plants nutrients which can be easily absorbed by the plants for their growth and development [57]. Also, soil biota increases the rate of decomposition by excreting different enzymes that support plants's nutrients kinetics in the soil [58]. Microorganisms in the soil especially bacteria and fungi, transforms N between organic and inorganic forms which improves plant minerals uptake [59]. Microbial communities support the fundamental processes that provide productivity and stability of agroecosystems [60].

Soil conservation activities such as cover crops and minimum tillage as earlier mentioned can favorably improve soil health by increasing the number of soil organisms that break down organic matter, and in the process, release nutrients for the plant uptake. This soil organism breaks organic soil contaminants and several factors can interfere with the soil–microbe–plant complex hence influencing its functionality. Soil type [61], organic carbon level [60], temperature and moisture [62], oxygen level [63], electrical conductivity, calcium level and pH [64] are all factors that can change the composition and functionality of soil microbial communities. Of the soil macrofauna, earthworms are a major component and are very important in the soil fertility dynamics as their burrowing activities helps in improving the soil aeration and infiltration of water into the soil. The population of earthworm is influenced by soil conservation. [65, 66] discussed how minimum

**251**

*Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate and Ameliorate Soil…*

alters its nutritional profile and fungal and bacterial communities [70].

tillage which is part of soil conservation affects the population of earthworm. The increase of earthworms could encourage biological-remediation of contaminated soil known as vermiremediation [67]; soils contaminated with metallic contaminants [68] and organic pollutants and some chlorinated compounds inclusive [69]. The earthworms makes holes through the soil, mix the soil, affects its structure, and

Fungi are chemoorganotrophic organism that are present everywhere and plays fundamental roles in geological and ecological processes [71, 72]. They can transform a large varieties of organic substrates, in addition with natural polymers not only lignin, cellulose, starch and chitin, but also other anthropogenic products such as explosives, pesticides and other xenobiotics [73, 74]. Mycoremediation, that is, the use of fungi to remove soil contaminant, has emerged as one of the most promising and cost-effective soil remediation techniques [75–79]. Bacterial genera, namely, *Gordonia*, *Brevibacterium*, *Aeromicrobium, Dietzia*, *Burkholderia,* and *Mycobacterium*, Fungal genera, namely, *Amorphoteca*, *Neosartorya*, *Talaromyces,* and *Graphium* as well as terrestrial fungi, namely, *Aspergillus*, *Cephalosporium,* and *Penicillium* and yeast genera, namely, *Candida, Yarrowia,* and *Pichia* which were isolated from soil that has been contaminated by petroleum proved to be organisms that has the potential for degrading hydrocarbon while yeast species, namely, *Candida lipolytica, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Geotrichum* spp.*, and Trichosporon mucoides* isolated from water that has been contaminated were discovered to degrade petroleum compounds [80–82]. When soil microorganism is improved by soil conservation, mycoremediation will be facilitated in order to remove soil contaminant. For instance, fungi is a potential approach for specific site Arsenic bioremediation [78, 79]. This adaptation of fungi towards soil that has been contaminated could be the high surface area to volume ratio and their various detoxifi-

The physical and chemical properties of the soil significantly influence the soil fungal community structure and this is determined by agricultural practices [84, 85]. Increase in fungal biomass and bacterial is termed as changes in soil microbial communities and it has been observed in zero tillage than in conventional tillage practices [86]. Various land management practices has been examined to increase fungal biomass in the soil. Total fungal hyphal biomass and fungal propagules were discovered to be more in soil collected from organically managed agricultural systems [87–89]. The density of fungi in soil were found to be affected by crop rotation, animal grazing

The type of land management practices in agroecosystems as an impacts on the structure of microbial community and function through a variety of different mechanisms. Land-use changes also impact on soil microbial community structure through alterations in carbon availability and quality, pH and nutrient availability. Since the ratio of fungal population to bacterial population are commonly measured as indicators of microbial community structure, and the relative proportions of fungi are increased by no-till practices, crop rotations, and use of cover crops, thus biological mechanisms are regulating carbon and nitrogen exchanges between the land, water and atmosphere. This reveals the importance of soil management and conservation approach in enhancing microbial activity for soil ecological intensification as well as buffering the soil to neutralize contaminants. Albeit, microbial ecology to assess terrestrial carbon cycle plays a crucial role in maintaining balance

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94526*

cation of metal mechanisms [83].

and soil tillage [90–98].

within the ecosystem.

**5. Conclusion**

#### *Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate and Ameliorate Soil… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94526*

tillage which is part of soil conservation affects the population of earthworm. The increase of earthworms could encourage biological-remediation of contaminated soil known as vermiremediation [67]; soils contaminated with metallic contaminants [68] and organic pollutants and some chlorinated compounds inclusive [69]. The earthworms makes holes through the soil, mix the soil, affects its structure, and alters its nutritional profile and fungal and bacterial communities [70].

Fungi are chemoorganotrophic organism that are present everywhere and plays fundamental roles in geological and ecological processes [71, 72]. They can transform a large varieties of organic substrates, in addition with natural polymers not only lignin, cellulose, starch and chitin, but also other anthropogenic products such as explosives, pesticides and other xenobiotics [73, 74]. Mycoremediation, that is, the use of fungi to remove soil contaminant, has emerged as one of the most promising and cost-effective soil remediation techniques [75–79]. Bacterial genera, namely, *Gordonia*, *Brevibacterium*, *Aeromicrobium, Dietzia*, *Burkholderia,* and *Mycobacterium*, Fungal genera, namely, *Amorphoteca*, *Neosartorya*, *Talaromyces,* and *Graphium* as well as terrestrial fungi, namely, *Aspergillus*, *Cephalosporium,* and *Penicillium* and yeast genera, namely, *Candida, Yarrowia,* and *Pichia* which were isolated from soil that has been contaminated by petroleum proved to be organisms that has the potential for degrading hydrocarbon while yeast species, namely, *Candida lipolytica, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Geotrichum* spp.*, and Trichosporon mucoides* isolated from water that has been contaminated were discovered to degrade petroleum compounds [80–82]. When soil microorganism is improved by soil conservation, mycoremediation will be facilitated in order to remove soil contaminant. For instance, fungi is a potential approach for specific site Arsenic bioremediation [78, 79]. This adaptation of fungi towards soil that has been contaminated could be the high surface area to volume ratio and their various detoxification of metal mechanisms [83].

The physical and chemical properties of the soil significantly influence the soil fungal community structure and this is determined by agricultural practices [84, 85]. Increase in fungal biomass and bacterial is termed as changes in soil microbial communities and it has been observed in zero tillage than in conventional tillage practices [86]. Various land management practices has been examined to increase fungal biomass in the soil. Total fungal hyphal biomass and fungal propagules were discovered to be more in soil collected from organically managed agricultural systems [87–89]. The density of fungi in soil were found to be affected by crop rotation, animal grazing and soil tillage [90–98].

## **5. Conclusion**

*Soil Contamination - Threats and Sustainable Solutions*

chemical transformation properties of the soil.

**4. Effects of microbial activities on soil contaminants**

By 2050, it is projected that the world population will increase to 8.9 billion people and this will lead to higher demand for agricultural produce [51]. In the future, the high demand of food and shortage of new agricultural land development will require increasing crop yields making use of sustainable means. Improvement of soil conservation increases soil organic matter and reduces erosion in other to have a sustainable agricultural land management and improved soil health [52]. Assessment

of soil is based on the quality of soil variables that guarantee crop production sustainability in agricultural lands [19, 53]. Soil biota components such as microbial community, activity, abundance, stability and diversity which are improved by soil conservation have been discussed in several studies to be important indicators of soil quality [19, 54]. The rhizosphere of the plant is the narrow zone of the soil that is closed to the root system and sustains the production of crops with agrochemical inputs level that is balance or minimized [55]. Rhizoremediation of organic pollutants [8] and organic compounds creates nutrient-rich environment that influence microbial communities and the degradation of organic contaminants [56]. Soil biota plays a great role in residues of plant mineralization to form plants nutrients which can be easily absorbed by the plants for their growth and development [57]. Also, soil biota increases the rate of decomposition by excreting different enzymes that support plants's nutrients kinetics in the soil [58]. Microorganisms in the soil especially bacteria and fungi, transforms N between organic and inorganic forms which improves plant minerals uptake [59]. Microbial communities support the fundamen-

tal processes that provide productivity and stability of agroecosystems [60].

Soil conservation activities such as cover crops and minimum tillage as earlier mentioned can favorably improve soil health by increasing the number of soil organisms that break down organic matter, and in the process, release nutrients for the plant uptake. This soil organism breaks organic soil contaminants and several factors can interfere with the soil–microbe–plant complex hence influencing its functionality. Soil type [61], organic carbon level [60], temperature and moisture [62], oxygen level [63], electrical conductivity, calcium level and pH [64] are all factors that can change the composition and functionality of soil microbial communities. Of the soil macrofauna, earthworms are a major component and are very important in the soil fertility dynamics as their burrowing activities helps in improving the soil aeration and infiltration of water into the soil. The population of earthworm is influenced by soil conservation. [65, 66] discussed how minimum

compaction, pesticide contamination, decline in soil structure, loss of fertility, increase in soil acidity, alkalinity, salinity, and prevalence of erosion. Soil erosion is the wearing away of topsoil by water, wind, or farming activities [50]. At the same time, agriculture has been shown to contribute significantly to degradation, mainly through the continued dependence and improper use of inorganic fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, etc., which culminates in production and release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Moreover, agriculture that practices conventional practices such as tillage, fertilization, and pesticide application also release ammonia, nitrate, phosphorus, and many other gases that pollute the air, water, and soil quality, as well as biodiversity. Agriculture also changes the land cover of the Earth, which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light, hence contributing to radiative forcing. Soil degradation also has a large impact on biological degradation, which influence the microbial community of the soil negatively and alters nutrient cycling, pest and disease control, and

**250**

The type of land management practices in agroecosystems as an impacts on the structure of microbial community and function through a variety of different mechanisms. Land-use changes also impact on soil microbial community structure through alterations in carbon availability and quality, pH and nutrient availability. Since the ratio of fungal population to bacterial population are commonly measured as indicators of microbial community structure, and the relative proportions of fungi are increased by no-till practices, crop rotations, and use of cover crops, thus biological mechanisms are regulating carbon and nitrogen exchanges between the land, water and atmosphere. This reveals the importance of soil management and conservation approach in enhancing microbial activity for soil ecological intensification as well as buffering the soil to neutralize contaminants. Albeit, microbial ecology to assess terrestrial carbon cycle plays a crucial role in maintaining balance within the ecosystem.

## **Conflict of interest**

There is no conflict of interest.

## **Author details**

Oluwatosin Ayobami Ogunsola1 \*, Odunayo David Adeniyi2 and Victoria Abimbola Adedokun3

1 Department of Crop, Soil and Pest Management, Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria

2 Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Pavia, Italy

3 Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: oluwatosinogunsola8@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**253**

*Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate and Ameliorate Soil…*

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[12] Morris, N., Miller, P., Orson, J., & Froud-Williams, R. (2010). The adoption of non-inversion tillage systems in the United Kingdom and the agronomic impact on soil, crops and the environment—a review. *Soil Tillage* 

[13] Abdollahi, L., & Munkholm, L. (2014). Tillage system and cover crop effects on soil quality: I. Chemical, mechanical, and biological properties. *Soil Water Management Conservation*, 9.

[14] Duncan, D., Burns, K. (2012). The Dust Bowl: An Illustrated History. San Francisco, FL: Chronicle Books LLC.

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Oluwatosin Ayobami Ogunsola1

Technology Akure, Nigeria

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\*, Odunayo David Adeniyi2

1 Department of Crop, Soil and Pest Management, Federal University of

\*Address all correspondence to: oluwatosinogunsola8@gmail.com

2 Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Pavia, Italy

3 Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

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[54] Leskovar, D., Othman, Y., & Dong, X. (2016). Strip tillage improves soil biological activity, fruit yield and sugar content of triploid watermelon. *Soil Tillage Res., 163*, 266-273.

[55] Berendsen, R., Pieterse, C., & Bakker, P. (2012). The rhizosphere microbiome and plant health. *Trends Plant Science, 17*, 478-486.

[56] Kuiper, I., E. L. (2004). Rhizoremediation: a beneficial plant-microbe interaction. *Mol. Plant Microbe Interact., 17*, 6-15.

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current need: A book Review.. *J. Clean. Prod.*, 1258-1260.

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[62] Wu, X., T. Ge, W. Wang, H. Yuan, C.E. Wegner, Z. Zhu, A.S. Whiteley, J. Wu (2015). Cropping systems modulate the rate and magnitude of soil microbial autotrophic CO2 fixation in soil *Front*. *Microbiol*., 6.

[63] Yang, C., C. Hamel, M.P. Schellenberg, J.C. Perez, R.L. Berbara (2010). Diversity and functionality of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in three plant communities in semiarid Grasslands National Park, Canada *Microb. Ecol.,* 59, pp. 724-733.

[64] Maarastawi, S.A., K. Frindte, M. Linnartz, C. Knief (2018). Crop rotation and straw application impact microbial communities in Italian and Philippine Soils and the rhizosphere of *Zea mays Front*. *Microbiol*., 9.

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[74] Gadd, G.M. (2013). Geomycology: fungi as agents of biogeochemical change. *PRAEGER REVIEW, 113B*(2), 139-153. Retrieved from https://www.

[75] Harms H, S. D. (2011). Untapped

[76] Caporale, G., A., Sommella, A., Lorito, M., Lombardi, N., M.G.G., S., Azam,. .. Ruocco, M. (2014).

[77] Govarthanan, M., R. Mythili, T. Selvankumar, S. Kamala-Kannan, & H. Han. (2018). Myco-phytoremediation of arsenic-and lead-contaminated soils by *Helianthus annuus* and wood rot fungi, Trichoderma sp. isolated from decayed wood. *Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 151*(30), 279-284. doi:https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.01.020

[78] Srivastava, P. K., Vaish, A., Dwivedi, S., Chakrabarty, D., Singh, N., & Tripathi, R. D. (2011). Biological removal of arsenic pollution by soil fungi. *Science of The Total Environment, 409*(12), 2430-2442. doi:https://doi. org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.03.002

[79] Singh, M., P. S. (2015). Soil fungi for mycoremediation of arsenic pollution in agricultural soils. *Journal of Applied Microbiology, 119*, 1278-1290.

[80] Singh, R.K., R. T. (2020). Fungi as potential candidates for bioremediation. *Abatement of Environmental Pollutants,* 

doi:doi:10.1111/jam.12948

*Elsevier*, 177-191.

bioremediation of hazardous chemicals. *Nature Reviews Microbiology, 9*, 177-192.

Trichoderma spp. alleviate phytotoxicity in lettuce plants (Lactucasativa L.) irrigated with arsenic-contaminated water. *Journal of Plant Phsiology, 171*(15), 1378-1384. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

jstor.org/stable/42912447

jplph.2014.05.011

potential: exploiting fungi in

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94526*

[65] Bainard,L.D., P.L. Chagnon, B.J. CadeMenun, E.G. Lamb, K. LaForge, M. Schellenberg, C. Hamel (2017). Plant communities and soil properties mediate agricultural land use impacts on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the Mixed Prairie ecoregion of the North American Great Plains *Agric. Ecosyst.* 

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[67] Anderson, E. (1987). Corn root growth and distribution as influenced by tillage and nitrogen fertilization. *Agronomy Journal, 79*, 544-549.

Converting wasteland into wonderland by earthworms—a low-cost nature's technology for soil remediation: a case study of vermiremediation of PAHs contaminated soil. *Environmentalist, 28*,

remediation from partially composted distillery sludge using composting earthworm Eisenia fetida. *Journal of Environmenal Monitor, 10*, 1099-1106.

[70] Shi Z., J. L. (2020). Vermiremediation

of organically contaminated soils: concepts, current status, and future perspectives. *Applied Soil Ecology, 147*,

[71] Rodriguez-Campos J., L. D.-B.-R. (2014). Potential of earthworms to accelerate removal of organic contaminants from soil: a review. *Applied Soil Ecology, 79*, 10-25.

[72] Gadd, G.M. (2010). Metals,

[73] Gadd, G.M., R. Y. (2012). Geomycology: metals, actinides and

mycres.2006.12.001

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[68] Sinha, R.K., G. B. (2008).

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466-475.

103,377.

*Environ.,* 249, pp. 187-195.

*Tillage Research, 53*, 3-14.

*Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate and Ameliorate Soil… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94526*

[65] Bainard,L.D., P.L. Chagnon, B.J. CadeMenun, E.G. Lamb, K. LaForge, M. Schellenberg, C. Hamel (2017). Plant communities and soil properties mediate agricultural land use impacts on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the Mixed Prairie ecoregion of the North American Great Plains *Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.,* 249, pp. 187-195.

*Soil Contamination - Threats and Sustainable Solutions*

current need: A book Review.. *J. Clean.* 

[58] Dotaniya, M., Meena, V., Basak, B., & Meena, R. (2016). Potassium uptake by crops as well as microorganisms. *n Potassium Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Agriculture; Springer*,

[59] Van der Heijden, M., Bardgett, R., & van Straalen, N. (2008). The unseen majority: Soil microbes as drivers of plant diversity and productivity in terrestrial Ecosystems. *Ecol. Lett., 11*, 296-310.

[60] Singh, J. (2015). Plant–Microbe Interactions: A Viable Tool for Agricultural Sustainability Plant

[61] Dai,M., C. Hamel, M.S.Arnaud, Y. He, C. Grant, N. Lupwayi, H. Janzen, S.S. Malhi, X. Yang, Z. Zhou (2012). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi assemblages in chernozem great groups revealed by massively parallel pyrosequencing *Can. J. Microbiol.*, 58,

[62] Wu, X., T. Ge, W. Wang, H. Yuan, C.E. Wegner, Z. Zhu, A.S. Whiteley, J. Wu (2015). Cropping systems modulate the rate and magnitude of soil microbial autotrophic CO2 fixation in soil *Front*.

Schellenberg, J.C. Perez, R.L. Berbara (2010). Diversity and functionality of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in three plant communities in semiarid Grasslands National Park, Canada *Microb. Ecol.,* 59, pp. 724-733.

[64] Maarastawi, S.A., K. Frindte, M. Linnartz, C. Knief (2018). Crop rotation and straw application impact microbial communities in Italian and Philippine Soils and the rhizosphere of *Zea mays* 

[63] Yang, C., C. Hamel, M.P.

E. Arora, Ed.) *Springer*, 384.

Microbes Symbiosis: Applied Facets. (N.

*Prod.*, 1258-1260.

267-280.

pp. 81-92.

*Microbiol*., 6.

*Front*. *Microbiol*., 9.

*Land Degradation and Development*, 28,

[49] Hemphill, D. (1993). "Agricultural Plastics as Solid Waste: What are the Options for Disposal?". *Hort Technology*. **3** (1): 70-73. Retrieved 23 April 2015.

[50] Kidd, G. (2000). "Pesticides and Plastic Mulch Threaten the Health of Maryland and Virginia East Shore Waters"(PDF). Pesticides and You. **19** (4): 22-23. Retrieved 23 April 2015.

[51] Lichtfouse, E., Navarrete, M., Debaeke, P., Souchere, V., Alberola, C., & Menassieu, J. (2009). Agronomy for sustainable. *A review Agron. Seustain.* 

[52] Doran, J. (2002). Soil health and global sustainability: Translating science into practice. *Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 88*,

[53] Sahu, P., Singh, D., Prabha, R., Meena, K., & Abhilash, P. (2019). Connecting microbial capabilities with the soil and plant health: Options for agricultural sustainability. *Ecol. Indic.,* 

[54] Leskovar, D., Othman, Y., & Dong, X. (2016). Strip tillage improves soil biological activity, fruit yield and sugar content of triploid watermelon. *Soil* 

pp. 431-449.

*Dev., 29*, 1-6.

119-127.

*105*, 601-612.

*Tillage Res., 163*, 266-273.

*Plant Science, 17*, 478-486.

[55] Berendsen, R., Pieterse, C., & Bakker, P. (2012). The rhizosphere microbiome and plant health. *Trends* 

[56] Kuiper, I., E. L. (2004). Rhizoremediation: a beneficial plant-microbe interaction. *Mol. Plant Microbe Interact.,* 

[57] Meena, R., Bohra, J., Singh, S., Meena, V., Verma, J., Verma, S., & Sihag, S. (2016). Towards the prime response of manure to enhance nutrient use efficiency and soil sustainability a

**256**

*17*, 6-15.

[66] Rasmussen, K. (1999). Impact of ploughless soil tillage on yield and soil quality: A Scandinavian review. *Soil and Tillage Research, 53*, 3-14.

[67] Anderson, E. (1987). Corn root growth and distribution as influenced by tillage and nitrogen fertilization. *Agronomy Journal, 79*, 544-549.

[68] Sinha, R.K., G. B. (2008). Converting wasteland into wonderland by earthworms—a low-cost nature's technology for soil remediation: a case study of vermiremediation of PAHs contaminated soil. *Environmentalist, 28*, 466-475.

[69] Suthar, S. (2008). Metal remediation from partially composted distillery sludge using composting earthworm Eisenia fetida. *Journal of Environmenal Monitor, 10*, 1099-1106.

[70] Shi Z., J. L. (2020). Vermiremediation of organically contaminated soils: concepts, current status, and future perspectives. *Applied Soil Ecology, 147*, 103,377.

[71] Rodriguez-Campos J., L. D.-B.-R. (2014). Potential of earthworms to accelerate removal of organic contaminants from soil: a review. *Applied Soil Ecology, 79*, 10-25.

[72] Gadd, G.M. (2010). Metals, minerals and microbes: geomicrobiology and bioremediation. *Microbiology*, 609-643. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j. mycres.2006.12.001

[73] Gadd, G.M., R. Y. (2012). Geomycology: metals, actinides and biominerals. *Environmetal Microbiology Reports, 4*(3), 270-296. doi:https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1758-2229.2011.00283.x

[74] Gadd, G.M. (2013). Geomycology: fungi as agents of biogeochemical change. *PRAEGER REVIEW, 113B*(2), 139-153. Retrieved from https://www. jstor.org/stable/42912447

[75] Harms H, S. D. (2011). Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals. *Nature Reviews Microbiology, 9*, 177-192.

[76] Caporale, G., A., Sommella, A., Lorito, M., Lombardi, N., M.G.G., S., Azam,. .. Ruocco, M. (2014). Trichoderma spp. alleviate phytotoxicity in lettuce plants (Lactucasativa L.) irrigated with arsenic-contaminated water. *Journal of Plant Phsiology, 171*(15), 1378-1384. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jplph.2014.05.011

[77] Govarthanan, M., R. Mythili, T. Selvankumar, S. Kamala-Kannan, & H. Han. (2018). Myco-phytoremediation of arsenic-and lead-contaminated soils by *Helianthus annuus* and wood rot fungi, Trichoderma sp. isolated from decayed wood. *Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 151*(30), 279-284. doi:https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.01.020

[78] Srivastava, P. K., Vaish, A., Dwivedi, S., Chakrabarty, D., Singh, N., & Tripathi, R. D. (2011). Biological removal of arsenic pollution by soil fungi. *Science of The Total Environment, 409*(12), 2430-2442. doi:https://doi. org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.03.002

[79] Singh, M., P. S. (2015). Soil fungi for mycoremediation of arsenic pollution in agricultural soils. *Journal of Applied Microbiology, 119*, 1278-1290. doi:doi:10.1111/jam.12948

[80] Singh, R.K., R. T. (2020). Fungi as potential candidates for bioremediation. *Abatement of Environmental Pollutants, Elsevier*, 177-191.

[81] Chaillan, F., A. Le Flèche, E. Bury, Y.-H. Phantavong, P. Grimont, A. Saliot, and J. Oudot (2004). "Identification and biodegradation potential of tropical aerobic hydrocarbondegrading microorganisms," *Research in Microbiology*, vol. 155, no. 7, pp. 587-595.

[82] Singh, H. (2006). *Mycoremediation: Fungal Bioremediation*, Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY, USA.

[83] Bogusławska-Was, E., and W. Dąbrowski (2001). "The seasonal variability of yeasts and yeast-like organisms in water and bottom sediment of the Szczecin Lagoon," *International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health*, vol. 203, no. 5-6, pp. 451-458.

[84] Kapoor, A., T. V. (1999). Removal of heavy metals using the fungus Aspergillus niger. *Bioresources Technology, 70*, 95-104.

[85] Wu, T., O. Chellemi, D., J. Martin, K., H. Graham, J., & N. Rosskopf, E. (2007). Discriminating the effects of agricultural land management practices on soil fungal communities. *Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 39*(5), 1139-1155. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j. soilbio.2006.11.024

[86] Jirout, J., Šimek, M., & Elhottová, D. (2011). Inputs of nitrogen and organic matter govern the composition of fungal communities in soil disturbed by overwintering cattle. *Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 43*(3), 647-656.

[87] Minoshima, H., L. J.-M. (2007, May 01). soil food webs and carbon dynamics in response to conservation tillage in California. *Soil Science Society of America Journal, 71*(3), 952-963. doi:https://doi.org/10.2136/ sssaj2006.0174

[88] Sivapalan, A., W. M. (1993). Monitoring Populations of Soil Microorganisms during a Conversion from a Conventional to an Organic

System of Vegetable Growing. *Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, 10*(1), 9-27. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01448765.19 93.9754647

[89] Fließbach, A., P. M. (2000). Microbial biomass and size-density fractions differ between soils of organic and conventional agricultural systems. *Soil Biology & Biochemistry*, 757-768.

[90] Shannon, D., A. S. (2002). A comparative study of the microbiology of soils managed under organic and conventional regimes. *Soil Use & Management, 18*, 274-283.

[91] Wicklow, D. (1973). Microfungal populations in surface soils of manipulated prairie stands. *Ecology, 54*, 1302-1310.

[92] Martyniuk, S., & Wagner., G. (1978). Quantitative and qualitative examination of soil microflora associated with different management systems. *Soil Science, 125*, 343-350.

[93] Ploetz, R.C., D. M. (1985). Population dynamics of soilborne fungi in a field multicropped to rye and soybeans under reduced tillage in Florida. *Phytopathology*, 1447-1451.

[94] Beare, M., Parmelee, R., Hendrix, P., Cheng, W., Coleman, D., & Crossley, D. (1992). Microbial and Faunal interactions and effects on litter nitrogen and decomposition in agroecosystems. *Ecological Monograph, 62*, 569-591.

[95] Frey, S., Elliott, E., & Paustian, K. (1999). Bacterial and fungal abudance and biomass in conventional and no-tillage agroecosystems along two climatic gradients. *Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 31*, 573-585.

[96] Mazzola, M. (1999). Transformation of soil microbial community structure and Rhizoctoniasuppressive potential in response to apple roots. *Phytopathology, 89*, 920-927.

**259**

*Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate and Ameliorate Soil…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94526*

[97] Hedlund, K. (2002). Soil microbial community structure in relation to vegetation management on former agricultural land. *Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 34*, 1299-1307.

[98] Singh, S., & Rai, J. (2004). Soil microbial population and enzyme activity related to grazing pressure in alpine meadows of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. *Journal of Environmental Biology, 25*, 103-107.

*Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate and Ameliorate Soil… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94526*

[97] Hedlund, K. (2002). Soil microbial community structure in relation to vegetation management on former agricultural land. *Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 34*, 1299-1307.

*Soil Contamination - Threats and Sustainable Solutions*

System of Vegetable Growing. *Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, 10*(1), 9-27. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01448765.19

[89] Fließbach, A., P. M. (2000). Microbial biomass and size-density fractions differ between soils of organic and conventional agricultural systems. *Soil Biology & Biochemistry*, 757-768.

[90] Shannon, D., A. S. (2002). A comparative study of the microbiology of soils managed under organic and conventional regimes. *Soil Use &* 

[91] Wicklow, D. (1973). Microfungal populations in surface soils of

[92] Martyniuk, S., & Wagner., G. (1978). Quantitative and qualitative examination of soil microflora

[93] Ploetz, R.C., D. M. (1985). Population dynamics of soilborne fungi in a field multicropped to rye and soybeans under reduced tillage in Florida. *Phytopathology*, 1447-1451.

manipulated prairie stands. *Ecology, 54*,

associated with different management systems. *Soil Science, 125*, 343-350.

[94] Beare, M., Parmelee, R., Hendrix, P., Cheng, W., Coleman, D., & Crossley,

interactions and effects on litter nitrogen and decomposition in agroecosystems. *Ecological Monograph, 62*, 569-591.

[95] Frey, S., Elliott, E., & Paustian, K. (1999). Bacterial and fungal abudance and biomass in conventional and no-tillage agroecosystems along two climatic gradients. *Soil Biology &* 

D. (1992). Microbial and Faunal

*Biochemistry, 31*, 573-585.

[96] Mazzola, M. (1999).

Transformation of soil microbial community structure and Rhizoctoniasuppressive potential in response to apple roots. *Phytopathology, 89*, 920-927.

*Management, 18*, 274-283.

93.9754647

1302-1310.

[81] Chaillan, F., A. Le Flèche, E. Bury, Y.-H. Phantavong, P. Grimont, A. Saliot, and J. Oudot (2004). "Identification and biodegradation potential of tropical aerobic hydrocarbon-

degrading microorganisms," *Research in Microbiology*, vol. 155, no. 7, pp. 587-595.

[82] Singh, H. (2006). *Mycoremediation:* 

*Fungal Bioremediation*, Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY, USA.

[83] Bogusławska-Was, E., and W. Dąbrowski (2001). "The seasonal variability of yeasts and yeast-like organisms in water and bottom sediment of the Szczecin Lagoon," *International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health*, vol. 203, no. 5-6, pp. 451-458.

[84] Kapoor, A., T. V. (1999). Removal of heavy metals using the fungus

*70*, 95-104.

soilbio.2006.11.024

Aspergillus niger. *Bioresources Technology,* 

[85] Wu, T., O. Chellemi, D., J. Martin, K., H. Graham, J., & N. Rosskopf, E. (2007). Discriminating the effects of agricultural land management practices on soil fungal communities. *Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 39*(5), 1139-1155. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

[86] Jirout, J., Šimek, M., & Elhottová, D. (2011). Inputs of nitrogen and organic matter govern the composition of fungal communities in soil disturbed by overwintering cattle. *Soil Biology and* 

*Biochemistry, 43*(3), 647-656.

[87] Minoshima, H., L. J.-M. (2007, May 01). soil food webs and carbon dynamics in response to conservation tillage in California. *Soil Science Society of America Journal, 71*(3), 952-963. doi:https://doi.org/10.2136/

[88] Sivapalan, A., W. M. (1993). Monitoring Populations of Soil Microorganisms during a Conversion from a Conventional to an Organic

**258**

sssaj2006.0174

[98] Singh, S., & Rai, J. (2004). Soil microbial population and enzyme activity related to grazing pressure in alpine meadows of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. *Journal of Environmental Biology, 25*, 103-107.

**Chapter 15**

to Life

**Abstract**

social sustainable capacity.

sustainability

recorded [1].

**261**

**1. Introduction**

*Sonia Sethi and Payal Gupta*

Soil Contamination: A Menace

The dire concern for soil contamination includes the safety of food, ecological environment, public's health and capacity of social sustainable development. Soil is polluted by heavy metals and pesticides which are far beyond pollution standards. The soil biodiversity and agricultural sustainability are adversely affected in longterm harmful effects by the prolonged intensive and indiscriminate use of agrochemicals. It needs immediate attention for the whole world to curb continual deterioration of soil pollution and remediate contaminated soil as soon as possible to decrease harm on people's health and ecological environment. In fact, acceleration of related legislation, increased capital investment and technical development to remediate soil contamination and must achieve some progress. However, due to all sorts of the constraints, whether soil management system or technical capacity for decontamination is relatively outdated, so there remains a lot of work need to be done. Developing countries, including Brazil, India and so on, are also facing similar problems. Approaches to solve soil problems could benefit developing countries in process of industrialization and urbanization, so it's a very meaningful job to deep analyze and study the current situation and countermeasures soil pollution. In this Chapter, the overall situation of soil pollution is introduced, the concrete causes and hazards of soil contamination are discussed, and technologies and processes of soil remediation are suggested for improvement of the status of soil contamination and

**Keywords:** soil quality, xenobiotics, soil microbiota, remediation, environment

The fundamental to human life on Earth is Soil. In Natural environment soil forms the vital part and is as important as plants, animals, rocks, landforms, loch and rivers. The distribution of plant species are influenced by the soil and also it provides a habitat for a wide range of organisms. The flow of water and chemical substances between the earth and atmosphere is controlled by the soil and it acts as a source of all types of gases in the atmosphere. Natural processes are not only reflected by the soil but the human activities both at present and in past are also

The reduction in the productivity of soil is due to the presence of soil pollutants. The presence of any chemical substance or toxic chemicals (pollutants) in soil at a higher concentration than normal that adversely affects any non-targeted organism or pose a risk to human health and/or the ecosystem. Contaminants occurring

## **Chapter 15**
