**Conflict of interest**

There is no conflict of interest by the author.

*Agroforestry - Small Landholder's Tool for Climate Change Resiliency and Mitigation*

This shows challenges in addressing climate change at the awareness phase starting from the household level, which means that there is a lot to do to reach the extent of implementation of relevant plans of action with the involvement of the smallholder farmers [3, 10]. Development programs can be effective in bringing positive change in people's lives if they enhance their climate change resilience and mitigation [10]. A study of the importance of agroforestry in efforts against climate change impacts involving smallholder farmers in Kenya has shown that the trees enhance resilience against either scarcity or deluge of water thereby raising the threshold to which they can be affected by these extremes [41]. Family farming practised by these small landholders is suitable in this case and that is why the practised is well recognized under the declaration of the UN Decade of Family Farming which spans the period 2019–2028 [37]. The study concludes that "in both drought and flood events agroforestry had an important role to play in reducing sensitivity, largely through improving environmental conditions (shade, soil erosion, windbreaker, microclimate regulation), and increasing adaptive capacity by providing critical tree products and financial benefits (fruit, food, firewood, construction materials, fodder, traditional medicines, money from sales of fruit products)" [42]. This shows the multifaceted and positive role of agroforestry in climate change resilience and mitigation and more importantly for the small landholders who are often vulnerable. For example, concerning challenges encountered when there is a shortage of water, there is need perhaps a need to plant trees that are drought tolerant together or invest in irrigation infrastructure so that there is a substantial shift from

This strengthens the idea of adopting ecosystem-based initiatives as part of the broad nature-based solutions recommendations in tackling climate change among low-income groups who at most occupy small landholdings. The basis of these approaches is underlined by the critical role played by biodiversity which needs to be integrated into the climate change solutions. In this way, "integrated biodiversity conservation and climate change adaptation approaches can be instrumental in making people, places and wildlife more resilient to climate change. Beneficial outcomes may include improved food and water security, protection against the impacts of extreme weather events, more-secure livelihoods, the safeguarding of critical ecosystems and habitats, and carbon sequestration" [43]. The benefits show a win-win situation by balancing the livelihood needs of people while the landscapes upon which they eke their living are also taken care of so that they are sustainable. Ecosystem-based adaptation has shown positive spinoffs in food and water security in the Philippines, Bangladesh, Mongolia, and Uganda [44].

This chapter has highlighted the need to use agroforestry as a small landholder's tool for climate change resilience and mitigation in Zimbabwe. The majority of the Zimbabwean population resides in rural areas and largely depend on arable and livestock farming. While climate change is a global phenomenon, it has variable effects at a local level. More climate change impact is being felt in low to middleincome countries where the majority of the people are poor and directly depend on natural resources for their livelihood. Increased pressure on forest landscapes due to various human activities without adequate natural resources management systems and practices, has resulted in the transformation of those landscapes to precarious levels of degradation. Land degradation reduces the capacity of natural ecosystems to sustain livelihoods while increasing the levels of vulnerability of small landhold-

**38**

rain-fed agriculture [2].

**7. Conclusion**

ers to the vagaries of climate change.

*Agroforestry - Small Landholder's Tool for Climate Change Resiliency and Mitigation*
