**8. Ecosystem services from agroforestry systems**

According to the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, human beings are relished by supporting, regulating, provisioning, and cultural services from the ecosystem. They have become the most widely used framework to study the relations between ecosystems (including natural and human-modified ecosystems) and people [70]. Agroforestry has been demonstrated to combine production

*Agroforestry - Small Landholder's Tool for Climate Change Resiliency and Mitigation*

structure, and pore size distribution [53].

grass buffer system in comparison to the row crop system.

**7. Agroforestry in climate change mitigation potential**

Assam lemon (*Citrus lemon* L.) + annual agricultural crops; Arboretum (Mixed multipurpose tree species) + annual agricultural crops; Silvi-hortipastoral [alder (*Alnus nepalensis*) + pineapple (*Ananus sqennnsa* L.) + fodder and multistoried AFS [alder +tea (*Camellia sinensis*) + black pepper + annual agricultural crops]. The soil physical properties such as bulk density (BD), mean weight diameter (MWD) and apparent saturated hydraulic conductivity (AHC) were compared with the soil from the adjoining area of natural forest soils of same age. The mean bulk density of soil from natural forest was least (0.94 Mgm−3) and highest for Khasi mandarin and Assam lemon (1.19 Mgm−3). The bulk density was less for natural forest and other agroforestry systems due to heavy litter fall and decay of dead roots resulting in high organic carbon content [8]. Soil aggregates were represented with MWD which was observed highest for natural forest i.e., 3.13 and lowest in case of Assam lemon i.e., 1.39. The value of MWD is in the order as natural forest>multistoried AFS > Silvi-hortipastoral>Arboretum>Khasi mandarin>Assam lemon. The value of MWD was highest for natural forest due to more availability of organic matter content which helps in forming the aggregates. The reason for being a low value of MWD for Arboretum, Khasi mandarin and Assam lemon may be attributed to the frequent use of agricultural implements that disintegrate the soil structure. In all agroforestry systems, hydraulic conductivity was inversely related to soil depth. AHC signifies the rate of water movement through the soil profile. AHC was found rapid in natural forest (1.84 x 10−4 m/s) and least in case of Khasi mandarin system (0.38x 10−4 m/s). AHC varied for different agroforestry systems as Natural forest>multistoried AFS > Silvi-hortipastoral>Arboretum>Assam lemon> Khasi mandarin. This study concludes among the agroforestry system, multistoried AFS and Silvi-hortipastoral improves more soil moisture conservation capability, soil

An increase in porosity was reported by Udawatta et al. [54] in the Midwest Region of the United States in maize-soybean field in conjunction with using agroforestry buffers. In grass and agroforestry buffer strips pore path was observed three and five times higher than in soil of maize-soybean field which may be a reason for increased infiltration rate. Pandey et al. [55] reported that the sand particles declined by 10% and 9%; clay particle increased by 14% and 10% under midcanopy and canopy edge respectively compared to under canopy gap position. Silt particles quantity was not influenced by canopy position. Soil organic carbon, total N, total P were more under mid-canopy and canopy edge compared to the canopy gap. Seobi et al. [33] observed improved soil physical properties in agroforestry and

Agroforestry system acts as an atmospheric carbon sink and in carbon sequestration process, carbon is captured from the atmosphere and stored as carbon sink such as by oceans, vegetation and soils through certain biological and physical processes. Agroforestry system traps more atmospheric carbon compared to crop plants or pastureland [56, 57]. The capacity of agroforestry systems to sequester carbon depends on different factors such as tree species, age of tree, tree density, climate, geographical location, and management practices. In general, tropical humid climate sequestrates more carbon than arid, semi-arid, temperate region. On an average soil organic carbon pool in the soils of arid climate and cold region below 1 m depth is 30 and 800 tons ha−1 respectively. The total worldwide land area under agroforestry system is 1023 Mha which has potential to sequester carbon

**70**

with multiple ecosystem services and goods [71] it provides multiple ecosystem services, combining the provision of agricultural, livestock and forestry products with regulating services, cultural services and supporting services. In this context, there is a general need to gain more insight into the overall, total functioning of an agroforestry system i.e., a broad picture of the simultaneous and multiple services provided by such a system.

Agroforestry is a viable land-use option that, in addition to the socio-economic benefits, offers several ecosystem services in the face of different environmental and social challenges [37, 72]. Agroforestry promotes multiple ecosystem services like improvement in soil quality, water conservation by slowing down surface runoff, reducing sediment transportation, soil biodiversity, enhances carbon sequestration, and increases diverse food and cover for wildlife habitat [73, 74]. However, being these services much interlinked so are difficult to measure autonomously but agroforestry has the potential to promote economic, environmental, social vitality, and land stewardship [73]. Sileshi et al. [75] while working in eastern and southern Africa reported that when agroforestry properly designed and strategically located, and the practices of agroforestry can contribute to ecosystem services by mitigating land degradation, climate change, and desertification while adding structural and functional diversity to the agricultural landscapes in the Miombo eco-region. Trees on farms can prevent environmental degradation and provides healthy system for human welfare [76]. However, agriculture has changed enormously in the second half of the last century, driven by agricultural policy and technological progress. Trees that characterized many agroecosystems across the globe have been lost to a large extent [77, 78]. Although, promoting the concept of ecosystem services, to better understand the diverse ecosystem services provided by agroforestry is very important to know. In Ethiopia, agroforestry was credited as a sustainable farming practice that uses and conserves biodiversity and limits agricultural expansion into natural forests [79]. However, this farm-based conservation of biodiversity was only recently advocated by the Convention on Biological Diversity [80–82]. If managed properly, agroforestry holds promise for ecosystem services and environmental benefits. The practices of agroforestry can be considered an adaptive strategy in areas with increasing climate variability and can serve as viable carbon sinks as they trap and store carbon.

### **9. Conclusion**

Agroforestry provides goods and services from trees and reinstates degraded lands. The agroforestry system has the potential for making habitats for edge species conservation of remnant intrinsic species and their gene pools. In the wake of food scarcities and predictable climate change, the practices of agroforestry are gaining attention from the researchers and policymakers as a lucrative approach to develop food security, while at the same time backing to climate change adaptation and mitigation. However, to achieve the target of sustainability, we need to practice agroforestry with improved water management and innovative practices. Climate change will intensify constraints by creating weather more inconstant and will influence the yield by a further decrease in average yields worldwide. Changing food habits with an increase in population and water and land scarcity are also longterm trends that threaten our shared vision of a more prosperous future in which well-fed people everywhere can achieve their full potential without damaging their environment. Agroforestry can improve the resilience of agricultural production to current climate variability as long-term climate through the use of trees for intensification and diversification and buffering of farming systems.

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**Author details**

Gopal Shukla4

Jag Mohan Singh Tomar1

University, Jhansi, UP, India

and Raj kumar<sup>5</sup>

Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, WB, India

provided the original work is properly cited.

5 ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil salinity, Karnal

\*Address all correspondence to: jahan191@gmail.com

, Akram Ahmed2

1 Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Dehradun, India

2 ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region (ICAR-RCER), Patna, India

4 Department of Forestry, Faculty of horticulture, Uttar Banga krishi

3 College of Horticulture and Forestry, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

, Jahangeer A. Bhat3

\*, Rajesh Kaushal1

,

*Potential and Opportunities of Agroforestry Practices in Combating Land Degradation*

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97843*

This work was carried out without any funding.

**Funding**

**Conflict of interest**

*Potential and Opportunities of Agroforestry Practices in Combating Land Degradation DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97843*
