*2.4.1 Study site*

The study was conducted at the University of Limpopo experimental farm at Syferkuil in 2015 to access the impact inclusion of *Vachellia karroo* in the diet of indigenous Pedi goats on palatability indices, feed intake, digestibility, body weight change, carcass characteristics and histological parameters. Fresh leaves of *Vachellia karroo* were hand-harvested at the University of Limpopo Experimental farm using pruning shears in summer (November 2014 to January 2015). The leaves were airdried under the shade to minimise nutrient loses to ultraviolet rays [24]. The leaves were separated from the branches by shaking them off gently after drying, leaving the thorns behind. The leaf meal was stored until feeding time. *Setaria verticillata* (a bristle grass) hay was obtained from a local farmer and included in the study. The dried leaves of both *Vachellia* and *Setaria* were milled using a hammer mill (13 mm screen) to reduce diet selection by the animals when fed.

### **2.5 Results, discussion and analysis of fodder agroforestry practices**

#### *2.5.1 Farmers perception on agroforestry adoption*

Following the analysis of responses from 129 farmers engaged in conservation agricultural programmes in the Limpopo Province of South Africa, the following could be deduced about the cultural practices and attitudes that contribute to resistance to the adoption of agroforestry development alternatives:

*Limited land area* per household which cannot accommodate trees. Majority of smallholder dryland farmers in the Limpopo Province operate on parcels of land ranging from 1 to 3 hectares. Despite their willingness to grow trees, there is a general feeling among the farmers that trees occupy large space which could limit the production of the main crops of interest. Land constraint to adoption of agroforestry practices has been reported by Kabwe, Bigsby [14].

*Lack of land ownership* for long term investment in the woody perennial species. Control of land in rural communities in South Africa is by the Traditional Leaders. Farmers are usually given a temporary permit to produce crops on allocated parcels of land which are valid for 1 to 3 years. The lack of long-term security of land ownership is a major constraint to farmers that are engaged in conservation agriculture. This constraint has been reported by other authors [11]. The authors recommended that long-term, secure tenure and access to significant land is a key prerequisite if smallholder farmers in rural communities are to adopt and reap the benefits from agroforestry.

*Extension service* for CAwT is sub-optimal in most rural communities of the Limpopo Province. This is partly attributable to the fact that conservation agriculture is a relatively new concept in the province and hence the agricultural extension personnel are not well equipped in this area to effectively render the desired service to farmers. Capacitating the extension service in CAwT will invariably increase awareness and contribute to the uptake of agroforestry systems by farmers. In a study in other parts of Africa, it was observed that a group of female farmers and youth showed significant uptake in agroforestry and an increased in agroforestry planting across fields in villages receiving extension services was evident.

*Inadequate water* in drier areas for successful cultivation and management of beneficial woody perennial species was mentioned as a constraint. Water is the major resource limiting crop production in the Limpopo Province. To address this,

**53**

*Agroforestry Trees for Fodder Production in Limpopo Province, South Africa*

and other production inputs such as fertilisers and agrochemicals.

assistance from the provincial government in this regard.

fertility and moisture-holding capacity.

assistance the government is required.

**2.6 Results from field experimentation**

*2.6.1* Moringa oleifera *trial*

assist them in the farm operations.

Farmers do not have access to credit facilities to satisfy the financial requirements of intensive agriculture including agroforestry. Farmers requested

The *interference of tree species with land preparation equipment* and *excessive shading* by large trees on herbaceous annual component crops which may reduce yields of the latter were mentioned by the farmers. This specific situation could be improved by the choice of the tree component, careful pruning and using the harvested biomass for livestock feed or mulch to improve soil organic matter,

Farmers indicated that there is a *lack of control over movements of livestock, mainly cattle* in their communities and the roaming animals will likely damage tree seedlings before they are well established. Furthermore, if palatable tree species are planted on their farmland, this will attract both domestic and wild animals leading to the destruction of their fragile fences. Protecting tree species against roaming livestock and wildlife during the juvenile stages until they are well established is an important consideration in the implementation of agroforestry by conservation agriculture farmers. However, the high demand for fencing to protect young tree and shrub seedlings from roaming ruminants is costly for farmers and hence the

Few of the farmers mentioned that dense stand of trees on their farmlands could attract snakes and pose a threat to the farmers and their children who occasionally

Despite the challenges outlined above, over 70% of the farmers interviewed

agricultural farming operations. The inclusion of fruit trees for income and fodder species to address feed shortages in dry winter and early spring months were the

A summary result from moringa planting density and fodder field trials conducted at the two locations in the province, Syferkuil and Ofcolaco revealed that dry matter production of moringa varied with location, planting density and biomass sampling stage. On average, more biomass was produced at Ofcolaco relative to Syferkuil (**Figure 3**). Biomass production generally increased with increasing density across the two locations at all sampling stages, with higher rates of increase occurring at the 481 sampling date at Syferkuil and the 56 and 366 DAP at Ofcolaco.

expressed their desire to incorporating agroforestry in their conservation

preferred technologies mentioned by the majority of the farmers.

a good understanding of the sources and patterns of tree water uptake is crucial to better understand how trees influence the local water balance and the productivity of an agroforestry system. This knowledge will also be a useful guide in the selection

*Over-aged women* in farming who though have deep knowledge about tress but are constrained by the physical strength required for farming. This problem is being addressed by the government through specific programmes targeting the youth. *Lack of improved germplasm* to support agroforestry. Good cultivars of herbaceous crops such as grain crops as well as breeds of livestock exist for farmers to use in agroforestry systems. However, the availability of improved varieties and seedlings for the woody perennials in the system is largely lacking and this needs to be addressed. Farmers engaged in conservation agriculture receive good support from the provincial department of agriculture and land reforms in terms of seeds

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96017*

of component plant species for agroforestry systems.

#### *Agroforestry Trees for Fodder Production in Limpopo Province, South Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96017*

*Agroforestry - Small Landholder's Tool for Climate Change Resiliency and Mitigation*

screen) to reduce diet selection by the animals when fed.

*2.5.1 Farmers perception on agroforestry adoption*

**2.5 Results, discussion and analysis of fodder agroforestry practices**

resistance to the adoption of agroforestry development alternatives:

agroforestry practices has been reported by Kabwe, Bigsby [14].

Following the analysis of responses from 129 farmers engaged in conservation agricultural programmes in the Limpopo Province of South Africa, the following could be deduced about the cultural practices and attitudes that contribute to

*Limited land area* per household which cannot accommodate trees. Majority of smallholder dryland farmers in the Limpopo Province operate on parcels of land ranging from 1 to 3 hectares. Despite their willingness to grow trees, there is a general feeling among the farmers that trees occupy large space which could limit the production of the main crops of interest. Land constraint to adoption of

*Lack of land ownership* for long term investment in the woody perennial species. Control of land in rural communities in South Africa is by the Traditional Leaders. Farmers are usually given a temporary permit to produce crops on allocated parcels of land which are valid for 1 to 3 years. The lack of long-term security of land ownership is a major constraint to farmers that are engaged in conservation agriculture. This constraint has been reported by other authors [11]. The authors recommended that long-term, secure tenure and access to significant land is a key prerequisite if smallholder farmers in rural communities are to adopt and reap the

*Extension service* for CAwT is sub-optimal in most rural communities of the Limpopo Province. This is partly attributable to the fact that conservation agriculture is a relatively new concept in the province and hence the agricultural extension personnel are not well equipped in this area to effectively render the desired service to farmers. Capacitating the extension service in CAwT will invariably increase awareness and contribute to the uptake of agroforestry systems by farmers. In a study in other parts of Africa, it was observed that a group of female farmers and youth showed significant uptake in agroforestry and an increased in agroforestry planting across fields in villages receiving extension services was

*Inadequate water* in drier areas for successful cultivation and management of beneficial woody perennial species was mentioned as a constraint. Water is the major resource limiting crop production in the Limpopo Province. To address this,

The study was conducted at the University of Limpopo experimental farm at Syferkuil in 2015 to access the impact inclusion of *Vachellia karroo* in the diet of indigenous Pedi goats on palatability indices, feed intake, digestibility, body weight change, carcass characteristics and histological parameters. Fresh leaves of *Vachellia karroo* were hand-harvested at the University of Limpopo Experimental farm using pruning shears in summer (November 2014 to January 2015). The leaves were airdried under the shade to minimise nutrient loses to ultraviolet rays [24]. The leaves were separated from the branches by shaking them off gently after drying, leaving the thorns behind. The leaf meal was stored until feeding time. *Setaria verticillata* (a bristle grass) hay was obtained from a local farmer and included in the study. The dried leaves of both *Vachellia* and *Setaria* were milled using a hammer mill (13 mm

**2.4** *Vachellia karroo* **trial**

*2.4.1 Study site*

**52**

evident.

benefits from agroforestry.

a good understanding of the sources and patterns of tree water uptake is crucial to better understand how trees influence the local water balance and the productivity of an agroforestry system. This knowledge will also be a useful guide in the selection of component plant species for agroforestry systems.

*Over-aged women* in farming who though have deep knowledge about tress but are constrained by the physical strength required for farming. This problem is being addressed by the government through specific programmes targeting the youth.

*Lack of improved germplasm* to support agroforestry. Good cultivars of herbaceous crops such as grain crops as well as breeds of livestock exist for farmers to use in agroforestry systems. However, the availability of improved varieties and seedlings for the woody perennials in the system is largely lacking and this needs to be addressed. Farmers engaged in conservation agriculture receive good support from the provincial department of agriculture and land reforms in terms of seeds and other production inputs such as fertilisers and agrochemicals.

Farmers do not have access to credit facilities to satisfy the financial requirements of intensive agriculture including agroforestry. Farmers requested assistance from the provincial government in this regard.

The *interference of tree species with land preparation equipment* and *excessive shading* by large trees on herbaceous annual component crops which may reduce yields of the latter were mentioned by the farmers. This specific situation could be improved by the choice of the tree component, careful pruning and using the harvested biomass for livestock feed or mulch to improve soil organic matter, fertility and moisture-holding capacity.

Farmers indicated that there is a *lack of control over movements of livestock, mainly cattle* in their communities and the roaming animals will likely damage tree seedlings before they are well established. Furthermore, if palatable tree species are planted on their farmland, this will attract both domestic and wild animals leading to the destruction of their fragile fences. Protecting tree species against roaming livestock and wildlife during the juvenile stages until they are well established is an important consideration in the implementation of agroforestry by conservation agriculture farmers. However, the high demand for fencing to protect young tree and shrub seedlings from roaming ruminants is costly for farmers and hence the assistance the government is required.

Few of the farmers mentioned that dense stand of trees on their farmlands could attract snakes and pose a threat to the farmers and their children who occasionally assist them in the farm operations.

Despite the challenges outlined above, over 70% of the farmers interviewed expressed their desire to incorporating agroforestry in their conservation agricultural farming operations. The inclusion of fruit trees for income and fodder species to address feed shortages in dry winter and early spring months were the preferred technologies mentioned by the majority of the farmers.

### **2.6 Results from field experimentation**

#### *2.6.1* Moringa oleifera *trial*

A summary result from moringa planting density and fodder field trials conducted at the two locations in the province, Syferkuil and Ofcolaco revealed that dry matter production of moringa varied with location, planting density and biomass sampling stage. On average, more biomass was produced at Ofcolaco relative to Syferkuil (**Figure 3**). Biomass production generally increased with increasing density across the two locations at all sampling stages, with higher rates of increase occurring at the 481 sampling date at Syferkuil and the 56 and 366 DAP at Ofcolaco.

#### **Figure 3.**

*Moringa biomass production as influenced by planting density and sampling stage at Syferkuil and Ofcolaco. (Extracted from Mabapa et al., 2018). H1 (Autumn), H2 (Winter), H3 (Summer), H4 (Spring).*

Lower biomass was harvested at 481 and 281 DAP at Syferkuil and Ofcolaco compared to the other sampling dates. These periods coincided with the winter months where moringa dropped significant amounts of leaves, (*Extracted from Mabapa, Ayisi* [18]).

#### *2.6.2 Seasonal influence on moringa biomass*

Low temperature and drought such as experienced in winter and early spring periods of the Limpopo Province reduced moringa biomass production (**Table 2**) and nutritional composition (**Figure 4**). The mineral ion that was severely impacted was iron. To optimise the use of moringa as a nutrient source during winter and early spring when feed supply is severely constrained, the biomass can be harvested more intensely in summer and autumn months and stored for the winter period. Moringa should also be mixed with grass as feed inclusion to increase the volume of feed available to the livestock.

#### *2.6.3 Nutritional value of moringa*

The crude protein content of moringa leaves ranged from 27.96 to 33.74% at Syferkuil and from 16.32 to 30.3% at Ofcolaco. (**Table 2**). At Syferkuil, plant density and cutting interval did not influence crude protein (%), Ca, Mg, K, P, and Zn content. However, a decrease in iron content and an increase in manganese content were observed during the third harvest across all planting densities (**Table 2**). At Ofcolaco, cutting interval had a negative influence on the nutritional quality of moringa leaves mainly at harvests 3 and 4. The chemical properties affected by sampling interval were crude protein, K, P, Fe, Mn, and Zn content. At harvests 1 and 2, the chemical compositions were generally higher than later, although at harvests 3 and 4 these fell markedly (**Table 2**).

#### **2.7 Vachellia karroo trial**

The nutritional composition of *Vachellia karroo* leaves and *Setaria verticillata* grass hay is presented in **Table 3**.

**55**

**Figure 4.**

*H2 (Winter), H3 (Summer), H4 (Spring).*

**Table 2.**

*and Ofcolaco.*

*Agroforestry Trees for Fodder Production in Limpopo Province, South Africa*

**Syferkuil 96 DAP 177 DAP 417 DAP 481 DAP LSD(0.05)** CP (%) 32.92 27.96 32.93 33.74 *ns* Ca (%) 1.60 1.76 1.48 1.76 *ns* Mg (%) 0.67 0.63 0.65 0.82 *ns* K (%) 1.60 1.73 2.04 1.64 *ns* P (%) 0.29 0.32 0.34 0.39 *ns* Fe (mg/kg) 207.0 166.0 152.0 323.0 *74.45* Mn (mg/kg) 65.00 61.00 86.00 61.70 *13.29* Zn (mg/kg) 26.00 24.50 28.70 21.80 *ns* **Ofcolaco** 56 DAP 100 DAP 281 DAP 366 DAP *LSD*(0.05) CP (%) 24.20 30.3 17.02 16.32 3.49 Ca (%) 1.82 1.92 2.22 2.00 ns Mg (%) 0.66 0.66 0.88 0.76 ns K (%) 2.35 2.55 0.63 0.70 0.19 P (%) 0.47 0.58 0.18 0.17 0.02 Fe (mg/kg) 138.0 182.0 176.0 75.0 35.12 Mn (mg/kg) 95.70 82.60 100.1 98.10 2.89 Zn (mg/kg) 28.10 28.00 19.9 11.10 1.96

*V. karroo* leaves have crude high protein contents, ranging from 10.65 to 14.65% (mean of 12.7%). The crude protein contents of *V. karroo* could support maintenance requirements and some production levels in ruminants, particularly, goats. Thus, *V. karroo* leaves have the potential of being a protein feed for ruminants, especially during the long dry season. The results of the palatability indices indicated

*Seasonal biomass production of moringa at Syferkuil and Ofcolaco across densities. H1 (Autumn),* 

*Nutritional value of Moringa oleifera leaves at 435000 plants ha−1 as influenced by sampling date at Syferkuil* 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96017*


*Agroforestry Trees for Fodder Production in Limpopo Province, South Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96017*

#### **Table 2.**

*Agroforestry - Small Landholder's Tool for Climate Change Resiliency and Mitigation*

Lower biomass was harvested at 481 and 281 DAP at Syferkuil and Ofcolaco compared to the other sampling dates. These periods coincided with the winter months where moringa dropped significant amounts of leaves, (*Extracted from Mabapa,* 

*Moringa biomass production as influenced by planting density and sampling stage at Syferkuil and Ofcolaco.* 

*(Extracted from Mabapa et al., 2018). H1 (Autumn), H2 (Winter), H3 (Summer), H4 (Spring).*

Low temperature and drought such as experienced in winter and early spring periods of the Limpopo Province reduced moringa biomass production (**Table 2**) and nutritional composition (**Figure 4**). The mineral ion that was severely impacted was iron. To optimise the use of moringa as a nutrient source during winter and early spring when feed supply is severely constrained, the biomass can be harvested more intensely in summer and autumn months and stored for the winter period. Moringa should also be mixed with grass as feed inclusion to increase the volume of

The crude protein content of moringa leaves ranged from 27.96 to 33.74% at Syferkuil and from 16.32 to 30.3% at Ofcolaco. (**Table 2**). At Syferkuil, plant density and cutting interval did not influence crude protein (%), Ca, Mg, K, P, and Zn content. However, a decrease in iron content and an increase in manganese content were observed during the third harvest across all planting densities (**Table 2**). At Ofcolaco, cutting interval had a negative influence on the nutritional quality of moringa leaves mainly at harvests 3 and 4. The chemical properties affected by sampling interval were crude protein, K, P, Fe, Mn, and Zn content. At harvests 1 and 2, the chemical compositions were generally higher than later, although at

The nutritional composition of *Vachellia karroo* leaves and *Setaria verticillata*

**54**

*Ayisi* [18]).

**Figure 3.**

*2.6.2 Seasonal influence on moringa biomass*

feed available to the livestock.

**2.7 Vachellia karroo trial**

grass hay is presented in **Table 3**.

*2.6.3 Nutritional value of moringa*

harvests 3 and 4 these fell markedly (**Table 2**).

*Nutritional value of Moringa oleifera leaves at 435000 plants ha−1 as influenced by sampling date at Syferkuil and Ofcolaco.*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Seasonal biomass production of moringa at Syferkuil and Ofcolaco across densities. H1 (Autumn), H2 (Winter), H3 (Summer), H4 (Spring).*

*V. karroo* leaves have crude high protein contents, ranging from 10.65 to 14.65% (mean of 12.7%). The crude protein contents of *V. karroo* could support maintenance requirements and some production levels in ruminants, particularly, goats. Thus, *V. karroo* leaves have the potential of being a protein feed for ruminants, especially during the long dry season. The results of the palatability indices indicated

#### *Agroforestry - Small Landholder's Tool for Climate Change Resiliency and Mitigation*


*# : Condensed tannins as percentage DM leucocyanidin equivalent ##: Expressed as tannic acid equivalent (%); ND: Not detected*

#### **Table 3.**

*The nutritional composition of* Vachellia karroo *leaves and* Setaria verticillate *grass hay.*

that diets with higher *V. karroo* inclusion levels had higher intakes and relative palatability rankings by goats, regardless of the higher condensed tannin and phenolic levels. Inclusion of *V. karroo* leaf meals improved nutrient digestibility and growth rate of goats. *V. karroo* leaf meal inclusion did not adversely affect goat meat tenderness, juiciness, flavour, taste, aroma and overall acceptability. Reduction in internal parasites and methane gas emission were also recorded in goats fed with tanniniferous *V. karroo.*

#### **3. Concluding remarks**

Climate change has become a threat to smallholder crop and livestock productivity in many rural areas of South Africa. To address this challenge, coordinated efforts in the implementation of workable technologies needs to be pursued. However, agricultural practices and technologies communicated to farmers in previous years by diverse stakeholders have not produced the desired results. In some situation, the information received has reduced farmers' awareness about the fact that their physical well-being depends, to a large degree on the way the natural resources are managed.

From the information gathered from the farmers, it is deduced that the general lack of knowledge about the benefits of woody perennial species in an agroecosystems does not encourage the adoption of agroforestry. Several farmers view the presence of trees on farmlands as an interfering, rather than a beneficial component. Additionally, in some rural communities, where members are aware of the benefit of certain tree foliage in livestock feed, farmers could not comprehend how the management operations should extend to the tree species.

For successful scaling out of this farming practice in the Limpopo Province, thorough training of participating farmers and all the relevant stakeholders will be required. Relevant research into management practices required for successful agroforestry interventions is also critical to the successful adoption of agroforestry in the province.

Planting *Moringa oleifera* at a relatively high density increased biomass production. A planting density of 435,000 plants ha−1 resulted in higher biomass accumulation at all sampling intervals. Moringa can thus, be planted by farmers at higher densities on their fields in an agroforestry system. Moringa can be harvested at a height of 50 cm above ground level, which facilitates mechanical harvesting, and

**57**

**Author details**

Kingsley Kwabena Ayisi1

**Acknowledgements**

Republic of South Africa

\*, Paulina Bopape-Mabapa2

The authors express their gratitude to the Department of Science and Innovation, The National Research Foundation and the VLIR-IUC programme for their financial support for the conduct of the study. The contribution made by the Limpopo Department of Agriculture and Rural Development is also acknowledged.

1 Risk and Vulnerability Science Centre, University of Limpopo, Sovenga,

University of Limpopo, Sovenga, Republic of South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: kwabena.ayisi@ul.ac.za

Limpopo, Sovenga, Republic of South Africa

provided the original work is properly cited.

2 Department of Plant Production, Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering,

3 Department of Agricultural Economics and Animal Production, University of

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

and David Brown3

*Agroforestry Trees for Fodder Production in Limpopo Province, South Africa*

*Themada triandra* and *Urochloa mosambicensis* fail in winter months.

while the stem is still pliable. The relatively high protein content of moringa leaves makes it an attractive fodder crop for farmers who are eagerly seeking a solution to address winter and early spring feed gaps. The crude protein content of moringa far exceeded that of *V. karroo* and that of *Setaria verticillata* up to 20 and 25 percentage respectively. *V. karroo* will thus be able to supply livestock farmers with satisfactory amounts of crude protein, to sustain productivity. The moringa tree is also rich in other nutrients, making it a potentially valuable source of feed supplement for livestock in the Limpopo Province. Furthermore, both *M. oleifera* and *V. karroo* have proven to be valuable species that can survive harsh growing conditions where most of the dominant natural quality natural quality grasses such as *Panicum maximum*,

*V. karroo* leaves have the potential of being a protein feed for ruminants and its inclusion in the diet increased intake by goats regardless of the higher condensed tannin and phenolic levels. Leaf meals with *Vachellia karroo* improved nutrient digestibility and growth rate of goats and did not adversely affect goat meat tenderness, juiciness, flavour, taste, aroma and overall acceptability. Additional benefit recorded was a reduction in internal parasites and methane gas emission

With careful planning, research and education, specific agroforestry systems could be established in the different agro-ecological zones of the Limpopo Province

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96017*

when goats were fed tanniniferous *V. karroo.*

to satisfy local livelihood and adaptation needs.

*Agroforestry Trees for Fodder Production in Limpopo Province, South Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96017*

while the stem is still pliable. The relatively high protein content of moringa leaves makes it an attractive fodder crop for farmers who are eagerly seeking a solution to address winter and early spring feed gaps. The crude protein content of moringa far exceeded that of *V. karroo* and that of *Setaria verticillata* up to 20 and 25 percentage respectively. *V. karroo* will thus be able to supply livestock farmers with satisfactory amounts of crude protein, to sustain productivity. The moringa tree is also rich in other nutrients, making it a potentially valuable source of feed supplement for livestock in the Limpopo Province. Furthermore, both *M. oleifera* and *V. karroo* have proven to be valuable species that can survive harsh growing conditions where most of the dominant natural quality natural quality grasses such as *Panicum maximum*, *Themada triandra* and *Urochloa mosambicensis* fail in winter months.

*V. karroo* leaves have the potential of being a protein feed for ruminants and its inclusion in the diet increased intake by goats regardless of the higher condensed tannin and phenolic levels. Leaf meals with *Vachellia karroo* improved nutrient digestibility and growth rate of goats and did not adversely affect goat meat tenderness, juiciness, flavour, taste, aroma and overall acceptability. Additional benefit recorded was a reduction in internal parasites and methane gas emission when goats were fed tanniniferous *V. karroo.*

With careful planning, research and education, specific agroforestry systems could be established in the different agro-ecological zones of the Limpopo Province to satisfy local livelihood and adaptation needs.
