**6. Discussion of agroforestry as a small landholder tool**

Issues that relate to the factors that influence people's involvement in forest management programs need to be studied to determine the appropriate interventions [30]. Rural-based households in Zimbabwe encounter many hurdles to come out with relevant and applicable ways to cope with climate change impacts [8]. These issues need to be addressed and the government should lead the initiatives of mobilizing resources and participation of other stakeholders to spearhead supportive programs that integrate agroforestry as a climate change resilience and mitigation strategy. This is because it has been noted that the government's capacity to implement effective programs to combat climate change is limited despite having the right institutional mechanisms in place [5]. For instance, a study in two districts of Makoni and Wedza within the eastern Manicaland Province showed that smallholder farmers were not well informed about climate change though they could be able to describe conditions that show the onset of the phenomenon [11].

*Agroforestry - Small Landholder's Tool for Climate Change Resiliency and Mitigation*

of fruit trees around people's houses in the towns and cities of Zimbabwe.

the external conditions induced by climate change [6].

tion of forest resources is critical in fighting poverty [12, 14, 39].

This shows that forests should not just be protected from further degradation, but they need to be reclaimed too since 73% of the Earth's land surface has been modified by human activities [27]. Thus, there is a need to engage in natural resources management systems that serve human needs in tandem with the sustainability of forests [28]. These efforts to restore biodiversity can succeed when the cultural systems are put at the center of methods that yield win-win solutions for natural ecosystems and climate change resilience and mitigation [37]. Just like any country that is committed to the AfSD, Zimbabwe has a chance to play its part through SDG 15 which deals with "life on land" and specifically to achieve target 15.3 that refers to Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) [14]. Good management of the land helps in lowering the adverse effects of climate change while the conserva-

To tackle climate change, one has to understand the intricate ways through which people engage in activities to sustain their lives interface with natural ecosystems as these are not mutually exclusive. In her research, Laura Vang Rasmussen, an Assistant Professor at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark puts it aptly that, "the problem at the moment is that forest conservation, agricultural development, and poverty reduction are viewed as distinct from each other. However, the three factors do influence each other. Strategies to increase agricultural productivity can harm forests. On the other hand, an increase in wooded

The land produces and acts as a reservoir of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and functions in the interplay between energy, water and atmospheric gases between the ground and air above it [12]. Natural forests that have not been damage can store up to 510 billion tons of carbon dioxide and the world will not achieve its targets set by the Paris Agreement if forests continue to be damaged [27]. Key sectors such as agriculture, forestry and other land uses account for 76% of the overall GHGs produced in Zimbabwe [14]. In this respect, it has been found out that "land-based mitigation options rank among the most cost-effective opportunities to sequester carbon emissions. Economic evaluations of various climate change mitigation alternatives show that capturing carbon through restoring degraded lands (including degraded-forest) is a cost-effective option that offers multiple co-benefits" [35]. To mark World Wildlife Day by CITES on 3 March 2021, the theme was "Forests and Livelihoods: Sustaining People and Planet," to emphasize the critical part played by forests and their associated biodiversity in supporting human lives especially indigenous people and local communities (IPLCs) who manage 28% of global terrestrial ecosystems [28]. The role of IPLCs should be acknowledged and taken into consideration to frame everlasting solutions in the fight against climate change impacts through nature-based interventions [36–38]. A study of communities around the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve has also shown that the people have rich local ecological knowledge which helps them in raising their resilience against

management and sustainable forest management" [34]. Agroforestry as an ecosystem-based solution against climate change fits well with these nature-based interventions as the strategy has elements of sustainability, agriculture, water and forest resources management rolled into one. Most of the livelihood strategies in the rural areas are anchored on direct dependence on nature and it will be in the interest of the people there to take care of their immediate environs for them to sustain their livelihoods. Urban development had drastically the landscapes wherever towns and cities are found. However, the proliferation of urban agriculture in Zimbabwe has become an acceptable practice within backyards or open spaces around the suburbs. Home gardens, as one method of agroforestry, are very appropriate in this scenario of urban agriculture that is already existing there. This could explain the prevalence

**36**

This shows challenges in addressing climate change at the awareness phase starting from the household level, which means that there is a lot to do to reach the extent of implementation of relevant plans of action with the involvement of the smallholder farmers [3, 10]. Development programs can be effective in bringing positive change in people's lives if they enhance their climate change resilience and mitigation [10].

A study of the importance of agroforestry in efforts against climate change impacts involving smallholder farmers in Kenya has shown that the trees enhance resilience against either scarcity or deluge of water thereby raising the threshold to which they can be affected by these extremes [41]. Family farming practised by these small landholders is suitable in this case and that is why the practised is well recognized under the declaration of the UN Decade of Family Farming which spans the period 2019–2028 [37]. The study concludes that "in both drought and flood events agroforestry had an important role to play in reducing sensitivity, largely through improving environmental conditions (shade, soil erosion, windbreaker, microclimate regulation), and increasing adaptive capacity by providing critical tree products and financial benefits (fruit, food, firewood, construction materials, fodder, traditional medicines, money from sales of fruit products)" [42]. This shows the multifaceted and positive role of agroforestry in climate change resilience and mitigation and more importantly for the small landholders who are often vulnerable. For example, concerning challenges encountered when there is a shortage of water, there is need perhaps a need to plant trees that are drought tolerant together or invest in irrigation infrastructure so that there is a substantial shift from rain-fed agriculture [2].

This strengthens the idea of adopting ecosystem-based initiatives as part of the broad nature-based solutions recommendations in tackling climate change among low-income groups who at most occupy small landholdings. The basis of these approaches is underlined by the critical role played by biodiversity which needs to be integrated into the climate change solutions. In this way, "integrated biodiversity conservation and climate change adaptation approaches can be instrumental in making people, places and wildlife more resilient to climate change. Beneficial outcomes may include improved food and water security, protection against the impacts of extreme weather events, more-secure livelihoods, the safeguarding of critical ecosystems and habitats, and carbon sequestration" [43]. The benefits show a win-win situation by balancing the livelihood needs of people while the landscapes upon which they eke their living are also taken care of so that they are sustainable. Ecosystem-based adaptation has shown positive spinoffs in food and water security in the Philippines, Bangladesh, Mongolia, and Uganda [44].

#### **7. Conclusion**

This chapter has highlighted the need to use agroforestry as a small landholder's tool for climate change resilience and mitigation in Zimbabwe. The majority of the Zimbabwean population resides in rural areas and largely depend on arable and livestock farming. While climate change is a global phenomenon, it has variable effects at a local level. More climate change impact is being felt in low to middleincome countries where the majority of the people are poor and directly depend on natural resources for their livelihood. Increased pressure on forest landscapes due to various human activities without adequate natural resources management systems and practices, has resulted in the transformation of those landscapes to precarious levels of degradation. Land degradation reduces the capacity of natural ecosystems to sustain livelihoods while increasing the levels of vulnerability of small landholders to the vagaries of climate change.

**39**

*Agroforestry as a Small Landholder's Tool for Climate Change Resilience and Mitigation…*

It is also important to note that natural resource access and use depend on the various kinds of institutions that are put in place to regulate and control these processes. Governance of access and use of those natural resources stretches from the global, regional, national up to local levels where we find small landholders. This governance includes both formal and informal systems of regulations that deal with the use of natural resources for people to sustain their livelihoods. As such, climate change is a global phenomenon, which is not confined to national boundaries, thus it requires them to work together to find collective solutions. In this regard, global environmental governance has been strengthened to reach a consensus to tackle climate change. This has led to the signing of several international agreements, conventions and protocols which provide frameworks to guide country roles and development of their policies, plans and programs to increase climate change

Zimbabwe has put in place various kinds of institutional arrangements for its people to take care of the natural environment including forests, water and land. While these institutions look good on paper, there are a lot of challenges that need to be addressed in terms of the implementation of programs that help conserve the natural environment. It has been seen that various kinds of unsustainable activities lead to the degradation of the natural environment particularly in the rural areas where the majority population lives and directly depend on natural resources. This includes the cutting down of trees for various purposes including the increase in land and arable agriculture and livestock production. So, land degradation is associated with loss of biodiversity which is a critical component of natural ecosystems. Land degradation results in the loss of ecosystem goods and services, which compromise food production and water supply. Most importantly, land degradation

The chapter has justified why nature-based solutions are viable options for the smallholder farmers in the rural areas in the face of climate change. These solutions include ecosystem-based adaptation which are anchored on restoration of biodiversity. Agroforestry is an ecosystem adaptation intervention that is feasible for small landholders to adopt in Zimbabwe because of the multifaceted roles of trees and shrubs that are integrated into livelihood strategies. The implementation of such a strategy has its shortcomings that need to be worked around too. Favorable conditions for the adoption of agroforestry as a tool to enhance climate change resilience and mitigation make it a suitable approach under the constraints that face vulner-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97827*

resilience and mitigation.

is linked to climate change.

able the rural population.

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

Many thanks to the editor and anonymous reviewers.

There is no conflict of interest by the author.

#### *Agroforestry as a Small Landholder's Tool for Climate Change Resilience and Mitigation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97827*

It is also important to note that natural resource access and use depend on the various kinds of institutions that are put in place to regulate and control these processes. Governance of access and use of those natural resources stretches from the global, regional, national up to local levels where we find small landholders. This governance includes both formal and informal systems of regulations that deal with the use of natural resources for people to sustain their livelihoods. As such, climate change is a global phenomenon, which is not confined to national boundaries, thus it requires them to work together to find collective solutions. In this regard, global environmental governance has been strengthened to reach a consensus to tackle climate change. This has led to the signing of several international agreements, conventions and protocols which provide frameworks to guide country roles and development of their policies, plans and programs to increase climate change resilience and mitigation.

Zimbabwe has put in place various kinds of institutional arrangements for its people to take care of the natural environment including forests, water and land. While these institutions look good on paper, there are a lot of challenges that need to be addressed in terms of the implementation of programs that help conserve the natural environment. It has been seen that various kinds of unsustainable activities lead to the degradation of the natural environment particularly in the rural areas where the majority population lives and directly depend on natural resources. This includes the cutting down of trees for various purposes including the increase in land and arable agriculture and livestock production. So, land degradation is associated with loss of biodiversity which is a critical component of natural ecosystems. Land degradation results in the loss of ecosystem goods and services, which compromise food production and water supply. Most importantly, land degradation is linked to climate change.

The chapter has justified why nature-based solutions are viable options for the smallholder farmers in the rural areas in the face of climate change. These solutions include ecosystem-based adaptation which are anchored on restoration of biodiversity. Agroforestry is an ecosystem adaptation intervention that is feasible for small landholders to adopt in Zimbabwe because of the multifaceted roles of trees and shrubs that are integrated into livelihood strategies. The implementation of such a strategy has its shortcomings that need to be worked around too. Favorable conditions for the adoption of agroforestry as a tool to enhance climate change resilience and mitigation make it a suitable approach under the constraints that face vulnerable the rural population.

### **Acknowledgements**

Many thanks to the editor and anonymous reviewers.
