Outdoor Recreation within the School Setting: A Physiological and Psychological Exploration

*Brendon Patrick Hyndman and Shirley Wyver*

#### **Abstract**

School recess is a crucial outdoor recreation period to develop health behaviours such as physical activity, social and thinking skills that can track into adulthood. As students in some schools can be immersed in playground recreation opportunities via up to 4200 school breaks during their schooling (three times per day, 5 days per week, 39 weeks per year, 7 years of primary school), the school playground has become an emerging focus for researchers to facilitate important health outcomes. Outdoor recreation activities during school recess can contribute up to half of a child's recommended physical activity participation. Ensuring there is an enhanced understanding and awareness of what can enhance or hinder outdoor recreation activities within school contexts is therefore important to develop both physical and psychological strategies to help promote sustainable health outcomes. Despite outdoor recreation during school recess periods being a vital setting to develop physical, social and cognitive habits, the possibilities during this period have only started to gain momentum in the first two decades of the twenty-first century. This chapter will outline the important link between school playgrounds for outdoor recreation during school recess and the various physiological and psychological effects that have been revealed from various strategies that have been implemented for children with typical and atypical development.

**Keywords:** school playgrounds, recess, physical activity, psychological wellbeing, health

#### **1. Introduction**

Schools are widely acknowledged as a vital setting to develop a child's physical activity participation [1], with a comprehensive review from over 25 years discovering the positive links between a child attending school and participating in greater levels of physical activity [2]. Not only is the school context where children spend the majority of their time each week (+ 30 hours in many cases), but the school is also a resource full of outdoor recreational options for children to develop physical activity, cognitive and social habits. Such outdoor recreational pursuits could include non-curricular (e.g., after school, active transportation), co-curricular recreational opportunities (via recess, school sporting carnivals) and curricular programs (via outdoor learning/recreational programs). The importance of these outdoor recreational settings in school become underscored by the continual

reductions in the ability of children to experience opportunities to play around the home and neighbourhoods (e.g., concerns of neighbourhood safety, pollution, restrictions and non-play values at home) [3, 4]. Moreover, it is vital that a child experiences a multitude of opportunities to be physically active during school recreation to meet national activity guidelines. International guidelines recommend children participate in 1 hour of moderate to vigorous physical activity (e.g., activity which makes you sweat and puff) to develop positive physical activity habits to protect against chronic diseases such as Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis [5].

In addition to the physical benefits that can be derived from outdoor recreational strategies within schools, research over the past two decades continues to unveil the interconnections between both the body and the mind [6]. For example, Santrock [7] makes the statement "biological processes can influence cognitive processes and vice versa … we are talking about the development of an integrated individual with a mind and body that are interdependent" (p. 16). The brain is one of the busiest organs in the human body by processing around one fifth of the body's metabolism during cognitive processes. Therefore, it should be no surprise that cognitive processes require a steady stream of oxygen and energy from physical activities to meet such mental demands [8] and why sedentary pursuits of sitting/standing should be avoided to ensure that mental demands are optimally catered for [9]. So if a child is undertaking vigorous outdoor recreational pursuits at school, it is expected that a child's capacity to be able to remember, perceive, concentrate and attend to academic tasks should be improved [6].

This chapter will begin by discussing how children can be physiologically effected from outdoor recreation in schools. The discussion will commence with an exploration of both structured (e.g., a set purpose, location) and unstructured (e.g., less pre-determined purpose) playground strategies during school recess. The discussion continues with exploration into before- and after-school outdoor recreational strategies that have been introduced to influence school children's physical activity participation and development. The next section considers the psychological context of recess, before detailing the specific and intersecting dimensions of children's cognitive and social development during outdoor recreation in schools. Finally, an overview is provided with key insights that have emerged from the literature in relation to the physiological and psychological effects that have been measured within outdoor recreational school contexts.

#### **2. Physiological effects from outdoor recreation in schools**

The provision of a catalogue of outdoor recreational opportunities in schools is vital to ensure that children develop healthy habits and strong minds to take with them into both adolescence and adulthood [1, 10]. The impact and level of quality of earlier life experiences in physical and recreational pursuits often tracks into adulthood [11, 12]. Despite physical activity options being required to be delivered in various capacities of the school system, research continues to recognise that children will engage or prefer to engage in more sedentary-type behaviours of sitting and standing [13]. Large proportions of children exceed national screen time recommendations [14] and not meeting child physical activity guidelines has become the norm across most countries worldwide [15, 16]. For instance, a major international report on adolescent physical activity participation from decades of population data revealed that in most countries, just one (lowest) or two (highest) out of 5 children will meet national physical activity guidelines [17]. These guidelines are designed to ensure children are optimally healthy to prevent disease.

**47**

*Outdoor Recreation within the School Setting: A Physiological and Psychological Exploration*

Despite such dire health results, there has been continual research to try and promote positive outdoor recreational strategies in schools to have an impact on school children's physical activities. With the positive links of physical activity participation on biological improvements well established [18, 19], most research focusing on the physiological effects from outdoor recreation in schools has been concerned

**2.1 School playground recreational strategies to develop school children's** 

The school playground during recess is a powerful outdoor recreational school context to enhance children's physical abilities. The school playground has a combination of supervision, access and safety which allows wide ranging physical activities for children [10]. In many jurisdictions, the school playground during recess time has become the main option for children's physical activity participation, as PE time allocations have been reduced and eradicated [21]. Earlier work researching the impact of children engaging in school playgrounds during recess has suggested that almost half of a child's daily physical activity is sourced from the school playground [22]. The importance of discovering customisable strategies within the

There have been a number of strategies trialled within school playgrounds during recess to improve outdoor recreational activity levels such as themed activity weeks, providing games equipment, loose parts, surface markings, fitness ideas and providing more natural features [20]. Most of these strategies have been successful on participation levels from short-term measurements, which is likely due to the novelty of introducing new strategies compared to constant playground agendas and the desire from the children to expand their play options with variety [10]. Themed activity weeks of having alternating weeks with an obstacle course, frisbee activities, fitness circuits and a week with normal activities is one of the playground intervention packages mentioned [23]. This alternating recreational strategy unveiled that physical activity participation levels were greatest during the two weeks in which the children participated in a fitness themed week or their normal playground activities. Fitness-focused playgrounds during recess have also had a positive impact on children's physical activity levels compared to recess periods with no set playground agenda being implemented [24]. The implementation of games equipment with providing activity details and instructions for a range of games and activities for the children to perform in the school playground has also been introduced. Scholars discovered that providing the game cards increased the physical activity levels in the school children [25]. The implementation of other recreational games have also had success on children's physical activity levels such as via interactive bowling and running games [26], alongside games offered by trained staff in recreational sports [27] such as in softball, tag, basketball and relay games. The painting of school surfaces with markings [28–31] to encourage the outdoor recreational pursuits with jumping lines, board games, agility snakes and hopscotch have seen the physical benefits of energy expenditure increases (can help with obesity), duration engaged in physical activity, improved compliance with national physical activity guidelines and overall increases in the intensity of a child's physical activity participation over a 2 year period. Moreover, combining a range of strategies such as training staff to facilitate children's activities within the school playground, breaking up the playground into activity zones (e.g., soccer, tag games) and the introduction of loose sporting equipment (e.g., balls, markers) have had a positive impact on the intensities children's engaged in their outdoor recreational activities at school [32]. Additionally, even the simple redesign of playgrounds for outdoor recreation

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91900*

with improving physical activity levels [20].

school playground recreational context is therefore vital.

**physical skills and habits**

*Outdoor Recreation within the School Setting: A Physiological and Psychological Exploration DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91900*

Despite such dire health results, there has been continual research to try and promote positive outdoor recreational strategies in schools to have an impact on school children's physical activities. With the positive links of physical activity participation on biological improvements well established [18, 19], most research focusing on the physiological effects from outdoor recreation in schools has been concerned with improving physical activity levels [20].

#### **2.1 School playground recreational strategies to develop school children's physical skills and habits**

The school playground during recess is a powerful outdoor recreational school context to enhance children's physical abilities. The school playground has a combination of supervision, access and safety which allows wide ranging physical activities for children [10]. In many jurisdictions, the school playground during recess time has become the main option for children's physical activity participation, as PE time allocations have been reduced and eradicated [21]. Earlier work researching the impact of children engaging in school playgrounds during recess has suggested that almost half of a child's daily physical activity is sourced from the school playground [22]. The importance of discovering customisable strategies within the school playground recreational context is therefore vital.

There have been a number of strategies trialled within school playgrounds during recess to improve outdoor recreational activity levels such as themed activity weeks, providing games equipment, loose parts, surface markings, fitness ideas and providing more natural features [20]. Most of these strategies have been successful on participation levels from short-term measurements, which is likely due to the novelty of introducing new strategies compared to constant playground agendas and the desire from the children to expand their play options with variety [10]. Themed activity weeks of having alternating weeks with an obstacle course, frisbee activities, fitness circuits and a week with normal activities is one of the playground intervention packages mentioned [23]. This alternating recreational strategy unveiled that physical activity participation levels were greatest during the two weeks in which the children participated in a fitness themed week or their normal playground activities. Fitness-focused playgrounds during recess have also had a positive impact on children's physical activity levels compared to recess periods with no set playground agenda being implemented [24]. The implementation of games equipment with providing activity details and instructions for a range of games and activities for the children to perform in the school playground has also been introduced. Scholars discovered that providing the game cards increased the physical activity levels in the school children [25]. The implementation of other recreational games have also had success on children's physical activity levels such as via interactive bowling and running games [26], alongside games offered by trained staff in recreational sports [27] such as in softball, tag, basketball and relay games. The painting of school surfaces with markings [28–31] to encourage the outdoor recreational pursuits with jumping lines, board games, agility snakes and hopscotch have seen the physical benefits of energy expenditure increases (can help with obesity), duration engaged in physical activity, improved compliance with national physical activity guidelines and overall increases in the intensity of a child's physical activity participation over a 2 year period. Moreover, combining a range of strategies such as training staff to facilitate children's activities within the school playground, breaking up the playground into activity zones (e.g., soccer, tag games) and the introduction of loose sporting equipment (e.g., balls, markers) have had a positive impact on the intensities children's engaged in their outdoor recreational activities at school [32]. Additionally, even the simple redesign of playgrounds for outdoor recreation

*Outdoor Recreation - Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health*

osteoporosis [5].

demic tasks should be improved [6].

measured within outdoor recreational school contexts.

**2. Physiological effects from outdoor recreation in schools**

The provision of a catalogue of outdoor recreational opportunities in schools is vital to ensure that children develop healthy habits and strong minds to take with them into both adolescence and adulthood [1, 10]. The impact and level of quality of earlier life experiences in physical and recreational pursuits often tracks into adulthood [11, 12]. Despite physical activity options being required to be delivered in various capacities of the school system, research continues to recognise that children will engage or prefer to engage in more sedentary-type behaviours of sitting and standing [13]. Large proportions of children exceed national screen time recommendations [14] and not meeting child physical activity guidelines has become the norm across most countries worldwide [15, 16]. For instance, a major international report on adolescent physical activity participation from decades of population data revealed that in most countries, just one (lowest) or two (highest) out of 5 children will meet national physical activity guidelines [17]. These guidelines are designed to ensure children are optimally healthy to prevent disease.

reductions in the ability of children to experience opportunities to play around the home and neighbourhoods (e.g., concerns of neighbourhood safety, pollution, restrictions and non-play values at home) [3, 4]. Moreover, it is vital that a child experiences a multitude of opportunities to be physically active during school recreation to meet national activity guidelines. International guidelines recommend children participate in 1 hour of moderate to vigorous physical activity (e.g., activity which makes you sweat and puff) to develop positive physical activity habits to protect against chronic diseases such as Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and

In addition to the physical benefits that can be derived from outdoor recreational strategies within schools, research over the past two decades continues to unveil the interconnections between both the body and the mind [6]. For example, Santrock [7] makes the statement "biological processes can influence cognitive processes and vice versa … we are talking about the development of an integrated individual with a mind and body that are interdependent" (p. 16). The brain is one of the busiest organs in the human body by processing around one fifth of the body's metabolism during cognitive processes. Therefore, it should be no surprise that cognitive processes require a steady stream of oxygen and energy from physical activities to meet such mental demands [8] and why sedentary pursuits of sitting/standing should be avoided to ensure that mental demands are optimally catered for [9]. So if a child is undertaking vigorous outdoor recreational pursuits at school, it is expected that a child's capacity to be able to remember, perceive, concentrate and attend to aca-

This chapter will begin by discussing how children can be physiologically effected from outdoor recreation in schools. The discussion will commence with an exploration of both structured (e.g., a set purpose, location) and unstructured (e.g., less pre-determined purpose) playground strategies during school recess. The discussion continues with exploration into before- and after-school outdoor recreational strategies that have been introduced to influence school children's physical activity participation and development. The next section considers the psychological context of recess, before detailing the specific and intersecting dimensions of children's cognitive and social development during outdoor recreation in schools. Finally, an overview is provided with key insights that have emerged from the literature in relation to the physiological and psychological effects that have been

**46**

with equipment such as climbing structures, slides, and a spinning apparatus have had a positive impact on children's physical activity levels [33] or reducing sedentary behaviour [34].

Less structured recreational strategies without a set location, time or purpose have been found to have quite holistic benefits on children's physical health. For instance, these strategies have simply involved getting rid of school playground rules/regulation, providing more natural features (such as rocks, trees, gardens) and implementing sparable, movable household items known as loose parts. Although not directly measuring physical activity participation, a New Zealand primary school principal reported on the amount of new physical activities taking place for children's physical development when he removed excess school playground rules and regulations [35, 36]. The Principal described how the allowance of play which was perceived as more risky unlocked a variety of physical activities such as climbing structures like hand rails and trees, skating across hard surfaced areas and sliding in the mud. Moreover, the Principal noticed a dramatic reduction in physical injury from providing more play freedom. The recreational pursuit of climbing can have a multitude of benefits on a developing child, including muscular strength, endurance and flexibility [37]. Although tree climbing is perceived by many as being risky [38], the introduction of features such as trees, rocks, gardens and grass areas has seen school children vary their outdoor recreational physical activities, enhance the amount of space and opportunities for physical activity, play freedom and have had an impact on moderate levels of children's physical activity [39–41]. By greening outdoor recreational areas in schools, the ability to improve children's self-reported wellness is also enhanced [42, 43].

Overcoming adult perceptions of risky play [44] also reignited a multitude of larger studies on the provision of loose parts on children's physical development. Most of this more modern research stemmed from Bundy and colleagues' pilot study [44] research which recognised that adults perceived loose parts materials (e.g., sticks, crates, hay bales) as too risky, yet the findings demonstrated the entire opposite in very young children. The loose parts were able to transform the school playgrounds into rich childhood developmental hubs via outdoor recreation and reigniting the momentum of loose parts from the 1970's [45]. The resulting physical activity outcomes from introducing loose parts have seen increases in primary school children's (of a range of year levels) physical activity enjoyment, intensities, steps/distance, activity types, playability, durations, complexity and many of these physical activity developments were sustained for long-term follow-up studies (e.g., 1–2½ years) [20]. The earlier findings were also supported by studies across other locations such as the United Kingdom [46] and New Zealand [47] with positive teacher reports of similar developments. Moreover, "relocatable" sports equipment are also reported to have positive effects on children's physical activity [48].

#### **2.2 Before and after-school recreational strategies to develop school children's physical skills and habits**

By investigating the school playground strategies above, it becomes clear that continuing to consider strategies which will not burden teachers' curricular commitments can be powerful on a child's physical development. It is also vital to consider a holistic approach to outdoor recreation during school days for children's physical development with additional strategies, particularly with curricular physical activity opportunities being constrained [49]. Beyond the school playground, the most prevalent outdoor recreation school avenues are through after school programs, school camps/excursions, and active transport (to and from school via movement).

**49**

*Outdoor Recreation within the School Setting: A Physiological and Psychological Exploration*

and the school. Internationally, there have been a number of extracurricular recreational programs, commonly focused on increasing physical activity through sports. For instance, in Hungary, physical education teachers coordinate and organise physical activities outside of school as a formal requirement [50]. In Taiwan, there are opportunities for children to connect, learn from and interact with adults from training institutions in how to undertake and participate in sports [51]. The Australian Sporting Schools program has been a significant recreational strategy introduced to schools which has been intended to increase children's participation in local sport with the delivery of programs by a national sporting organisation [52]. Whilst many of the after-school and extracurricular programs which are implemented worldwide have little research data showcasing program effectiveness, the reach of the Sporting Schools program from 4000 [53] to almost 7500 schools

After school programs typically involve collaboration between the community

Although much of the research of this chapter showcases programs to develop school children's health via outdoor recreational strategies within the school setting, it should be acknowledged that there has been some research with school children outside of schools. Summer camps for instance are highly popular in places such as Canada and the USA with large summer breaks [55]. Such camps can offer chances for outdoor recreational activities in areas of sport and adventure and have been identified as having a positive impact on school children's physical health [56], physical activity levels and meeting daily physical activity recommendations [57, 58]. Another outdoor recreational pursuit for school children is to walk or ride to school via active transportation [59]. Scholars describe active transportation as creating important physical activity habits in school children, environmentally friendly travel habits and a valuable opportunity to invigorate children's physical activity participation rates and levels [60, 61]. Although scholars caution school communities about potential safety risks such as road traffic and strangers, it is acknowledged internationally that school communities can consider programs such as a walking school bus concept in which adults lead a group of children [62, 63]. This can be achieved by considering stakeholder partnerships and the level of infrastructure and resources around a school's transportation networks to actively transport to and from school. Although this extra-curricular strategy to encourage physical activity has widespread support, there still remains a gap in the data relating to long-term insights and standardised outcome measures of physical activity [64, 65]. As detailed earlier in the chapter, if physical activity levels can be increased, this can also have a positive impact on the flow of nutrients to the brain to enhance cognitive performance. In the next section of this chapter, we unpack a range of the outdoor recreational strategies

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91900*

[54] nationwide shows some impact of the program.

in schools which have had an impact on psychological functioning.

**3. Psychological effects from outdoor recreation in schools**

We begin this next section by considering the psychological context of recess before moving to specific areas of cognitive and social development. The psychological context of outdoor recreation in schools is rarely acknowledged, yet can be a major contributor to cognitive and social outcomes. One way to consider the psychological context is in terms of structure versus autonomy (e.g., ensuring more choice in how things are done). Structure can be imposed in a variety of ways including clearly articulated rules negotiated with children through to nonnegotiable top-down rules or quick decisions by teachers on duty during recess regarding the rule boundaries and positive or negative play [66]. An increase in banning of activities that children consider to be fun has been found in a large UK

#### *Outdoor Recreation within the School Setting: A Physiological and Psychological Exploration DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91900*

After school programs typically involve collaboration between the community and the school. Internationally, there have been a number of extracurricular recreational programs, commonly focused on increasing physical activity through sports. For instance, in Hungary, physical education teachers coordinate and organise physical activities outside of school as a formal requirement [50]. In Taiwan, there are opportunities for children to connect, learn from and interact with adults from training institutions in how to undertake and participate in sports [51]. The Australian Sporting Schools program has been a significant recreational strategy introduced to schools which has been intended to increase children's participation in local sport with the delivery of programs by a national sporting organisation [52]. Whilst many of the after-school and extracurricular programs which are implemented worldwide have little research data showcasing program effectiveness, the reach of the Sporting Schools program from 4000 [53] to almost 7500 schools [54] nationwide shows some impact of the program.

Although much of the research of this chapter showcases programs to develop school children's health via outdoor recreational strategies within the school setting, it should be acknowledged that there has been some research with school children outside of schools. Summer camps for instance are highly popular in places such as Canada and the USA with large summer breaks [55]. Such camps can offer chances for outdoor recreational activities in areas of sport and adventure and have been identified as having a positive impact on school children's physical health [56], physical activity levels and meeting daily physical activity recommendations [57, 58]. Another outdoor recreational pursuit for school children is to walk or ride to school via active transportation [59]. Scholars describe active transportation as creating important physical activity habits in school children, environmentally friendly travel habits and a valuable opportunity to invigorate children's physical activity participation rates and levels [60, 61]. Although scholars caution school communities about potential safety risks such as road traffic and strangers, it is acknowledged internationally that school communities can consider programs such as a walking school bus concept in which adults lead a group of children [62, 63]. This can be achieved by considering stakeholder partnerships and the level of infrastructure and resources around a school's transportation networks to actively transport to and from school. Although this extra-curricular strategy to encourage physical activity has widespread support, there still remains a gap in the data relating to long-term insights and standardised outcome measures of physical activity [64, 65]. As detailed earlier in the chapter, if physical activity levels can be increased, this can also have a positive impact on the flow of nutrients to the brain to enhance cognitive performance. In the next section of this chapter, we unpack a range of the outdoor recreational strategies in schools which have had an impact on psychological functioning.

#### **3. Psychological effects from outdoor recreation in schools**

We begin this next section by considering the psychological context of recess before moving to specific areas of cognitive and social development. The psychological context of outdoor recreation in schools is rarely acknowledged, yet can be a major contributor to cognitive and social outcomes. One way to consider the psychological context is in terms of structure versus autonomy (e.g., ensuring more choice in how things are done). Structure can be imposed in a variety of ways including clearly articulated rules negotiated with children through to nonnegotiable top-down rules or quick decisions by teachers on duty during recess regarding the rule boundaries and positive or negative play [66]. An increase in banning of activities that children consider to be fun has been found in a large UK

*Outdoor Recreation - Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health*

children's self-reported wellness is also enhanced [42, 43].

tary behaviour [34].

with equipment such as climbing structures, slides, and a spinning apparatus have had a positive impact on children's physical activity levels [33] or reducing seden-

Less structured recreational strategies without a set location, time or purpose have been found to have quite holistic benefits on children's physical health. For instance, these strategies have simply involved getting rid of school playground rules/regulation, providing more natural features (such as rocks, trees, gardens) and implementing sparable, movable household items known as loose parts. Although not directly measuring physical activity participation, a New Zealand primary school principal reported on the amount of new physical activities taking place for children's physical development when he removed excess school playground rules and regulations [35, 36]. The Principal described how the allowance of play which was perceived as more risky unlocked a variety of physical activities such as climbing structures like hand rails and trees, skating across hard surfaced areas and sliding in the mud. Moreover, the Principal noticed a dramatic reduction in physical injury from providing more play freedom. The recreational pursuit of climbing can have a multitude of benefits on a developing child, including muscular strength, endurance and flexibility [37]. Although tree climbing is perceived by many as being risky [38], the introduction of features such as trees, rocks, gardens and grass areas has seen school children vary their outdoor recreational physical activities, enhance the amount of space and opportunities for physical activity, play freedom and have had an impact on moderate levels of children's physical activity [39–41]. By greening outdoor recreational areas in schools, the ability to improve

Overcoming adult perceptions of risky play [44] also reignited a multitude of larger studies on the provision of loose parts on children's physical development. Most of this more modern research stemmed from Bundy and colleagues' pilot study [44] research which recognised that adults perceived loose parts materials (e.g., sticks, crates, hay bales) as too risky, yet the findings demonstrated the entire opposite in very young children. The loose parts were able to transform the school playgrounds into rich childhood developmental hubs via outdoor recreation and reigniting the momentum of loose parts from the 1970's [45]. The resulting physical activity outcomes from introducing loose parts have seen increases in primary school children's (of a range of year levels) physical activity enjoyment, intensities, steps/distance, activity types, playability, durations, complexity and many of these physical activity developments were sustained for long-term follow-up studies (e.g., 1–2½ years) [20]. The earlier findings were also supported by studies across other locations such as the United Kingdom [46] and New Zealand [47] with positive teacher reports of similar developments. Moreover, "relocatable" sports equipment

are also reported to have positive effects on children's physical activity [48].

**2.2 Before and after-school recreational strategies to develop school children's** 

By investigating the school playground strategies above, it becomes clear that continuing to consider strategies which will not burden teachers' curricular commitments can be powerful on a child's physical development. It is also vital to consider a holistic approach to outdoor recreation during school days for children's physical development with additional strategies, particularly with curricular physical activity opportunities being constrained [49]. Beyond the school playground, the most prevalent outdoor recreation school avenues are through after school programs, school camps/excursions, and active transport (to and from school via

**48**

movement).

**physical skills and habits**

study [67] and is likely to extend to other countries given the heightened concern expressed by teachers about risky play during recess [44, 68]. Teachers often face the dilemma of allowing children more autonomy or acting in accordance with their perceived duty of care which can involve imposing excessive rules and safety requirements.

Structure has sometimes been introduced as a means of increasing physical activity. There is speculation that an emphasis on sports and other structured physical activity can change the social hierarchy of the playground, elevating the status of children with better physical skills [69]. It is possible that high levels of structure to achieve physical activity outcomes may have a negative impact on children's autonomous decision making and social interaction processes. With less choices and opportunities for decision making during play, children suggest such restriction can cause boredom, misbehaviours (and injury) and a desire to lash out during school recess periods [70].

Many researchers and teachers argue that children need more elements of choice from the psychological component of autonomy to learn life skills. It is known that recess times are some the best times to offer such opportunities with minimum structure or intervention. As noted previously, loose parts have been offered to children during recess as a means of promoting physical activity through imaginative play. One of the adult-perceived difficulties with loose parts play is the potential for accidents and injuries. Interestingly, both parents [71] and teachers [72] seem to have a lower tolerance for risky play when a child has a disability. Interventions involving loose parts have helped to overcome many of the concerns related to risky play. Some interventions have included risk-reframing workshops to support shifts in thinking of teachers and parents about risks in play [73]. Interventions without these workshops have also succeeded in shifting adult behaviour from enforcing playground rules to granting children greater autonomy to make decisions about their play [47]. Hyndman and colleagues discovered that the introduction of loose parts can help facilitate outdoor school recreation activities which aligned with both national curriculum objectives [74] and key criterions of creativity [75]. This was achieved by encouraging children to learn and undertake more complexity with their recess activities with loose parts equipment. Loose parts have also been reported by teachers to have a positive impact on children's cognitive engagement during outdoor recreation activities [76] with impacts on short-term enjoyment levels [77], a key psychosocial influence for sustained participation.

Other interventions have provided more explicit play goals, but these have been negotiated with school personnel and children. The Health Active Peaceful Playgrounds for Youth (HAPPY) intervention [78] is an example of this type of approach. Some children were offered specific training relating to physical activity and social inclusion with peers. Children in this study were found to value clear rules for games that were known to all children. It is perhaps the arbitrariness of rules in some contexts that causes difficulties for children. For example, a staff member in one of the loose parts studies [46] mentioned that prior to the introduction of loose parts, children were held back by having to remember the recess rules. Emerging evidence also suggests that psychological benefits may be amplified if recess occurs in natural environments. This is mainly due to the stress-reductions experienced by children when in nature [79].

Some of the research questions regarding cognition and academic skills are relatively standard and relate to the possibility that recess provides a context for promotion and development of these skills. Surprisingly, some researchers are also interested in a null result, showing no effect. The reason for the latter interest is that time spent in recess is often perceived as time that could be better spent on direct instruction on academic tasks. Current evidence indicates that school recess does

**51**

*Outdoor Recreation within the School Setting: A Physiological and Psychological Exploration*

not have a negative impact and may have a positive impact in some areas of cogni-

There are sound reasons to believe that short-term or habitual physical activity will promote cognitive skills with a flow-on effect to academic skills. Children's enjoyment of more vigorous recreation activities during school recess has also been linked to improved quality of life [80]. Nonetheless, results have not been as clear as expected. Recent systematic reviews [81, 82] have shown mixed results and have

Physical activity in adults has been found to promote higher order cognition known as executive functions (EF). The core EFs are working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility [83]. Performance on EF tasks is predictive of academic performance [84]. Working memory involves holding and manipulating information in memory, such as when solving mental arithmetic problems. Inhibitory control is the ability to suppress a prepotent response. In academic work, the first response that comes to mind may not be the correct one and inability to suppress competing responses may interfere with task completion. Cognitive flexibility involves the ability to shift strategies when the one used becomes unproductive. A strategy may be effective in solving simple problems, for example, but no longer works when problems become more complex. Inability to change strategy

The EFs are known to be quite malleable during childhood. Researchers have therefore attempted to understand the mechanisms that support improvements in EFs. Physical activity has been identified as a potential contributor to brain plasticity, neurogenesis and resilience to damage. This is achieved through processes such as promoting blood vessel growth that support the brain's increased energy needs [85]. Research studies have not had a clear focus on recess, physical activity and EFs. Studies that might help understand the outdoor recreation in schools, physical activity and EF relationship have not always taken place during outdoor recreation in schools. For example, the FITKids randomised controlled trial [86] took place after school, but included games, teaching of skills and other challenges that could be available during outdoor recreation in schools. The FITKids trial was conducted with 7–9 year olds, with the intervention group showing improvements in two core EFS, inhibition and flexibility. This continues to be a promising area of investigation and more studies are needed. Current systematic reviews indicate that the results of studies are mixed, but importantly no studies show a decline in EFs

Mathematics and literacy are the most common academic areas investigated by researchers. Time spent in physical activity during recess has not been found to adversely impact academic performance [15]. This has been demonstrated in a range of studies including a large cross-sectional Spanish study with 1780 participants aged 6–18 years [90]. There are also studies that have found a positive impact of physical activity on academic skills. A recent meta-analysis of 26 studies with participants aged 4–13 years found physical activity to lead to improvements in mathematics, reading and classroom behaviour. Mathematics was also found to improve in a recess study with Grades 3–5 involving exergaming [91]. Children in this study participated in "Dance-Dance-Revolution" (DDR), which involved aerobic activity and choreographed footwork and was appealing to the participants in the study.

One hypothesis regarding the mixed findings for EFs and academic performance is that physical activity alone is not enough to promote cognitive or academic development. What is needed is the addition of cognitive or social demands [88]. For example, DDR placed pressure on memory for the choreographed steps. It is also important to note that these interventions were offered during some recess sessions (e.g., DDR was 90 minutes per week), but children also had access to free play time.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91900*

called for high quality studies to address this question.

makes it difficult to progress to higher level school work.

following increased in physical activity [87–89].

tion and academic achievement.

#### *Outdoor Recreation within the School Setting: A Physiological and Psychological Exploration DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91900*

not have a negative impact and may have a positive impact in some areas of cognition and academic achievement.

There are sound reasons to believe that short-term or habitual physical activity will promote cognitive skills with a flow-on effect to academic skills. Children's enjoyment of more vigorous recreation activities during school recess has also been linked to improved quality of life [80]. Nonetheless, results have not been as clear as expected. Recent systematic reviews [81, 82] have shown mixed results and have called for high quality studies to address this question.

Physical activity in adults has been found to promote higher order cognition known as executive functions (EF). The core EFs are working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility [83]. Performance on EF tasks is predictive of academic performance [84]. Working memory involves holding and manipulating information in memory, such as when solving mental arithmetic problems. Inhibitory control is the ability to suppress a prepotent response. In academic work, the first response that comes to mind may not be the correct one and inability to suppress competing responses may interfere with task completion. Cognitive flexibility involves the ability to shift strategies when the one used becomes unproductive. A strategy may be effective in solving simple problems, for example, but no longer works when problems become more complex. Inability to change strategy makes it difficult to progress to higher level school work.

The EFs are known to be quite malleable during childhood. Researchers have therefore attempted to understand the mechanisms that support improvements in EFs. Physical activity has been identified as a potential contributor to brain plasticity, neurogenesis and resilience to damage. This is achieved through processes such as promoting blood vessel growth that support the brain's increased energy needs [85]. Research studies have not had a clear focus on recess, physical activity and EFs. Studies that might help understand the outdoor recreation in schools, physical activity and EF relationship have not always taken place during outdoor recreation in schools. For example, the FITKids randomised controlled trial [86] took place after school, but included games, teaching of skills and other challenges that could be available during outdoor recreation in schools. The FITKids trial was conducted with 7–9 year olds, with the intervention group showing improvements in two core EFS, inhibition and flexibility. This continues to be a promising area of investigation and more studies are needed. Current systematic reviews indicate that the results of studies are mixed, but importantly no studies show a decline in EFs following increased in physical activity [87–89].

Mathematics and literacy are the most common academic areas investigated by researchers. Time spent in physical activity during recess has not been found to adversely impact academic performance [15]. This has been demonstrated in a range of studies including a large cross-sectional Spanish study with 1780 participants aged 6–18 years [90]. There are also studies that have found a positive impact of physical activity on academic skills. A recent meta-analysis of 26 studies with participants aged 4–13 years found physical activity to lead to improvements in mathematics, reading and classroom behaviour. Mathematics was also found to improve in a recess study with Grades 3–5 involving exergaming [91]. Children in this study participated in "Dance-Dance-Revolution" (DDR), which involved aerobic activity and choreographed footwork and was appealing to the participants in the study.

One hypothesis regarding the mixed findings for EFs and academic performance is that physical activity alone is not enough to promote cognitive or academic development. What is needed is the addition of cognitive or social demands [88]. For example, DDR placed pressure on memory for the choreographed steps. It is also important to note that these interventions were offered during some recess sessions (e.g., DDR was 90 minutes per week), but children also had access to free play time.

*Outdoor Recreation - Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health*

requirements.

recess periods [70].

study [67] and is likely to extend to other countries given the heightened concern expressed by teachers about risky play during recess [44, 68]. Teachers often face the dilemma of allowing children more autonomy or acting in accordance with their perceived duty of care which can involve imposing excessive rules and safety

Structure has sometimes been introduced as a means of increasing physical activity. There is speculation that an emphasis on sports and other structured physical activity can change the social hierarchy of the playground, elevating the status of children with better physical skills [69]. It is possible that high levels of structure to achieve physical activity outcomes may have a negative impact on children's autonomous decision making and social interaction processes. With less choices and opportunities for decision making during play, children suggest such restriction can cause boredom, misbehaviours (and injury) and a desire to lash out during school

Many researchers and teachers argue that children need more elements of choice from the psychological component of autonomy to learn life skills. It is known that recess times are some the best times to offer such opportunities with minimum structure or intervention. As noted previously, loose parts have been offered to children during recess as a means of promoting physical activity through imaginative play. One of the adult-perceived difficulties with loose parts play is the potential for accidents and injuries. Interestingly, both parents [71] and teachers [72] seem to have a lower tolerance for risky play when a child has a disability. Interventions involving loose parts have helped to overcome many of the concerns related to risky play. Some interventions have included risk-reframing workshops to support shifts in thinking of teachers and parents about risks in play [73]. Interventions without these workshops have also succeeded in shifting adult behaviour from enforcing playground rules to granting children greater autonomy to make decisions about their play [47]. Hyndman and colleagues discovered that the introduction of loose parts can help facilitate outdoor school recreation activities which aligned with both national curriculum objectives [74] and key criterions of creativity [75]. This was achieved by encouraging children to learn and undertake more complexity with their recess activities with loose parts equipment. Loose parts have also been reported by teachers to have a positive impact on children's cognitive engagement during outdoor recreation activities [76] with impacts on short-term enjoyment

levels [77], a key psychosocial influence for sustained participation.

experienced by children when in nature [79].

Other interventions have provided more explicit play goals, but these have been negotiated with school personnel and children. The Health Active Peaceful Playgrounds for Youth (HAPPY) intervention [78] is an example of this type of approach. Some children were offered specific training relating to physical activity and social inclusion with peers. Children in this study were found to value clear rules for games that were known to all children. It is perhaps the arbitrariness of rules in some contexts that causes difficulties for children. For example, a staff member in one of the loose parts studies [46] mentioned that prior to the introduction of loose parts, children were held back by having to remember the recess rules. Emerging evidence also suggests that psychological benefits may be amplified if recess occurs in natural environments. This is mainly due to the stress-reductions

Some of the research questions regarding cognition and academic skills are relatively standard and relate to the possibility that recess provides a context for promotion and development of these skills. Surprisingly, some researchers are also interested in a null result, showing no effect. The reason for the latter interest is that time spent in recess is often perceived as time that could be better spent on direct instruction on academic tasks. Current evidence indicates that school recess does

**50**

To our knowledge there are no high-quality studies of unstructured recess interventions and EFs or academic outcomes. There is potential for future research as some researchers argue that structured activity during recess may interfere with academic performance, particularly for younger children who may need a break to during recess to reduce interference with preceding and following class instruction [89].

#### **4. The social-psychological intersections of outdoor recreation in schools**

For many children, school recess is the only opportunity to engage in peer activities with minimal adult supervision. Ideally, school recess offers opportunities for children to practice social interaction skills, negotiate with others to achieve goals, form enduring friendships, support peers experiencing difficulties and learn to manage their own risk-taking behaviours. Although social time on the playground may appear to be nothing more than a break from class, the quality and quantity of social time may have important implications for psychosocial development and academic achievement. For young children, level of social interaction with peers has been found to be positively associated with academic achievement whereas level of social interaction with teachers was negatively associated [92].

Social interactions are often different for girls and boys during outdoor recess. Girls have been reported to have higher levels of enjoyment for social and imaginative play [93], alongside more time in pretend play which requires planning with peers. Boys are more likely to engage in rough and tumble play, particularly in the early school years. Rough and tumble generally involves play fighting, wrestling and other behaviours that are sometimes mistaken for aggression [66]. Rough and tumble is therefore often banned or restricted on school playgrounds. Rough and tumble is developmentally important for the development of self-control, conflict resolution and affiliation. It is a positive behavior for most children with the exception of boys with a "rejected" sociometric status for whom it can predict antisocial behaviours. It is important to note that the gender differences observed during outdoor recess in western schools may not be universal. For example, there is evidence that rough and tumble play occurs equally for both genders in forager societies [94].

The majority of school children look forward to recess time and see it as an opportunity to engage in fun activities with friends. For a significant minority of children however, recess is a time when they are isolated, rejected or bullied. Elementary school children have nominated outside recess as particularly problematic for bullying [95]. Recess should offer an opportunity to promote psychosocial development, but this is currently not true for all children. Many of the issues that contribute to negative social outcomes are the same as those that contribute to social outcomes, including poor supervision, lack of materials and lack of space [96].

Some of the difficulties children have on outdoor school playgrounds relate to the spaces available. Children typically have the choice of large open spaces that are easy for adult surveillance or seeking privacy behind buildings where they may feel vulnerable. A recent study has shown that many children prefer "in-between" spaces for at least some of their outdoor play [97]. These spaces include under staircases, under trees and edges of buildings. Importantly, these spaces maintained a visual line to the main play areas and therefore did not incur the vulnerabilities of being out-of-sight. Some children said they worried about the boisterous play on the main playground. The in-between spaces meant they were less likely to be hit by a ball or knocked over by another child. Children also used these spaces for imaginative play or to define boundaries such as goal posts. In-between spaces provided

**53**

**5. Conclusion**

*Outdoor Recreation within the School Setting: A Physiological and Psychological Exploration*

greater opportunities for children to self-select their play and define their peer groups. Unfortunately, these spaces were often considered to be out-of-bounds. Difficulties for children can stem from underlying psychological problems. Children with internalising or externalising disorders may have difficulties with social interactions on the playground. In recent years, social skills interventions have targeted peer interactions on the playground to support children's access to a complex social environment and with the goal of achieving the flow-on effect of

Unfortunately, recess is often perceived as a privilege rather than an essential part of the school day. Consequently, there is a widespread practice of restricting or removing recess privileges from students for misbehaviour or to catch up on schoolwork [67]. Recess restriction continues to be a recommended behaviour management technique [99]. When asked, children indicate a preference for longer recess periods [67, 100]. Clearly, recess is valued by children which makes it an easy target for disciplinary practices. Children from third and fifth grade in two US schools indicated that they understood the reasons for teachers restricting outdoor recess, but largely considered it unfair and argued that it exacerbates antisocial behaviour for some children [100]. The children in this study valued the autonomy experienced during recess which included being able to run around and talk to peers

Loose parts play during outdoor recess has been hypothesised to have a positive impact on social interaction and social skills [101]. There are many reports from teachers to indicate that children's play is more cooperative and more inclusive when loose parts are introduced [76, 102]. A recent systematic review of loose parts play interventions found that high quality studies have not demonstrated significant changes in children's social competence and social skills [103]. One of the issues is that children in these studies may already be functioning well in terms of social competence and social skills [104]. This assumption is reinforced by social play often generating extremely high levels of enjoyment for children compared to other play categories [93, 105]. More research is needed to determine if children with poor social skills make improvements when negotiating with others in loose parts play

and if fewer children are rejected or neglected during loose parts play.

and negotiate with peers to achieve complex goals.

Understanding of social development outcomes related to outdoor recess remains under-researched. There is criticism that the strong claims from authoritative organisations about the benefits of recess for social development have not been matched by strong evidence [106]. At a minimum, the current evidence suggests that outdoor recess has little impact on the social development for the majority of children. Recess is valued by children as autonomous time to spend with peers and provides teachers with opportunities to observe children's abilities to manage risks

With the increasing burdens facing teachers (curriculum demands, professional

development, student engagement/inclusion and workload intensification), it is more important than ever to ensure that there are quality outdoor recreational opportunities provided for school children. The chapter has detailed how the outdoor recreation setting during school recess is having an impact on children's physiological and psychological outcomes. Interestingly, it is clear that due to wellknown biological benefits of physical activity on the human body, most physiological research investigating outdoor recreation in schools has simply focused on how to increase physical activity participation. Although a focus on participation levels

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91900*

improved academic outcomes [98].

about their chosen topics.

#### *Outdoor Recreation within the School Setting: A Physiological and Psychological Exploration DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91900*

greater opportunities for children to self-select their play and define their peer groups. Unfortunately, these spaces were often considered to be out-of-bounds.

Difficulties for children can stem from underlying psychological problems. Children with internalising or externalising disorders may have difficulties with social interactions on the playground. In recent years, social skills interventions have targeted peer interactions on the playground to support children's access to a complex social environment and with the goal of achieving the flow-on effect of improved academic outcomes [98].

Unfortunately, recess is often perceived as a privilege rather than an essential part of the school day. Consequently, there is a widespread practice of restricting or removing recess privileges from students for misbehaviour or to catch up on schoolwork [67]. Recess restriction continues to be a recommended behaviour management technique [99]. When asked, children indicate a preference for longer recess periods [67, 100]. Clearly, recess is valued by children which makes it an easy target for disciplinary practices. Children from third and fifth grade in two US schools indicated that they understood the reasons for teachers restricting outdoor recess, but largely considered it unfair and argued that it exacerbates antisocial behaviour for some children [100]. The children in this study valued the autonomy experienced during recess which included being able to run around and talk to peers about their chosen topics.

Loose parts play during outdoor recess has been hypothesised to have a positive impact on social interaction and social skills [101]. There are many reports from teachers to indicate that children's play is more cooperative and more inclusive when loose parts are introduced [76, 102]. A recent systematic review of loose parts play interventions found that high quality studies have not demonstrated significant changes in children's social competence and social skills [103]. One of the issues is that children in these studies may already be functioning well in terms of social competence and social skills [104]. This assumption is reinforced by social play often generating extremely high levels of enjoyment for children compared to other play categories [93, 105]. More research is needed to determine if children with poor social skills make improvements when negotiating with others in loose parts play and if fewer children are rejected or neglected during loose parts play.

Understanding of social development outcomes related to outdoor recess remains under-researched. There is criticism that the strong claims from authoritative organisations about the benefits of recess for social development have not been matched by strong evidence [106]. At a minimum, the current evidence suggests that outdoor recess has little impact on the social development for the majority of children. Recess is valued by children as autonomous time to spend with peers and provides teachers with opportunities to observe children's abilities to manage risks and negotiate with peers to achieve complex goals.

#### **5. Conclusion**

*Outdoor Recreation - Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health*

instruction [89].

**in schools**

To our knowledge there are no high-quality studies of unstructured recess interventions and EFs or academic outcomes. There is potential for future research as some researchers argue that structured activity during recess may interfere with academic performance, particularly for younger children who may need a break to during recess to reduce interference with preceding and following class

**4. The social-psychological intersections of outdoor recreation** 

social interaction with teachers was negatively associated [92].

For many children, school recess is the only opportunity to engage in peer activities with minimal adult supervision. Ideally, school recess offers opportunities for children to practice social interaction skills, negotiate with others to achieve goals, form enduring friendships, support peers experiencing difficulties and learn to manage their own risk-taking behaviours. Although social time on the playground may appear to be nothing more than a break from class, the quality and quantity of social time may have important implications for psychosocial development and academic achievement. For young children, level of social interaction with peers has been found to be positively associated with academic achievement whereas level of

Social interactions are often different for girls and boys during outdoor recess. Girls have been reported to have higher levels of enjoyment for social and imaginative play [93], alongside more time in pretend play which requires planning with peers. Boys are more likely to engage in rough and tumble play, particularly in the early school years. Rough and tumble generally involves play fighting, wrestling and other behaviours that are sometimes mistaken for aggression [66]. Rough and tumble is therefore often banned or restricted on school playgrounds. Rough and tumble is developmentally important for the development of self-control, conflict resolution and affiliation. It is a positive behavior for most children with the exception of boys with a "rejected" sociometric status for whom it can predict antisocial behaviours. It is important to note that the gender differences observed during outdoor recess in western schools may not be universal. For example, there is evidence that rough and tumble play occurs equally for both genders in forager societies [94]. The majority of school children look forward to recess time and see it as an opportunity to engage in fun activities with friends. For a significant minority of children however, recess is a time when they are isolated, rejected or bullied. Elementary school children have nominated outside recess as particularly problematic for bullying [95]. Recess should offer an opportunity to promote psychosocial development, but this is currently not true for all children. Many of the issues that contribute to negative social outcomes are the same as those that contribute to social outcomes, including poor supervision, lack of materials and lack of space [96]. Some of the difficulties children have on outdoor school playgrounds relate to the spaces available. Children typically have the choice of large open spaces that are easy for adult surveillance or seeking privacy behind buildings where they may feel vulnerable. A recent study has shown that many children prefer "in-between" spaces for at least some of their outdoor play [97]. These spaces include under staircases, under trees and edges of buildings. Importantly, these spaces maintained a visual line to the main play areas and therefore did not incur the vulnerabilities of being out-of-sight. Some children said they worried about the boisterous play on the main playground. The in-between spaces meant they were less likely to be hit by a ball or knocked over by another child. Children also used these spaces for imaginative play or to define boundaries such as goal posts. In-between spaces provided

**52**

With the increasing burdens facing teachers (curriculum demands, professional development, student engagement/inclusion and workload intensification), it is more important than ever to ensure that there are quality outdoor recreational opportunities provided for school children. The chapter has detailed how the outdoor recreation setting during school recess is having an impact on children's physiological and psychological outcomes. Interestingly, it is clear that due to wellknown biological benefits of physical activity on the human body, most physiological research investigating outdoor recreation in schools has simply focused on how to increase physical activity participation. Although a focus on participation levels

is important to help children meet physical activity guidelines in order to prevent lifestyle diseases such as Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. Yet what this chapter also uncovers is the strong interlinking nature between the physical, psychological and social outcomes of health. There were clear overlaps and insights gained between investigations across health dimensions. It becomes clear that the substantial amount of time children will be exposed to during "critical windows" of recess time in schools is vital to develop positive and holistic behavioural habits. Further investigations into school recreational contexts have the potential to continue to shed light on the developmental potential and possibilities that could be achieved for outdoor school recreational settings to be prioritised and protected into the future. There are numerous key messages from this chapter. First, it is the important to maintain or extend children's opportunities for outdoor recreation during recess due to the physiological and psychological benefits of extended outdoor interactions with peers. Second, allowing time for high quality outdoor recreation during recess does not interfere with academic outcomes. Third, many changes to school playgrounds, such as introduction of loose parts, are effective in bringing about change without adding to teacher workload. Finally, children look forward to outdoor recreation during recess, it improves their overall school experience.

## **Author details**

Brendon Patrick Hyndman1 \* and Shirley Wyver2

1 School of Education, Faculty of Arts and Education, Charles Sturt University, Albury-Wodonga, Australia

2 Faculty of Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

\*Address all correspondence to: bhyndman@csu.edu.au

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**55**

*Outdoor Recreation within the School Setting: A Physiological and Psychological Exploration*

sedentary behaviour and cognitive function? A systematic review. British Journal of Sports Medicine.

[10] Hyndman B. Contemporary School Playground Strategies for Healthy Students. Singapore: Springer; 2017

[11] Telama R, Yang X, Leskinen E, Kankaanpään A, Hirvensalo M, Tammelin T, et al. Tracking of physical activity from early childhood through youth into adulthood. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise.

[12] Ladwig MA, Vazou S, Ekkekakis P. "My best memory is when I was done with it": PE memories are associated with adult sedentary behavior. Translational Journal of the

American College of Sports Medicine.

[13] Hesketh K, Lakshman R, Van Sluijs E. Barriers and facilitators to young children's physical activity and sedentary behaviour: A systematic review and synthesis of qualitative literature. Obesity Reviews.

2017;**51**(10):800-811

2014;**46**(5):955-962

2018;**3**(16):119-129

2017;**18**(9):987-1017

[14] Houghton S, Hunter SC, Rosenberg M, Wood L, Zadow C, Martin K, et al. Virtually impossible: Limiting Australian children and adolescents daily screen based media use. BMC Public Health. 2015;**15**(1):5

[15] Schranz N, Olds T, Cliff D, Davern M, Engelen L, Giles-Corti B, et al. Results from Australia's 2014 report card on physical activity for children and youth. Journal of Physical Activity & Health. 2014;**11**(s1):S21-SS5

[16] Dentro KN, Beals K, Crouter SE, Eisenmann JC, McKenzie TL, Pate RR, et al. Results from the United States' 2014 report card on physical activity

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91900*

[1] Hills AP, Dengel DR, Lubans DR. Supporting public health priorities: Recommendations for physical education and physical activity promotion in schools. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases.

**References**

2015;**57**(4):368-374

2007;**8**(2):129-154

2015;**13**(1):73-88

2015;**6**(2):191-213

[2] Ferreira I, Van Der Horst K, Wendel-Vos W, Kremers S, Van Lenthe FJ, Brug J. Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth–a review and update. Obesity Reviews.

[3] Hand KL, Freeman C, Seddon PJ, Recio MR, Stein A, van Heezik Y.

[4] Holt NL, Lee H, Millar CA, Spence JC. 'Eyes on where children play': A retrospective study of active free play. Children's Geographies.

Restricted home ranges reduce children's opportunities to connect to nature: Demographic, environmental and parental influences. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2018;**172**:69-77

[5] Hyndman B. The importance of school playgrounds for active, healthy students. In: Contemporary School Playground Strategies for Healthy Students. Singapore: Springer; 2017. pp. 1-12

[6] Dodd GD. The unrealised value of human motion–'moving back to movement!'. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education.

[7] Santrock JW. Life-Span Development 13th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2002

[8] Ogoh S, Ainslie PN. Cerebral blood flow during exercise: Mechanisms of regulation. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2009;**107**(5):1370-1380

[9] Falck RS, Davis JC, Liu-Ambrose T. What is the association between

*Outdoor Recreation within the School Setting: A Physiological and Psychological Exploration DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91900*

#### **References**

*Outdoor Recreation - Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health*

is important to help children meet physical activity guidelines in order to prevent lifestyle diseases such as Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. Yet what this chapter also uncovers is the strong interlinking nature between the physical, psychological and social outcomes of health. There were clear overlaps and insights gained between investigations across health dimensions. It becomes clear that the substantial amount of time children will be exposed to during "critical windows" of recess time in schools is vital to develop positive and holistic behavioural habits. Further investigations into school recreational contexts have the potential to continue to shed light on the developmental potential and possibilities that could be achieved for outdoor school recreational settings to be prioritised and protected into the future. There are numerous key messages from this chapter. First, it is the important to maintain or extend children's opportunities for outdoor recreation during recess due to the physiological and psychological benefits of extended outdoor interactions with peers. Second, allowing time for high quality outdoor recreation during recess does not interfere with academic outcomes. Third, many changes to school playgrounds, such as introduction of loose parts, are effective in bringing about change without adding to teacher workload. Finally, children look forward to outdoor recreation during recess, it improves their overall school

**54**

**Author details**

experience.

Brendon Patrick Hyndman1

Albury-Wodonga, Australia

\* and Shirley Wyver2

2 Faculty of Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

\*Address all correspondence to: bhyndman@csu.edu.au

provided the original work is properly cited.

1 School of Education, Faculty of Arts and Education, Charles Sturt University,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

[1] Hills AP, Dengel DR, Lubans DR. Supporting public health priorities: Recommendations for physical education and physical activity promotion in schools. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases. 2015;**57**(4):368-374

[2] Ferreira I, Van Der Horst K, Wendel-Vos W, Kremers S, Van Lenthe FJ, Brug J. Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth–a review and update. Obesity Reviews. 2007;**8**(2):129-154

[3] Hand KL, Freeman C, Seddon PJ, Recio MR, Stein A, van Heezik Y. Restricted home ranges reduce children's opportunities to connect to nature: Demographic, environmental and parental influences. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2018;**172**:69-77

[4] Holt NL, Lee H, Millar CA, Spence JC. 'Eyes on where children play': A retrospective study of active free play. Children's Geographies. 2015;**13**(1):73-88

[5] Hyndman B. The importance of school playgrounds for active, healthy students. In: Contemporary School Playground Strategies for Healthy Students. Singapore: Springer; 2017. pp. 1-12

[6] Dodd GD. The unrealised value of human motion–'moving back to movement!'. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education. 2015;**6**(2):191-213

[7] Santrock JW. Life-Span Development 13th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2002

[8] Ogoh S, Ainslie PN. Cerebral blood flow during exercise: Mechanisms of regulation. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2009;**107**(5):1370-1380

[9] Falck RS, Davis JC, Liu-Ambrose T. What is the association between

sedentary behaviour and cognitive function? A systematic review. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2017;**51**(10):800-811

[10] Hyndman B. Contemporary School Playground Strategies for Healthy Students. Singapore: Springer; 2017

[11] Telama R, Yang X, Leskinen E, Kankaanpään A, Hirvensalo M, Tammelin T, et al. Tracking of physical activity from early childhood through youth into adulthood. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2014;**46**(5):955-962

[12] Ladwig MA, Vazou S, Ekkekakis P. "My best memory is when I was done with it": PE memories are associated with adult sedentary behavior. Translational Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine. 2018;**3**(16):119-129

[13] Hesketh K, Lakshman R, Van Sluijs E. Barriers and facilitators to young children's physical activity and sedentary behaviour: A systematic review and synthesis of qualitative literature. Obesity Reviews. 2017;**18**(9):987-1017

[14] Houghton S, Hunter SC, Rosenberg M, Wood L, Zadow C, Martin K, et al. Virtually impossible: Limiting Australian children and adolescents daily screen based media use. BMC Public Health. 2015;**15**(1):5

[15] Schranz N, Olds T, Cliff D, Davern M, Engelen L, Giles-Corti B, et al. Results from Australia's 2014 report card on physical activity for children and youth. Journal of Physical Activity & Health. 2014;**11**(s1):S21-SS5

[16] Dentro KN, Beals K, Crouter SE, Eisenmann JC, McKenzie TL, Pate RR, et al. Results from the United States' 2014 report card on physical activity

for children and youth. Journal of Physical Activity & Health. 2014;**11**(s1):S105-SS12

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[90] Esteban-Cornejo I, Martinez-Gomez D, Garcia-Cervantes L, Ortega FB, Delgado-Alfonso A, Castro-Piñero J, et al. Objectively measured physical activity during physical education and school recess and their associations with academic performance in youth: The UP&DOWN study. Journal of Physical Activity &

Health. 2017;**14**(4):275-282

[91] Gao Z, Hannan P, Xiang P, Stodden DF, Valdez VE. Video game–based exercise, Latino Children's physical health, and

Martínez-Hortelano JA,

[86] Hillman CH, Pontifex MB, Castelli DM, Khan NA, Raine LB, Scudder MR, et al. Effects of the FITKids randomized controlled trial on executive control and brain function. Pediatrics. 2014;**134**(4):e1063-e1e71

[87] Diamond A, Ling DS. Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience.

Martinez-Vizcaino V. The effect of physical

cognition and metacognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2017;**56**(9):729-738

healthy active peaceful playgrounds for youth (HAPPY) intervention. BMC

[79] Mygind L, Stevenson MP, Liebst LS, Konvalinka I, Bentsen P. Stress response and cognitive performance modulation

environments: A quasi-experimental pilot study with children. International Journal of Environmental Research and

relationship between primary school children's enjoyment of recess physical activities and health-related quality of life? A cross-sectional exploratory study. Health Promotion Journal of

[81] Gunnell KE, Poitras VJ, LeBlanc A, Schibli K, Barbeau K, Hedayati N, et al. Physical activity and brain structure, brain function, and cognition in children and youth: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Mental Health and Physical Activity.

[82] Singh AS, Saliasi E, Van Den Berg V, Uijtdewilligen L, De Groot RH, Jolles J, et al. Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive and academic performance in children and adolescents: A novel combination of a systematic review and recommendations from an expert panel. British Journal of Sports Medicine.

[83] Willoughby M, Holochwost SJ, Blanton ZE, Blair CB. Executive functions: Formative versus reflective

measurement. Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research & Perspectives. 2014;**12**(3):69-95

[84] Willoughby M, Kupersmidt J, Voegler-Lee M, Bryant D. Contributions

of hot and cool self-regulation to preschool disruptive behavior and

Public Health. 2018;**18**(1):532

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[92] Pellegrini AD. Kindergarten children's social-cognitive status as a predictor of first-grade success. Early Child Research Quarterly. 1992;**7**(4):565-577

[93] Hyndman B, Chancellor B. Engaging children in activities beyond the classroom walls: A social–ecological exploration of Australian primary school children's enjoyment of school play activities. Journal of Playwork Practice. 2015;**2**(2):117-141

[94] Boyette AH. Children's play and culture learning in an egalitarian foraging society. Child Development. 2016;**87**(3):759-769

[95] Vaillancourt T, Brittain H, Bennett L, Arnocky S, McDougall P, Hymel S, et al. Places to avoid: Population-based study of student reports of unsafe and high bullying areas at school. Canadian Journal of School Psychology. 2010;**25**(1):40-54

[96] McNamara L, Colley P, Franklin N. School recess, social connectedness and health: A Canadian perspective. Health Promotion International. 2017;**32**(2):392-402

[97] Aminpour F, Bishop K, Corkery L. The hidden value of in-between spaces for children's self-directed play within outdoor school environments. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2020;**194**:103683

[98] Anderson DH, Trinh SM, Caldarella P, Hansen BD, Richardson MJ. Increasing positive playground interaction for kindergarten students at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Early Childhood Education Journal. 2018;**46**(5):487-496

[99] Landrum TJ, Kauffman JM. Behavioral approaches to classroom management. In: Handbook of classroom management. London, UK: Routledge; 2013. pp. 57-82

[100] Fink DB, Ramstetter CL. "Even if They're being bad, maybe they need a chance to run around": What children think about recess. The Journal of School Health. 2018;**88**(12):928-935

[101] Bundy AC, Naughton G, Tranter P, Wyver S, Baur L, Schiller W, et al. The Sydney playground project: Popping the bubblewrap-unleashing the power of play - A cluster randomized controlled trial of a primary school playground-based intervention aiming to increase children's physical activity and social skills. BMC Public Health. 2011;**11**(1):680

[102] Ryan K, Woytovech C, Bruya L, Woytovech A, Shumate B, Malkusak A, et al. Loose parts: The collaboration process for a school playground. Journal of Kinesiology & Wellness. 2012;**1**(1):4-13

[103] Gibson JL, Cornell M, Gill T. A systematic review of research into the impact of loose parts play on children's cognitive, social and emotional development. School Mental Health. 2017;**9**(4):295-309

[104] Bundy A, Engelen L, Wyver S, Tranter P, Ragen J, Bauman A, et al. Sydney playground project: A cluster-randomized trial to increase physical activity, play, and social skills. The Journal of School Health. 2017;**87**(10):751-759

[105] Hyndman B, Telford A, Finch C, Ullah S, Benson AC. The development of the lunchtime enjoyment of activity and play questionnaire. The Journal of School Health. 2013;**83**(4):256-264

[106] Massey W, Neilson L, Salas J. A critical examination of school-based recess: What do the children think? Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health. 2019:1-15

**63**

**Chapter 5**

*Marija Opačak*

**Abstract**

facilities

**1. Introduction**

pressures off greenspaces and working lands" [9].

Introducing Park Facilities and

Intention to (Re)Visit

Novelties to Support Individual's

Many developed countries have recognized the importance of public parks in sustainable development of cities as they help minimizing the negative impact of urbanization. Developing countries, on the other hand, are facing problems such as lack of public awareness and inadequate facilities for sports and social activities to attract visitors to public parks, which positively affect the social and psychological human well-being. Parks are venues that enable people of all age groups to engage in different activities with family and friends and connect with nature. While planning a city development, policy makers should consider new findings in the area of brownfield regeneration, to use the existing land more efficiently and ensure public acceptance of the proposed projects. This chapter contains five sections. Section 1 gives an introduction to land use challenges faced by policy makers, brownfield sites, and stimulus that motivate people to use public parks. In Section 2, the importance of urban parks to human health and key elements to achieve urban sustainability are presented. Section 3 introduces novelty among park facilities. Section 4 gives an example of a landfill-to-park transformation. Section 5 summarizes policy suggestions for decision makers to increase their focus on the importance of parks.

**Keywords:** greenery areas, physical health, environment, recreation, novel park

Managing land represents a big challenge for city planners and policy makers, for instance, in India [1, 2], Vietnam [3], Sri Lanka [4], Australia [5], Germany [6], Japan [7], and South Africa [8]. Given the current course and future tendency in increasingly dynamic urbanized areas that are facing the lack of buildable land, the orientation is expected to shift towards the existing surfaces, which includes brownfields. The definition of a brownfield is found in Public Law 107–118 (H.R. 2869): "The term 'brownfield site' means real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant. Cleaning up and reinvesting in these properties protects the environment, reduces blight, and takes development

According to the brownfield regeneration approach and urban planning development, for instance, old landfills can be converted into useful sites at the end of

#### **Chapter 5**

## Introducing Park Facilities and Novelties to Support Individual's Intention to (Re)Visit

*Marija Opačak*

#### **Abstract**

Many developed countries have recognized the importance of public parks in sustainable development of cities as they help minimizing the negative impact of urbanization. Developing countries, on the other hand, are facing problems such as lack of public awareness and inadequate facilities for sports and social activities to attract visitors to public parks, which positively affect the social and psychological human well-being. Parks are venues that enable people of all age groups to engage in different activities with family and friends and connect with nature. While planning a city development, policy makers should consider new findings in the area of brownfield regeneration, to use the existing land more efficiently and ensure public acceptance of the proposed projects. This chapter contains five sections. Section 1 gives an introduction to land use challenges faced by policy makers, brownfield sites, and stimulus that motivate people to use public parks. In Section 2, the importance of urban parks to human health and key elements to achieve urban sustainability are presented. Section 3 introduces novelty among park facilities. Section 4 gives an example of a landfill-to-park transformation. Section 5 summarizes policy suggestions for decision makers to increase their focus on the importance of parks.

**Keywords:** greenery areas, physical health, environment, recreation, novel park facilities

#### **1. Introduction**

Managing land represents a big challenge for city planners and policy makers, for instance, in India [1, 2], Vietnam [3], Sri Lanka [4], Australia [5], Germany [6], Japan [7], and South Africa [8]. Given the current course and future tendency in increasingly dynamic urbanized areas that are facing the lack of buildable land, the orientation is expected to shift towards the existing surfaces, which includes brownfields. The definition of a brownfield is found in Public Law 107–118 (H.R. 2869): "The term 'brownfield site' means real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant. Cleaning up and reinvesting in these properties protects the environment, reduces blight, and takes development pressures off greenspaces and working lands" [9].

According to the brownfield regeneration approach and urban planning development, for instance, old landfills can be converted into useful sites at the end of

their functional life since landfills are conveniently located near major transportation routes and other major infrastructure in urban areas. In such a situation, alternative landfill conversions are possible, including but not limited to building parks, solar panels, residential buildings, malls, golf courses, dirt BMX bike tracks, or combined development [10, 11].

According to the literature, policy makers are suggested to organize environmental education programs [12] and make extensive improvements in facilities for higher satisfaction of visitors [13]. Numerous examples demonstrate successful conversions of old landfills (**Table 1**) into recreational parks, such as Flushing Meadows (New York, USA), Mt. Trashmore (Virginia, USA), Freshkills Park (New York, USA), Cesar Chavez Park (Berkley, USA), Sai Tso Wan Recreation Ground (Hong Kong), Pulau Semakau (Singapore), Port Sunlight River Park (Birkenhead, UK), Hiriya Park (Tel-Aviv, Israel), and so forth. Thus, it seems that the option of building recreational parks after closing old municipal landfills could prove to be a promising measure, based on previous research literature on the redevelopment potentials of landfills [14–17] and the making of urban green space strategies [18, 19].

It is very possible that in modern dense urban areas, former landfills may end up being the only available, large, and open locations to build new public parks.


**65**

**2. Urban parks**

fitness and exercise [35–38].

*Introducing Park Facilities and Novelties to Support Individual's Intention to (Re)Visit*

Their conversions present a great opportunity to correct the negative perception of dumps and the incessant patterns of environmental injustice. There are around 500,000 landfills in Europe [20], with the number of landfill sites increasing constantly. Therefore, they present a huge future potential, and their afteruse plan

Ten percent of the total waste generated in the European Union is municipal, and 23% of the generated municipal solid waste was landfilled, a practice being particularly popular in SE Europe [21]. Twelve countries landfill almost half of their municipal waste: Malta, Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Croatia, Latvia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Spain, Hungary, Czech Republic, and Portugal. With new policies and technologies, old landfills can be turned into beautiful sceneries, renewable energy, and building materials. Burying rubbish and keeping it in the ground represent environmental and financial cost. The land can be successfully reused, and waste can be mined for metals used to create fuel for use in cars, homes, or industrial plants. The problem of land reuse used to be technology, but now it is the lack of knowledge, which created fear among the people. Landfill conversions are generally unfavorably perceived, as many people are fearful that the local environment and quality of life will be negatively affected. As this fear is based on emotional rather than scientific information, research is expected to play a crucial role in educating

Since residential development cannot take place for longer period due to the possibility of gas escaping (which is safe as long as they are not in confined spaces), using the municipal waste landfill site for recreational purposes is recommended. Parks as leisure services look for ways to differentiate themselves through the creation of their physical surroundings to attract visitors and stimulate repeated visitations. In order to succeed, regular refreshing of the facilities is required [22], which represents a huge financial burden for park owners. Therefore, renewal schemes based on objective rather than subjective assessments should be employed. According to empirical results, the higher the level of shopping values, the stronger their intention to revisit [23]. In that sense, it is suggested to introduce distinctive attributes in new parks that will be recognized as improvements and thus stimulate visitations. The conclusions of this chapter were based on the relevant literature key

Urban parks are a valuable municipal source of and a key element for city sustainability, as they are able to facilitate proper land resource allocation for citizens so as to meet their recreational demands and play other social functions as well [24]. They are fundamental to social and psychological well-being of city residents [25]. It has been proven that staying in urban greenery areas, like parks and forests, has positive and restorative effects on people's mood, peacefulness, concentration, and stress release [26–30]. Urban parks contribute to the beautification of the city and have positive effects on environmental quality, including air freshness, carbon sequestration, water purity, as well as biodiversity. They thus improve city dwellers' overall quality of life in areas including physical health, social cohesion, tourism, and consequently employment and revenues [18, 31–34]. Furthermore, green spaces can act as leisure, sport, and recreational resources, reducing criminal and antisocial behavior as well as cutting down on obesity, since such spaces encourage physical

Parks as facility-driven leisure venues look for ways to differentiate themselves through the creation of their physical surroundings. According to empirical results,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93135*

should be taken into consideration.

people to support land recovery projects in the future.

components of the surroundings and how customers perceive it.

#### **Table 1.**

*Examples of alternative landfill reuse scenarios.*

#### *Introducing Park Facilities and Novelties to Support Individual's Intention to (Re)Visit DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93135*

Their conversions present a great opportunity to correct the negative perception of dumps and the incessant patterns of environmental injustice. There are around 500,000 landfills in Europe [20], with the number of landfill sites increasing constantly. Therefore, they present a huge future potential, and their afteruse plan should be taken into consideration.

Ten percent of the total waste generated in the European Union is municipal, and 23% of the generated municipal solid waste was landfilled, a practice being particularly popular in SE Europe [21]. Twelve countries landfill almost half of their municipal waste: Malta, Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Croatia, Latvia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Spain, Hungary, Czech Republic, and Portugal. With new policies and technologies, old landfills can be turned into beautiful sceneries, renewable energy, and building materials. Burying rubbish and keeping it in the ground represent environmental and financial cost. The land can be successfully reused, and waste can be mined for metals used to create fuel for use in cars, homes, or industrial plants. The problem of land reuse used to be technology, but now it is the lack of knowledge, which created fear among the people. Landfill conversions are generally unfavorably perceived, as many people are fearful that the local environment and quality of life will be negatively affected. As this fear is based on emotional rather than scientific information, research is expected to play a crucial role in educating people to support land recovery projects in the future.

Since residential development cannot take place for longer period due to the possibility of gas escaping (which is safe as long as they are not in confined spaces), using the municipal waste landfill site for recreational purposes is recommended. Parks as leisure services look for ways to differentiate themselves through the creation of their physical surroundings to attract visitors and stimulate repeated visitations. In order to succeed, regular refreshing of the facilities is required [22], which represents a huge financial burden for park owners. Therefore, renewal schemes based on objective rather than subjective assessments should be employed. According to empirical results, the higher the level of shopping values, the stronger their intention to revisit [23]. In that sense, it is suggested to introduce distinctive attributes in new parks that will be recognized as improvements and thus stimulate visitations. The conclusions of this chapter were based on the relevant literature key components of the surroundings and how customers perceive it.

#### **2. Urban parks**

*Outdoor Recreation - Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health*

or combined development [10, 11].

their functional life since landfills are conveniently located near major transportation routes and other major infrastructure in urban areas. In such a situation, alternative landfill conversions are possible, including but not limited to building parks, solar panels, residential buildings, malls, golf courses, dirt BMX bike tracks,

According to the literature, policy makers are suggested to organize environmental education programs [12] and make extensive improvements in facilities for higher satisfaction of visitors [13]. Numerous examples demonstrate successful conversions of old landfills (**Table 1**) into recreational parks, such as Flushing Meadows (New York, USA), Mt. Trashmore (Virginia, USA), Freshkills Park (New York, USA), Cesar Chavez Park (Berkley, USA), Sai Tso Wan Recreation Ground (Hong Kong), Pulau Semakau (Singapore), Port Sunlight River Park (Birkenhead, UK), Hiriya Park (Tel-Aviv, Israel), and so forth. Thus, it seems that the option of building recreational parks after closing old municipal landfills could prove to be a promising measure, based on previous research literature on the redevelopment potentials of

landfills [14–17] and the making of urban green space strategies [18, 19].

**Landfill site Existing and proposed afteruse**

is being planned

Wan Recreation Ground

out area in January 2011

aerial vehicle for land surveying

Ma Tso Lung For recreational use by Tung Wah Group of Hospitals

Siu Lang Shui Currently as green zone Ngau Tam Mei Currently as green zone

*Examples of alternative landfill reuse scenarios.*

Pillar Point Valley Part of the site has been developed into a shooting range in July 2016

Jordan Valley Jordan Valley Park was opened to public in August 2010

It is very possible that in modern dense urban areas, former landfills may end up being the only available, large, and open locations to build new public parks.

Shuen Wan A 145-bay golf driving range has been opened for use by the public since April 1999. For

Sai Tso Wan Sai Tso Wan Recreation Ground for soccer and baseball. For details, please click Sai Tso

Gin Drinkers Bay The Hong Kong Jockey Club International BMX Park situated on the Gin Drinkers Bay

jogging track, etc. For details, please click Jordan Valley Park Ngau Chi Wan Ngau Chi Wan Park was fully opened to public in Sept 2010 (its first phase opened in

Ma Yau Tong West Part of the site has been developed into a sitting-out area in September 2011

track cum footpath and was opened to the public in June 2012

details, please click Golf Driving Range at Shuen Wan. The development of golf course

Landfill was opened in October 2009. For details, please click Hong Kong Jockey Club International BMX Park. Another portion of the site has been allocated to the Hong Kong Cricket Association for development of temporary cricket grounds

The Park is featured with a radio-controlled model car racing circuit, horticultural education center, community garden, children's play areas, elderly exercise corner,

Aug 2009). The Park is featured with archery field, jogging trail, elderly fitness corners, children's play areas, basketball court, etc. For details, please click Ngau Chi Wan Park

Part of the site adjacent to the existing Lam Tin Park has been developed into a sitting-

Waterfront of the former Tseung Kwan O Stage I Landfill was developed into a cycle

In 2005, top platform of the former Tseung Kwan O Stage Stage II/III Landfill had been developed into a model airplane training field for the Hong Kong Air Cadet Crops to use during weekends and public holidays. It is now used as a training field of unmanned

**64**

**Table 1.**

Ma Yau Tong Central

Tseung Kwan O Stage I

Tseung Kwan O Stage II/III

Urban parks are a valuable municipal source of and a key element for city sustainability, as they are able to facilitate proper land resource allocation for citizens so as to meet their recreational demands and play other social functions as well [24]. They are fundamental to social and psychological well-being of city residents [25]. It has been proven that staying in urban greenery areas, like parks and forests, has positive and restorative effects on people's mood, peacefulness, concentration, and stress release [26–30]. Urban parks contribute to the beautification of the city and have positive effects on environmental quality, including air freshness, carbon sequestration, water purity, as well as biodiversity. They thus improve city dwellers' overall quality of life in areas including physical health, social cohesion, tourism, and consequently employment and revenues [18, 31–34]. Furthermore, green spaces can act as leisure, sport, and recreational resources, reducing criminal and antisocial behavior as well as cutting down on obesity, since such spaces encourage physical fitness and exercise [35–38].

Parks as facility-driven leisure venues look for ways to differentiate themselves through the creation of their physical surroundings. According to empirical results, park visitors perceive physical surroundings as novel. The higher the level of shopping values, the stronger their intention to revisit. In that sense, it is suggested to introduce distinctive attributes in new recreational venues that will be recognized as improvements and thus stimulate visitations (e.g., giant slide, graffiti, swings, tree-lined path, BMX tracks, skate bowl).

#### **2.1 Urban sustainability**

Due to the global climate change, sustainable management became one of the key elements to achieve urban sustainability. The most recent findings in the field of waste management [39–45] were collected and summarized in a list of challenges that policy makers should take into consideration:


The aforementioned challenges/suggestions were drawn from studies that dealt with the concept of solid waste. The term "solid waste" implies all the waste which excludes liquid residues and airborne emissions [46, 47]. Given the different location of landfills around the world and the corresponding geoclimatic and technological characteristics, we acknowledge that a MSW management pattern to follow does not exist. However, if similar conditions are met, policies can be replicated or used as benchmarks.

### **3. Novelty among park facilities**

To perceive a product as new, an observer has to experience a certain level of change to his present knowledge. In that sense, radically new and incrementally new can be distinguished, where the first one involves a revolutionary change to present knowledge and the latter only a minor improvement or adjustment to

**67**

visible [23].

**in Zagreb, Croatia**

*Introducing Park Facilities and Novelties to Support Individual's Intention to (Re)Visit*

a new roller coaster, a painted wall, or a new entrance gate.

present knowledge [48]. When there is a perceptible difference between the old and the new, the absolute threshold of newness occurs. For it to be evident, the initial stimulus must be stronger than the subsequent one [49]. Recognizing the extent to which novelty is incorporated within a service from the consumer point of view can assist parks owners, investors, or administration avoid unsound assumptions, especially in terms of how innovative the consumer perceives a product or a service and, based on that, makes his decision. It is important to point out that the newness and novelty arise from the observer or from products and services [50] that have to hold a new dimension relative to previous or other products/services, for example,

In terms of atmospherics, the most commonly used model is Bitner's servicescape model with three dimensions of physical surroundings: ambient conditions, space/function, and signs, symbols and artifacts [51]. However, in the case of leisure "built environments" like parks, being renewable and visible are the necessary components of physical surroundings [52]. Wakefield and Blodgett suggested five dimensions to assess the impact of physical components of the servicescape on consumer behavior in leisure environment (sport stadiums, recreation centers, and theaters). They are as follows: facility esthetics, spatial layout and placement, seating comfort, electronic equipment and display, and cleanliness. As suggested by the same authors, (theme) park managers may consider regular renewals of physical surroundings by adjusting the esthetic of the facility and layout and placement

to intensify visitor perceptions of the quality of the physical surrounding.

To describe visitor perceptions of park physical surroundings, researchers of consumption experiences commonly use the term "shopping values" [53], with utilitarian and hedonic perspectives [54]. If a service has a utilitarian value, it is essentially goal-oriented and functional, and the utilitarian value is determined when the consumption need is realized, which stimulated the shopping in the first place. Services with hedonic value, on the other hand, are more subjective and personal, experiential, and symbolic, and they arouse fun and excitement [55]. The consumer can positively and negatively react to the surroundings. When it comes to leisure service facilities, the consumer will experience greater satisfaction when the surrounding aspects (e.g., decoration and architecture) convey a higher esthetic sense. To measure the perception of the newness of physical surroundings for repeat visitors, the physical surroundings should be perceptible, have gone through renovation, and capable of renewal, and the novelty should be

**4. Landfill-to-park transformation: An example of Jakuševec landfill** 

Croatia faced the issue of land reuse recently while considering closure and transformation of Jakuševec-Prudinec landfill (hereinafter Jakuševec) in Zagreb (**Figure 1**). The suggestions of land use alternatives for the particular site are related

The closure of Jakuševec was announced years ago and had been spurring on residents' dissatisfaction ever since, in particular, the dissatisfaction of residents living in the immediate vicinity of the site. The management of the landfill, orchestrated by a city-owned company named ZGOS Ltd., carried out landfill remediation in 2003 and suggested December 31, 2018, as the starting date for waste disposal cessation processes [57]. The Jakuševec landfill was established in 1965 and has gradually led to significant negative environmental impacts on its surrounding regions. Statistical surveys indicate that just up to the beginning of the 1990s, the

to leisure services that encourage physical fitness and exercise [56].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93135*

#### *Introducing Park Facilities and Novelties to Support Individual's Intention to (Re)Visit DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93135*

present knowledge [48]. When there is a perceptible difference between the old and the new, the absolute threshold of newness occurs. For it to be evident, the initial stimulus must be stronger than the subsequent one [49]. Recognizing the extent to which novelty is incorporated within a service from the consumer point of view can assist parks owners, investors, or administration avoid unsound assumptions, especially in terms of how innovative the consumer perceives a product or a service and, based on that, makes his decision. It is important to point out that the newness and novelty arise from the observer or from products and services [50] that have to hold a new dimension relative to previous or other products/services, for example, a new roller coaster, a painted wall, or a new entrance gate.

In terms of atmospherics, the most commonly used model is Bitner's servicescape model with three dimensions of physical surroundings: ambient conditions, space/function, and signs, symbols and artifacts [51]. However, in the case of leisure "built environments" like parks, being renewable and visible are the necessary components of physical surroundings [52]. Wakefield and Blodgett suggested five dimensions to assess the impact of physical components of the servicescape on consumer behavior in leisure environment (sport stadiums, recreation centers, and theaters). They are as follows: facility esthetics, spatial layout and placement, seating comfort, electronic equipment and display, and cleanliness. As suggested by the same authors, (theme) park managers may consider regular renewals of physical surroundings by adjusting the esthetic of the facility and layout and placement to intensify visitor perceptions of the quality of the physical surrounding.

To describe visitor perceptions of park physical surroundings, researchers of consumption experiences commonly use the term "shopping values" [53], with utilitarian and hedonic perspectives [54]. If a service has a utilitarian value, it is essentially goal-oriented and functional, and the utilitarian value is determined when the consumption need is realized, which stimulated the shopping in the first place. Services with hedonic value, on the other hand, are more subjective and personal, experiential, and symbolic, and they arouse fun and excitement [55].

The consumer can positively and negatively react to the surroundings. When it comes to leisure service facilities, the consumer will experience greater satisfaction when the surrounding aspects (e.g., decoration and architecture) convey a higher esthetic sense. To measure the perception of the newness of physical surroundings for repeat visitors, the physical surroundings should be perceptible, have gone through renovation, and capable of renewal, and the novelty should be visible [23].

#### **4. Landfill-to-park transformation: An example of Jakuševec landfill in Zagreb, Croatia**

Croatia faced the issue of land reuse recently while considering closure and transformation of Jakuševec-Prudinec landfill (hereinafter Jakuševec) in Zagreb (**Figure 1**). The suggestions of land use alternatives for the particular site are related to leisure services that encourage physical fitness and exercise [56].

The closure of Jakuševec was announced years ago and had been spurring on residents' dissatisfaction ever since, in particular, the dissatisfaction of residents living in the immediate vicinity of the site. The management of the landfill, orchestrated by a city-owned company named ZGOS Ltd., carried out landfill remediation in 2003 and suggested December 31, 2018, as the starting date for waste disposal cessation processes [57]. The Jakuševec landfill was established in 1965 and has gradually led to significant negative environmental impacts on its surrounding regions. Statistical surveys indicate that just up to the beginning of the 1990s, the

*Outdoor Recreation - Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health*

tree-lined path, BMX tracks, skate bowl).

that policy makers should take into consideration:

• Novel technology to be implemented.

advance municipal solid waste (MSW) management.

• Developing a culture of environmental protection.

• Life cycle methods for decision-making improvement.

• Regulatory pressures to enhance smart waste management.

• Zero-waste circular economy perception.

• Important role of waste pickers.

specific environmental concerns.

sustainability.

used as benchmarks.

**3. Novelty among park facilities**

**2.1 Urban sustainability**

circle.

park visitors perceive physical surroundings as novel. The higher the level of shopping values, the stronger their intention to revisit. In that sense, it is suggested to introduce distinctive attributes in new recreational venues that will be recognized as improvements and thus stimulate visitations (e.g., giant slide, graffiti, swings,

Due to the global climate change, sustainable management became one of the key elements to achieve urban sustainability. The most recent findings in the field of waste management [39–45] were collected and summarized in a list of challenges

• Technical integration and social acceptability are the critical aspects that

• Environmental educational programs, actions, and projects to boost virtuous

• Different locations/cities focus on different frameworks when dealing with

• Social issue discovered to be the main factor that reduces MSW management

The aforementioned challenges/suggestions were drawn from studies that dealt with the concept of solid waste. The term "solid waste" implies all the waste which excludes liquid residues and airborne emissions [46, 47]. Given the different location of landfills around the world and the corresponding geoclimatic and technological characteristics, we acknowledge that a MSW management pattern to follow does not exist. However, if similar conditions are met, policies can be replicated or

To perceive a product as new, an observer has to experience a certain level of change to his present knowledge. In that sense, radically new and incrementally new can be distinguished, where the first one involves a revolutionary change to present knowledge and the latter only a minor improvement or adjustment to

• Integrated waste management has the best environmental impact.

**66**

**Figure 1.**

*Study site location and the layout of Zagreb. Source: Geoportal of the state geodetic Administration of the Republic of Croatia, 2018.*

landfill has occupied and polluted almost 1 million m3 of soil (soil material) and seriously jeopardized the quality of groundwater intended for drinking [58]. The groundwater pollution line has been spreading eastward, particularly in times of changing hydrodynamic conditions in the aquifer, which further increases concern among the citizens.

This is one of the seldom case studies in developing and small countries such as Croatia that supports brownfield regeneration, a new sustainable urban development planning method that functions by proposing a land use transformation based on a nonmarket valuation (NMV) method. This study addresses several questions based on a conducted survey, where the visitor's intention to visit recreational parks in the future is one of them. Similar to Kountouris, Nakic, and Sauer [59], specific timing was used to collect data. According to Latinopoulos, Mallios, and Latinopoulos [60], survey data may be considered as a form of public investment at an early stage of planning, which is likely to improve the public acceptance of the proposed projects. The suggestions made based on the research results should be of interest to researchers and policy makers looking for a way to introduce parks to be created from old landfills. It should be highlighted that this study effort is not a common practice in this part of Europe, where people have a certain measure of distrust and fear of certain types of government policies.

Based on public park visitation trends and tourism trends in the city of Zagreb [61], as well as the data obtained by the contingent valuation method (CVM) survey [56], the hypothetical recreational park atop the current landfill is expected to be most visited by local citizens, domestic tourists, and foreign tourists, respectively. As much as 96% of the respondents are willing to visit the park in the future. The respondents' gender ratio is 33:67 between males and females. The dominant age group is 30–49 years (42.8%), whereas the other two age groups were distributed evenly. 42% of respondents are single and 39% of respondents are married. According to these study results, the majority of respondents hold a master's or higher university degree (62.4%). Only 8.9% hold a bachelor's degree as the highest level of education, and 28.9% of respondents graduated from high school. More than half of the respondents (54.2%) earn HRK5,000–10,000 every month, which corresponds to the average of a net monthly salary in Croatia for September 2019—HRK6,418 [62]. 38.7% of respondents earn less than HRK5,000, and 7% of respondents earn more than HRK10,000.

In regard to travel habits, 62% of respondents visit public parks monthly or during holidays, whereas 22% of them go more frequently, on a weekly basis.

**69**

**Figure 2.**

*Visitor's perceived experience.*

*Introducing Park Facilities and Novelties to Support Individual's Intention to (Re)Visit*

Their main means of transportation is personal vehicle (48%), followed by public transportation (18.5%), bicycle (16.2%), and walking (14%). In the case of purpose of visiting a park, 46.9% of respondents consider fresh air as the main purpose of visit, and 13.7% say it is sightseeing, followed by 12.2% of respondents that report natural resources (12.2%) as the main purpose of their visit. The respondents spend

Two of the questions in the CVM survey were presented with pictures in color for better understanding, as they were related to perceived experience with regard to the status of the current landfill (**Figure 2**, **Table 2**). According to results, 49.4% are moderately aware of the status of the area around the landfill, 13.3% have never seen it, and 37.3% are well aware of it. When it comes to the respondents' perceived experience with respect to the landfill-park conversion, the majority cannot wait to enjoy the new park (54.2%), 38.7% are more focused on the landfill being closed, and only 7% welcome the project as they assume it will help in reducing the crowd in other parks. In regard to desired conversion of Jakuševec landfill, 131 respondents (48.3%) said that they would like to see a recreational park built, 78 respondents (28.8%) prefer a theme park, and 50 respondents (18.5%) would like to see a forest, whereas real estate land for commercial development and other was answered by 4

The foregoing findings provide the following conclusions and suggestions for this potential land use transformation from landfill to a city recreational park in the city of Zagreb. First, converting the waste landfill site to a recreational park perhaps is one of the best choices. This is aligned with the Spatial Plan of the City of Zagreb and the concept Zagreb on Sava [63], which aims at redesigning the Sava river

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93135*

HRK11.89 on average when visiting a park.

people (1.5%) for each of the categories.

#### *Introducing Park Facilities and Novelties to Support Individual's Intention to (Re)Visit DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93135*

Their main means of transportation is personal vehicle (48%), followed by public transportation (18.5%), bicycle (16.2%), and walking (14%). In the case of purpose of visiting a park, 46.9% of respondents consider fresh air as the main purpose of visit, and 13.7% say it is sightseeing, followed by 12.2% of respondents that report natural resources (12.2%) as the main purpose of their visit. The respondents spend HRK11.89 on average when visiting a park.

Two of the questions in the CVM survey were presented with pictures in color for better understanding, as they were related to perceived experience with regard to the status of the current landfill (**Figure 2**, **Table 2**). According to results, 49.4% are moderately aware of the status of the area around the landfill, 13.3% have never seen it, and 37.3% are well aware of it. When it comes to the respondents' perceived experience with respect to the landfill-park conversion, the majority cannot wait to enjoy the new park (54.2%), 38.7% are more focused on the landfill being closed, and only 7% welcome the project as they assume it will help in reducing the crowd in other parks. In regard to desired conversion of Jakuševec landfill, 131 respondents (48.3%) said that they would like to see a recreational park built, 78 respondents (28.8%) prefer a theme park, and 50 respondents (18.5%) would like to see a forest, whereas real estate land for commercial development and other was answered by 4 people (1.5%) for each of the categories.

The foregoing findings provide the following conclusions and suggestions for this potential land use transformation from landfill to a city recreational park in the city of Zagreb. First, converting the waste landfill site to a recreational park perhaps is one of the best choices. This is aligned with the Spatial Plan of the City of Zagreb and the concept Zagreb on Sava [63], which aims at redesigning the Sava river


**Figure 2.** *Visitor's perceived experience.*

*Outdoor Recreation - Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health*

landfill has occupied and polluted almost 1 million m3 of soil (soil material) and seriously jeopardized the quality of groundwater intended for drinking [58]. The groundwater pollution line has been spreading eastward, particularly in times of changing hydrodynamic conditions in the aquifer, which further increases concern

*Study site location and the layout of Zagreb. Source: Geoportal of the state geodetic Administration of the* 

This is one of the seldom case studies in developing and small countries such as Croatia that supports brownfield regeneration, a new sustainable urban development planning method that functions by proposing a land use transformation based on a nonmarket valuation (NMV) method. This study addresses several questions based on a conducted survey, where the visitor's intention to visit recreational parks in the future is one of them. Similar to Kountouris, Nakic, and Sauer [59], specific timing was used to collect data. According to Latinopoulos, Mallios, and Latinopoulos [60], survey data may be considered as a form of public investment at an early stage of planning, which is likely to improve the public acceptance of the proposed projects. The suggestions made based on the research results should be of interest to researchers and policy makers looking for a way to introduce parks to be created from old landfills. It should be highlighted that this study effort is not a common practice in this part of Europe, where people have a certain measure of

Based on public park visitation trends and tourism trends in the city of Zagreb [61], as well as the data obtained by the contingent valuation method (CVM) survey [56], the hypothetical recreational park atop the current landfill is expected to be most visited by local citizens, domestic tourists, and foreign tourists, respectively. As much as 96% of the respondents are willing to visit the park in the future. The respondents' gender ratio is 33:67 between males and females. The dominant age group is 30–49 years (42.8%), whereas the other two age groups were distributed evenly. 42% of respondents are single and 39% of respondents are married. According to these study results, the majority of respondents hold a master's or higher university degree (62.4%). Only 8.9% hold a bachelor's degree as the highest level of education, and 28.9% of respondents graduated from high school. More than half of the respondents (54.2%) earn HRK5,000–10,000 every month, which corresponds to the average of a net monthly salary in Croatia for September 2019—HRK6,418 [62]. 38.7% of respondents earn less than HRK5,000, and 7% of

In regard to travel habits, 62% of respondents visit public parks monthly or during holidays, whereas 22% of them go more frequently, on a weekly basis.

distrust and fear of certain types of government policies.

respondents earn more than HRK10,000.

**68**

among the citizens.

*Republic of Croatia, 2018.*

**Figure 1.**


**Table 2.**

*Perceived experience of visitors with regard to the status of Jaku*š*evec landfill.*

banks to be stretched from Slovenia to Croatia (Sisak) in order to best serve citizens' recreational and leisure activities. Thus, it is foreseeable that the strategy of ceasing the current landfill operations and converting it into a recreational park in Zagreb seems to fit the city's overall landscape design. Second, besides trees, flowers, and other types of fauna and flora, it may be beneficial to add more products and services to the park including to encourage park (re)visitations among different age groups. Third, the performance of parks can be improved by using a combination of newer physical surroundings together with promotional activities. Fourth, physical surroundings or attributes that contribute to consumers' perception and consumption experience possess (i) utilitarian value, namely, goal-oriented, functional, and instrumental, and (ii) hedonic value, related to the immediate personal satisfaction gained from emotional benefits provided by consumption experience. Fifth, newness and novelty can be influenced by different factors such as the time interval between two visits, the duration of the trip, the periodicity of service usage, and individual perceptual abilities. Finally, the study results contribute both theoretical and empirical literature credible solutions for efficient landfill conversions, nonmarket resource management, waste management, environmental protection, and novelties among park facilities and payment vehicles [64]. The model presented here can be used as an example for any projects that require a cost–benefit analysis of nonmarket valuation to alleviate policy development for the management of public resources and financial sustainability at both local and national levels.

#### **5. Policy suggestions**

It is crucial to notice that only participation and awareness from the beginning of a policy planning can end up in public acceptance [65]. After developing a policy, an effective implementation has to take place. In order to reach its goal, a policy-to-implementation process should include the following steps: constructing operational rules and guidelines; organizing and allocating human and financial resources effectively; applying monitoring system for all-level-policy and program decisions; setting up a multi-directional feedback process for beneficiaries, implementers, and policy makers; establishing follow-up mechanisms to ensure compliance with policy; and introducing a policy implementation evaluation system. In terms of environmental protection, new (or altering existing) environmental regulations and control systems that will have an effect on the activities that are subject to it should be developed. Therefore, it is critical to develop an overall strategy for compliance and enforcement.

**71**

*Introducing Park Facilities and Novelties to Support Individual's Intention to (Re)Visit*

Several suggestions in terms of landfill-park conversions for decision makers

• Landfills should be inexpensive to buy, free of charge, or supported by loans, subsidies, or grants, as their conversion and maintenance costs are high.

• Conversion and maintenance costs can be shared by the former landfill owner

• The closure and the new use of a site have to be well researched and planned and supported by standard regulations issued by environmental protection agencies to adequately address gas production and ground settlement issues.

• The municipality or other legal entities should assist these kinds of projects,

After developing a policy, an effective implementation has to take place in order

1.Policies would be translated into constructive operational rules and guidelines.

2.Resources, namely, human and financial, would be allocated and organized

4.A multi-directional feedback process would be established for beneficiaries,

5.Follow-up mechanisms would be set up to ensure compliance with policy guidelines (e.g., national monitoring board or sanctions for noncompliance).

Policy issues may appear throughout the entire policy-to-action continuum, which is the reason why it is essential to understand the nature of policy implementation [67]. In that aspect, a key capability for policy makers is the ability to address

Sites such as landfills, decommissioned animal feedlots, and manufacturing plants constitute a challenging problem faced by city management, especially for regions and locations which have limited land areas to be utilized for such a purpose. The challenges come from the constraints of the land space and from finding proper land use alternatives after it becomes decommissioned. To ensure

6.Policy implementation evaluation system should be introduced.

3.Monitoring systems would be applied for all-level-policy and program

to successfully achieve intended results [66]. Policies require various inputs to reach their goals [66]: clear implementation plans, strong leadership, cross-sectoral stakeholder involvement, adequate resources, and effective monitoring systems. In

financially or in any other way that will make them a reality.

ideal circumstances, the following sequence would exist:

implementers, and policy makers.

the barriers to policy implementation.

• Different financial models should be created for different conversions.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93135*

and the new owner.

efficiently.

decisions.

**6. Conclusions**

were derived:

#### *Introducing Park Facilities and Novelties to Support Individual's Intention to (Re)Visit DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93135*

Several suggestions in terms of landfill-park conversions for decision makers were derived:


After developing a policy, an effective implementation has to take place in order to successfully achieve intended results [66]. Policies require various inputs to reach their goals [66]: clear implementation plans, strong leadership, cross-sectoral stakeholder involvement, adequate resources, and effective monitoring systems. In ideal circumstances, the following sequence would exist:


Policy issues may appear throughout the entire policy-to-action continuum, which is the reason why it is essential to understand the nature of policy implementation [67]. In that aspect, a key capability for policy makers is the ability to address the barriers to policy implementation.

#### **6. Conclusions**

Sites such as landfills, decommissioned animal feedlots, and manufacturing plants constitute a challenging problem faced by city management, especially for regions and locations which have limited land areas to be utilized for such a purpose. The challenges come from the constraints of the land space and from finding proper land use alternatives after it becomes decommissioned. To ensure

*Outdoor Recreation - Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health*

Perceived experience with regard to the status of the area around Jakuševec

*Perceived experience of visitors with regard to the status of Jaku*š*evec landfill.*

banks to be stretched from Slovenia to Croatia (Sisak) in order to best serve citizens' recreational and leisure activities. Thus, it is foreseeable that the strategy of ceasing the current landfill operations and converting it into a recreational park in Zagreb seems to fit the city's overall landscape design. Second, besides trees, flowers, and other types of fauna and flora, it may be beneficial to add more products and services to the park including to encourage park (re)visitations among different age groups. Third, the performance of parks can be improved by using a combination of newer physical surroundings together with promotional activities. Fourth, physical surroundings or attributes that contribute to consumers' perception and consumption experience possess (i) utilitarian value, namely, goal-oriented, functional, and instrumental, and (ii) hedonic value, related to the immediate personal satisfaction gained from emotional benefits provided by consumption experience. Fifth, newness and novelty can be influenced by different factors such as the time interval between two visits, the duration of the trip, the periodicity of service usage, and individual perceptual abilities. Finally, the study results contribute both theoretical and empirical literature credible solutions for efficient landfill conversions, nonmarket resource management, waste management, environmental protection, and novelties among park facilities and payment vehicles [64]. The model presented here can be used as an example for any projects that require a cost–benefit analysis of nonmarket valuation to alleviate policy development for the management of public resources and financial sustainability at both local and national levels.

**Demographic variable Frequency %**

"Have never seen it" 36 13.3 "Moderately aware of it" 134 49.4 "I have seen it many times" 101 37.3

"Finally the landfill is closed" 105 38.7 "Less crowd in other parks" 19 7 "Cannot wait to enjoy the new park" 147 54.2

Perceived experience with regard to conversion of Jakuševec landfill to a recreational park

It is crucial to notice that only participation and awareness from the beginning of a policy planning can end up in public acceptance [65]. After developing a policy, an effective implementation has to take place. In order to reach its goal, a policy-to-implementation process should include the following steps: constructing operational rules and guidelines; organizing and allocating human and financial resources effectively; applying monitoring system for all-level-policy and program decisions; setting up a multi-directional feedback process for beneficiaries, implementers, and policy makers; establishing follow-up mechanisms to ensure compliance with policy; and introducing a policy implementation evaluation system. In terms of environmental protection, new (or altering existing) environmental regulations and control systems that will have an effect on the activities that are subject to it should be developed. Therefore, it is critical to develop an overall strategy for

**70**

**5. Policy suggestions**

**Table 2.**

compliance and enforcement.

an efficient utilization of land recovery find out the best land use alternatives, the decision makers should make sure to assess the economic value to be potentially accrued by the recovered resources or by the potential consumers who are directly affected by the land recovery strategies. The Jakuševec landfill-park conversion suggested in this chapter represents a great opportunity to become a relevant example to similar scenarios in the future.

Urban parks are fundamental to social and psychological well-being of city residents and a key component for city sustainability. While parks contribute to the beautification of the city and have positive effects on environmental quality, spending time in parks has restorative effect on people's mood and stress release. Based on empirical results and relevant literature in key components of surroundings and how customers perceive it [23, 51, 52, 68], several conclusions are drawn:


## **Acknowledgements**

The author would like to thank the respondents who showed interest in this study and interviewers who patiently filled out surveys.

**73**

**Author details**

Marija Opačak

*Introducing Park Facilities and Novelties to Support Individual's Intention to (Re)Visit*

Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning Province, PR China

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: o.marija@gmail.com

provided the original work is properly cited.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93135*

*Introducing Park Facilities and Novelties to Support Individual's Intention to (Re)Visit DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93135*

### **Author details**

*Outdoor Recreation - Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health*

to similar scenarios in the future.

electronic equipment and display.

an efficient utilization of land recovery find out the best land use alternatives, the decision makers should make sure to assess the economic value to be potentially accrued by the recovered resources or by the potential consumers who are directly affected by the land recovery strategies. The Jakuševec landfill-park conversion suggested in this chapter represents a great opportunity to become a relevant example

Urban parks are fundamental to social and psychological well-being of city residents and a key component for city sustainability. While parks contribute to the beautification of the city and have positive effects on environmental quality, spending time in parks has restorative effect on people's mood and stress release. Based on empirical results and relevant literature in key components of surroundings and

• Physical surroundings that are most commonly recognized to have an impact on consumers' perception of quality and behavioral intentions include special layout and placement, ambient conditions, facility esthetics, cleanliness, and

• There is a significant impact of novel physical surroundings on revisitation behaviors, and other studies report that relationship can be mediated by

• Park performance, in terms of consistent visitations, can be improved by implementing a market positioning strategy, by investing in a combination

• In the absence of close alternatives, visitors will search for any setting

• To retain positioning, parks can implement an effective strategy of refreshing

• Newness and novelty can be influenced by different factors such as the time interval between two visits, the duration of the trip, the periodicity of service

The author would like to thank the respondents who showed interest in this

how customers perceive it [23, 51, 52, 68], several conclusions are drawn:

hedonic shopping values and utilitarian shopping values.

of promotional activities and newer physical surroundings.

associated with satisfying their needs for relaxation.

the visitor experience on a regular basis.

usage, and individual perceptual abilities.

study and interviewers who patiently filled out surveys.

**Acknowledgements**

**72**

Marija Opačak Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning Province, PR China

\*Address all correspondence to: o.marija@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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article/pii/S0048969719329663

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S0959652619333037

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sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/

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[32] James P, Tzoulas K, Adams MD, Barber A, Box J, Breuste J, et al. Towards an integrated understanding of green space in the European built environment. Urban Forestry & Urban

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Planning and Management.

socscimed.2009.11.020

2007;**81**(3):167-178

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landurbplan.2011.12.015

June 2017;**22**(2):13

**76**

[44] Pereira TS, Gerson F. Evaluation of solid waste management sustainability of a coastal municipality from northeastern Brazil. Ocean and Coastal Management. 2019;**179**:104839. Available from: https:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ abs/pii/S0964569119300675

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[58] Barcic D, Ivancic V. Impact of the Prudinec/Jakusevec landfill on environment pollution. Sumarski List. 2010;**134**(7-8):347-359

[59] Kountouris Y, Nakic Z, Sauer J. Political instability and non-market valuation: Evidence from Croatia.

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**79**

**Chapter 6**

**Abstract**

from folklore.

**1. Introduction**

pre-school children [1, 2].

well-being

Folk-Based Outdoor Games as

Means to Improve the Physical

Well-Being of Pre-School Children

In this chapter, we will discuss outdoor games and explain the value they can have for 2–7-year-old children. An outdoor game means performing a wide range of movements, such as running, jumping, throwing a ball, etc. while following a certain set of predefined rules. It often includes some kind of spoken verse, nursery rhymes, and reference to folklore. These components define the game's story and help the children become more engaged within the game. In Russia, kindergartens conduct specially organised classes with children, to help them develop communicative skills, memory, and creativity. These classes (games) can have a positive effect on the child in a whole range of areas: physical, intellectual, emotional and communicative. They provide a benefit to the children's health, improve their cardiovascular/respiratory systems, strengthen the muscles and bones. In our research, we asked the teachers to observe the children's progress when taking part in outdoor games. Changes were evaluated on the basis of the so-called "play activity organisation". Play activity not only promotes the child's comprehensive development but is also a good indicator of the child's developmental age. In this chapter, we also provide examples of actual play exercises that involve phrases

**Keywords:** pre-school children, outdoor games, folklore, physical activity, emotional

Pre-school age children (2–6 years old) enjoy play. They play on their own, with

This is due to the fact that for pre-school age children, play is the main type of activity. Through play, the child discovers the world, develops vital faculties and skills, including motor skills, and learns the rules and norms of social behaviour. Today in Russia, play is a significant part of daily routine in kindergartens, taking place both indoors and outside. The games children learn with their teacher can

Teachers employ a vast number of different types of games when working with

their parents or older siblings and with their teachers.

then also be played at home and when going on trips.

Activity and Emotional

*Maria Leont'eva and Tatiana Levchenkova*

#### **Chapter 6**

*Outdoor Recreation - Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health*

[68] Turley L, Milliman R. Atmospheric effects on shopping behavior: A review of the experimental evidence. Journal of Business Research. 2000;**49**:193-211

Resource and Energy Economics. 2015;**41**:19-39. Available from: https:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/

[60] Latinopoulos D, Mallios Z, Latinopoulos P. Valuing the benefits of an urban park project: A contingent valuation study in Thessaloniki, Greece. Land Use Policy. 2016;**55**:130-141. DOI: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.03.020

[61] Ministarstvo turizma. Turizam u

[62] DZS. Average monthly net and gross earnings of persons in paid employment for September 2019 [Internet]. First Release. Zagreb; 2019 [cited 15 December 2019]. Available from: https://www.dzs.hr/Hrv\_Eng/ publication/2019/09-01-01\_09\_2019.

[63] Jošić M, Penović L. Radionica Zagreb na Savi. Zagreb: DAZ (Društvo

[64] Opačak M. Valuing a Prospective City Park Transformed from the Jakuševec Landfill Site in Zagreb, Croatia [Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation]. Dalian University of

[65] Hanzl S, Meschik M, Sammer G. Policy Formulation and Implementation

[66] Bhuyan A, Jorgensen A, Sharma S.

[Internet]. 2003. Available from: https://www.eltis.org/sites/default/files/

Taking the Pulse of Policy: The Policy Implementation Assessment Tool. Washington DC: Health Policy

[67] Pieron M, van der Zouwen M. Implementation Barriers. Washington DC: Capacity Development Resource

arhitekata Zagreb); 2013. p. 52

Technology; 2020

kt9b\_wm\_en\_6.pdf

Initiative; 2010

Guide; 2014

brojkama 2018. 2019. pp. 1-47

htm

pii/S0928765515000196

**78**
