• The geometry

Notwithstanding the two-phased origin of the S. Francis Basilica14, the geometry and the arithmetic follow the ancestral symbolisms of figures and numbers, independent from the clearly different stylistic character of each church and the references in orientation, distribution and architectural forms to the three mentioned iconic Christian churches .The plan-geometry of the S. Francis Basilica is a evident ad quadratum design, persisting in the early XIII° century four bays Romanesque Lower church, continued in the mid XIII° century Upper Church and the XIV°- XVII° side chapels. The modulus is given by the width (11,84 m = 40 roman feet of 0,296 m) of the passage in between the apse and the crossing. As a one-nave church, the initial three nave-bays sign a perfect (40x40)rf square, separated from each other by a narrow strip for the transversal arches. The crossing signs (43x43) rf in order to realize an inside area with hecatompedon overall length from the XIII°century entrance door to the end of the apse. The bell-tower adopts the same modulation, applied however on the outside perimeter. The design of the later additions and modifications (the superposed second church, the east entrancetransept of the lower church and seven of the twelve lateral chapels) followed similar squared design. The lateral chapels however applied a reduced modulus of 23 or 24 roman feet (**Figure 7b**). The geometry of the two transept sections (added in a second campaign) are two 'golden rectangles', applying the same 40 rf modulus in longitudinal direction and defining the transversal width according the golden mean proportion (40 rf x 0,618 = 24,72 rf = ~ 7,32 m). The overall analysis of the modulation permitted the author to discover some revisions and changes in the design, realized in the course of building, and to identify the probable chronology of each section of this medieval project [7].

The vertical section of the Lower Church signs a surprising ad circulum design, i.e. each bay includes a regular sphere with a diameter equal to the 40 rf modulus. The nadir of each sphere does not coincide with the pavement level, what should be the normal design, but with the quote of the Saint's sarcophagus, below the pavement. The sarcophagus is located at the base of a virtual sphere, inscribed in the crossing of the nave and the transept. The same sarcophagus marks also the starting point for an imaginary vertical axis, passing the middle of the mayor altar, rising to the zenith, as to indicate that the remains of S. Francis, a unique relic treasure with exceptional thaumaturgy capacities, is the best go-between to resolve men's problems. To stress this capacity, the difference between the extrados and the intrados perimeter of the circular transversal ribs delimitating the crossing, have been calculated according to a 1/3 reduced width of the diophantic proportion (similar to the Pantheon's enveloping wall) indicating the double irrational and golden mean reference of √ϕ (**Figure 7d and f** [20, 21]. Both churches also include a symbolic parcours on rebirth, indicated by the geometric path from the Lower Church virtually ascending through both apses and the Upper Church [23], p. 117.

As the initial design provided with two identic churches, both ground floors are similar apart from the nave's interior width, which is little larger in the Upper Church as the exterior wall thickness of the Upper Church is only half of those of the Lower Church. However, the opening between apse and crossing also in the Upper Church keeps strict on the architectural modulus of 40 rf, notwithstanding

**165**

**Figure 7.**

*Architectural Design Canons from Middle Ages and Before: An Inspiration for Modern...*

the different geometry of the apse (circular in the Lower Church and decagonal in the Upper Church). The stylistic differences in ornamental design (gothic versus romanesque) is also very evident as this emerges e.g. in the massive trilobate wallpiers of the Lower Church in contrast with the five-lobate clustered piers in the Upper Church. We also noticed several metric design irregularities, e.g. the vertical axis' of the Lower and Upper Church wall-piers are not well centralized, nor the length of the bays and squared plan-grid of the Upper Church are very regular. This are obvious indications for the separate design of both churches, spread over more years and more chief-master builders; maybe also connected with the medieval concept on metric tolerance's and the not so perfect measuring instruments. However, the visual impact of this metric irregularities is negligible as they get disguised by

*Double St. Francis basilica, Assisi. (a) General view from south-east [Wikidata]. (b) Squared ground floors lower basilica (left) and upper basilica (right); the black delineation indicates the mid-thirteenth initial three-bays church, the gray volumes the later additions [22] & author. Francis basilica, Assisi. (c) longitudinal section over both churches, extended in XIX° century with crypt. (d) transversal section over the transept (drawings [22] and author). S. Francis basilica, Assisi. (e) Lower church, view on the main altar, versus west [Wikimedia]. (f) Transversal section over main altar lower church and XIX° century crypt with location of sarcophagus in the nadir of reduced diophantic sphere (FOART measuring & author). (g, h) Geometric design* 

the full polychromic decoration of all walls and vaults.

*of the east façade upper church (drawing and photo: Author).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95391*

<sup>14</sup> The denomination as 'Basilica' is rather misleading as the church is not conform with the historic basilica building type; it is a exceptional honorary title, awarded in 1756 in occasion of the 500th years anniversary of the dedication of the double church, to give the S. Francis church the same ecclesiastic privileges as the ancient Christian Basilicas in Rome.

*Architectural Design Canons from Middle Ages and Before: An Inspiration for Modern... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95391*

#### **Figure 7.**

*Design of Cities and Buildings - Sustainability and Resilience in the Built Environment*

Notwithstanding the two-phased origin of the S. Francis Basilica14, the geometry and the arithmetic follow the ancestral symbolisms of figures and numbers, independent from the clearly different stylistic character of each church and the references in orientation, distribution and architectural forms to the three mentioned iconic Christian churches .The plan-geometry of the S. Francis Basilica is a evident ad quadratum design, persisting in the early XIII° century four bays Romanesque Lower church, continued in the mid XIII° century Upper Church and the XIV°- XVII° side chapels. The modulus is given by the width (11,84 m = 40 roman feet of 0,296 m) of the passage in between the apse and the crossing. As a one-nave church, the initial three nave-bays sign a perfect (40x40)rf square, separated from each other by a narrow strip for the transversal arches. The crossing signs (43x43) rf in order to realize an inside area with hecatompedon overall length from the XIII°century entrance door to the end of the apse. The bell-tower adopts the same modulation, applied however on the outside perimeter. The design of the later additions and modifications (the superposed second church, the east entrancetransept of the lower church and seven of the twelve lateral chapels) followed similar squared design. The lateral chapels however applied a reduced modulus of 23 or 24 roman feet (**Figure 7b**). The geometry of the two transept sections (added in a second campaign) are two 'golden rectangles', applying the same 40 rf modulus in longitudinal direction and defining the transversal width according the golden mean proportion (40 rf x 0,618 = 24,72 rf = ~ 7,32 m). The overall analysis of the modulation permitted the author to discover some revisions and changes in the design, realized in the course of building, and to identify the probable chronology

The vertical section of the Lower Church signs a surprising ad circulum design, i.e. each bay includes a regular sphere with a diameter equal to the 40 rf modulus. The nadir of each sphere does not coincide with the pavement level, what should be the normal design, but with the quote of the Saint's sarcophagus, below the pavement. The sarcophagus is located at the base of a virtual sphere, inscribed in the crossing of the nave and the transept. The same sarcophagus marks also the starting point for an imaginary vertical axis, passing the middle of the mayor altar, rising to the zenith, as to indicate that the remains of S. Francis, a unique relic treasure with exceptional thaumaturgy capacities, is the best go-between to resolve men's problems. To stress this capacity, the difference between the extrados and the intrados perimeter of the circular transversal ribs delimitating the crossing, have been calculated according to a 1/3 reduced width of the diophantic proportion (similar to the Pantheon's enveloping wall) indicating the double irrational

(**Figure 7d and f** [20, 21]. Both churches also

• The geometry

of each section of this medieval project [7].

and golden mean reference of √

privileges as the ancient Christian Basilicas in Rome.

ϕ

include a symbolic parcours on rebirth, indicated by the geometric path from the Lower Church virtually ascending through both apses and the Upper Church

As the initial design provided with two identic churches, both ground floors are similar apart from the nave's interior width, which is little larger in the Upper Church as the exterior wall thickness of the Upper Church is only half of those of the Lower Church. However, the opening between apse and crossing also in the Upper Church keeps strict on the architectural modulus of 40 rf, notwithstanding

<sup>14</sup> The denomination as 'Basilica' is rather misleading as the church is not conform with the historic basilica building type; it is a exceptional honorary title, awarded in 1756 in occasion of the 500th years anniversary of the dedication of the double church, to give the S. Francis church the same ecclesiastic

**164**

[23], p. 117.

*Double St. Francis basilica, Assisi. (a) General view from south-east [Wikidata]. (b) Squared ground floors lower basilica (left) and upper basilica (right); the black delineation indicates the mid-thirteenth initial three-bays church, the gray volumes the later additions [22] & author. Francis basilica, Assisi. (c) longitudinal section over both churches, extended in XIX° century with crypt. (d) transversal section over the transept (drawings [22] and author). S. Francis basilica, Assisi. (e) Lower church, view on the main altar, versus west [Wikimedia]. (f) Transversal section over main altar lower church and XIX° century crypt with location of sarcophagus in the nadir of reduced diophantic sphere (FOART measuring & author). (g, h) Geometric design of the east façade upper church (drawing and photo: Author).*

the different geometry of the apse (circular in the Lower Church and decagonal in the Upper Church). The stylistic differences in ornamental design (gothic versus romanesque) is also very evident as this emerges e.g. in the massive trilobate wallpiers of the Lower Church in contrast with the five-lobate clustered piers in the Upper Church. We also noticed several metric design irregularities, e.g. the vertical axis' of the Lower and Upper Church wall-piers are not well centralized, nor the length of the bays and squared plan-grid of the Upper Church are very regular. This are obvious indications for the separate design of both churches, spread over more years and more chief-master builders; maybe also connected with the medieval concept on metric tolerance's and the not so perfect measuring instruments. However, the visual impact of this metric irregularities is negligible as they get disguised by the full polychromic decoration of all walls and vaults.

The vertical geometry and the wall's elevation of the Upper Church is very different from the Lower Church. As said, the Upper Church design expresses the introduction of the gothic design canons, inspired by the gothic examples in the French and English Normandy and the Scholastic church fathers. The design implies a predominant ad triangulum geometry and the application of the different types of pointed arches as indicated by Villard de Honnecourt [6].

• The arithmetic numbering (conversion of metric unit: Roman foot = 0,296 m)

The numeric quantities in both churches reflect a large collection out of the mentioned sources from pagan antiquity, the Holy Bible, the Christian Scholastics, and the practical need for simple and rounded numbers. It starts with the choice of the horizontal as well as the vertical modulus in both churches, equal **40 rf** (a number appearing more than 100 times in the Holy Bible and also the modulus of King Solomon's Temple); the overal inside length (from apse to entrance) of the sepulchral church signs 200 rf (=5x40), the inside width of the transept signs 100 rf, i.e. a single and a double hecatompedon (the length of the mayor antique Greek temple); the inside length of the extended Upper Church signs 250 rf; the free height in the Lower Church from the pavement to the top of the transversal arch signs 30 rf and 33 rf to the vaults keystone signs; the piers' impost in the Upper Church signs also 33 rf; the height of the vaults keystone signs 60 rf or a 1:2 proportion regarding the Lower Church height. In the Lower Church one finds the omnipresence of number three in different combinations, in the Upper Church, one finds similar arithmetic combinations of number five in dimensions (e.g. length 250 rf = 2x5x5x5) and in structural elaboration (e.g. five-lobate wall-piers). The number five cult and the ad quadratum design is largely visible in the Upper Church east façade, which could serve as the tangible synthesis of a rich and most interesting intangible program (**Figure 7g**-**h**).

#### **4.6 ANDRIA (Italy), Castle del Monte, imperial castle, built 1241-1250**

Maybe the best known and most enigmatic medieval building with regard to architectural design is the castle built mid XIII°century near the site of a former small Our Lady's convent in Andria (Puglia, Italy), commissioned by Frederic II (1194–1250), the then Holy Roman Emperor. It illustrates the amalgamation of European (Romanesque), classic antiquity (Roman) and Islamic design traditions, clearly combined with Christian semantics about life, rebirth, cosmic structure and the role of Jerusalem as religious and geographic center of the flat terrestrial world. Indeed, the octagon was since Babylonian times the main symbol for rebirth and eternal life (cfr. The supreme goddess Isthar was imaged by a octagonal star); the Pythagoreans loved the number eight for being the first prime 'regenerating' three times (8 = 2x2x2), and also the Christians used the octagonal plan for the baptistery, as this is the building where men get spiritual rebirth. In metaphysics, the number eight was the sum of three and five, two numbers with particular semantic meaning, and the octagon was associated with the person of Christ, as He was part of a tripartite God but also human being, using the five human senses (3 + 5 = 8), reborn the third day after death.

In the case of Castle del Monte, we propose a more tangible explanation for the triple octagonal design (i.e. the inner courtyard, the outside perimeter and eight octagonal edge-towers). As emerges from the plan and the geometry, the octagonal design seems a quasi-imitation, of the ca. 600 years earlier built Islamic octagonal 'Dome of the Rock' built on top of Mount Moriah in Jerusalem. This 'Dome of the Rock' as well as the adjacently located smaller 'Dome of the Chain' were at

**167**

*4.6.1 Geometry and numbers*

*Architectural Design Canons from Middle Ages and Before: An Inspiration for Modern...*

Frederick's time converted into a Christian 'Templum Dominum', considered the geographic center of the world and also the most holy place for all three monotheist religions (Islam, Judaic and Christian). The 'bare stone platform', the center of the Dome of the Rock, was covered with the most extraordinary intangible content as it should have been the place where Abram sacrificed(Gen. 22), where Jacob dreamed (Gen. 28,11),where Solomon's Temple had his main altar (1Kings 6; 2 Cron.), and from where Mohammed ascended to heaven. Notwithstanding the Muslim origin and property of this Dome, it seems quite plausible that Frederick II, also crowned King of Jerusalem since 1229, was inspired by this unique symbolic content, and that he ordered the construction of an octagonal 'center of the world'- interpretation in his South Italian territories. Although the origin as a pagan (= Islamic) building, it was seen as inalienable part of the Christian heritage, and the imitation of similar octagonal building, substituting Solomon's Temple, was the best way to prove this towards his subjects. On top of this, it could be seen as a sign of obligingness from an illuminated and open minded Emperor towards the Muslim society

*Andria, Castel del Monte: (a) General aerial view. (b, c) squared and circle geometry of the ground floor (photo, drawings: Pinterest). (d) Jeruzalem, 'Dome of the Rock' and the adjacent, at east, small 'Dome of the Chain', both with octogonal plan,located in the center of the Temple Mount platform at Jeruzalem* 

There also might have been a second motive in play. Political history learns about the quasi permanent conflict between Frederick II and the then Pope Gregory IX. This last one had started in 1228 the before cited Sepulchral Basilica for S. Francis in Assisi, including also some small residence at the papal service, mainly for devotional reasons but also to consolidate papal political power in Central Italy. As the Castle del Monte was built in the same years (i.e. before 1240–1249) as the S. Francis Basilica at Assisi (built 1228–1253)), this Castle del Monte might also have been meant as a imperial answer in virtual confrontation with the papal project in Assisi. This hypothesis of ours can explain the evident link in the design with the biblical structure in Jerusalem and changes the Castle from a hunting refuge, as presented in literature, into a political and religious statement, expressed by this most unusual triple octagonal castle design. (One should note that the actual rectangular Al-aqsa mosque as well as the 'Dome of the Rock'- shrine has been damaged and rebuilt several times, but the mayor geometry of the 'Dome' has been preserved).

Many hypothesis on the semantics of this exceptional format have been proposed, but still today, there are more questions than answers [24]. In most literature, it is presented as a 'hunting' castle, or part of a greater military defense chain of castles by Frederick II, but none of this hypothesis make sense in this totally isolated location on a ca. 500 m high top. As said, it seems more a political sign against Pope Gregory IX (building the S. Francis basilica on top of the Assisi's Collis

(who had many Arabic scientists at his court) (**Figure 8d**).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95391*

**Figure 8.**

*(Wikipedia).*

*Architectural Design Canons from Middle Ages and Before: An Inspiration for Modern... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95391*

#### **Figure 8.**

*Design of Cities and Buildings - Sustainability and Resilience in the Built Environment*

pointed arches as indicated by Villard de Honnecourt [6].

The vertical geometry and the wall's elevation of the Upper Church is very different from the Lower Church. As said, the Upper Church design expresses the introduction of the gothic design canons, inspired by the gothic examples in the French and English Normandy and the Scholastic church fathers. The design implies a predominant ad triangulum geometry and the application of the different types of

• The arithmetic numbering (conversion of metric unit: Roman foot = 0,296 m)

The numeric quantities in both churches reflect a large collection out of the mentioned sources from pagan antiquity, the Holy Bible, the Christian Scholastics, and the practical need for simple and rounded numbers. It starts with the choice of the horizontal as well as the vertical modulus in both churches, equal **40 rf** (a number appearing more than 100 times in the Holy Bible and also the modulus of King Solomon's Temple); the overal inside length (from apse to entrance) of the sepulchral church signs 200 rf (=5x40), the inside width of the transept signs 100 rf, i.e. a single and a double hecatompedon (the length of the mayor antique Greek temple); the inside length of the extended Upper Church signs 250 rf; the free height in the Lower Church from the pavement to the top of the transversal arch signs 30 rf and 33 rf to the vaults keystone signs; the piers' impost in the Upper Church signs also 33 rf; the height of the vaults keystone signs 60 rf or a 1:2 proportion regarding the Lower Church height. In the Lower Church one finds the omnipresence of number three in different combinations, in the Upper Church, one finds similar arithmetic combinations of number five in dimensions (e.g. length 250 rf = 2x5x5x5) and in structural elaboration (e.g. five-lobate wall-piers). The number five cult and the ad quadratum design is largely visible in the Upper Church east façade, which could serve as the tangible synthesis of a rich and most interesting intangible program

**4.6 ANDRIA (Italy), Castle del Monte, imperial castle, built 1241-1250**

Maybe the best known and most enigmatic medieval building with regard to architectural design is the castle built mid XIII°century near the site of a former small Our Lady's convent in Andria (Puglia, Italy), commissioned by Frederic II (1194–1250), the then Holy Roman Emperor. It illustrates the amalgamation of European (Romanesque), classic antiquity (Roman) and Islamic design traditions, clearly combined with Christian semantics about life, rebirth, cosmic structure and the role of Jerusalem as religious and geographic center of the flat terrestrial world. Indeed, the octagon was since Babylonian times the main symbol for rebirth and eternal life (cfr. The supreme goddess Isthar was imaged by a octagonal star); the Pythagoreans loved the number eight for being the first prime 'regenerating' three times (8 = 2x2x2), and also the Christians used the octagonal plan for the baptistery, as this is the building where men get spiritual rebirth. In metaphysics, the number eight was the sum of three and five, two numbers with particular semantic meaning, and the octagon was associated with the person of Christ, as He was part of a tripartite God but also human being, using the five human senses (3 + 5 = 8), reborn

In the case of Castle del Monte, we propose a more tangible explanation for the triple octagonal design (i.e. the inner courtyard, the outside perimeter and eight octagonal edge-towers). As emerges from the plan and the geometry, the octagonal design seems a quasi-imitation, of the ca. 600 years earlier built Islamic octagonal 'Dome of the Rock' built on top of Mount Moriah in Jerusalem. This 'Dome of the Rock' as well as the adjacently located smaller 'Dome of the Chain' were at

**166**

the third day after death.

(**Figure 7g**-**h**).

*Andria, Castel del Monte: (a) General aerial view. (b, c) squared and circle geometry of the ground floor (photo, drawings: Pinterest). (d) Jeruzalem, 'Dome of the Rock' and the adjacent, at east, small 'Dome of the Chain', both with octogonal plan,located in the center of the Temple Mount platform at Jeruzalem (Wikipedia).*

Frederick's time converted into a Christian 'Templum Dominum', considered the geographic center of the world and also the most holy place for all three monotheist religions (Islam, Judaic and Christian). The 'bare stone platform', the center of the Dome of the Rock, was covered with the most extraordinary intangible content as it should have been the place where Abram sacrificed(Gen. 22), where Jacob dreamed (Gen. 28,11),where Solomon's Temple had his main altar (1Kings 6; 2 Cron.), and from where Mohammed ascended to heaven. Notwithstanding the Muslim origin and property of this Dome, it seems quite plausible that Frederick II, also crowned King of Jerusalem since 1229, was inspired by this unique symbolic content, and that he ordered the construction of an octagonal 'center of the world'- interpretation in his South Italian territories. Although the origin as a pagan (= Islamic) building, it was seen as inalienable part of the Christian heritage, and the imitation of similar octagonal building, substituting Solomon's Temple, was the best way to prove this towards his subjects. On top of this, it could be seen as a sign of obligingness from an illuminated and open minded Emperor towards the Muslim society (who had many Arabic scientists at his court) (**Figure 8d**).

There also might have been a second motive in play. Political history learns about the quasi permanent conflict between Frederick II and the then Pope Gregory IX. This last one had started in 1228 the before cited Sepulchral Basilica for S. Francis in Assisi, including also some small residence at the papal service, mainly for devotional reasons but also to consolidate papal political power in Central Italy. As the Castle del Monte was built in the same years (i.e. before 1240–1249) as the S. Francis Basilica at Assisi (built 1228–1253)), this Castle del Monte might also have been meant as a imperial answer in virtual confrontation with the papal project in Assisi. This hypothesis of ours can explain the evident link in the design with the biblical structure in Jerusalem and changes the Castle from a hunting refuge, as presented in literature, into a political and religious statement, expressed by this most unusual triple octagonal castle design. (One should note that the actual rectangular Al-aqsa mosque as well as the 'Dome of the Rock'- shrine has been damaged and rebuilt several times, but the mayor geometry of the 'Dome' has been preserved).

#### *4.6.1 Geometry and numbers*

Many hypothesis on the semantics of this exceptional format have been proposed, but still today, there are more questions than answers [24]. In most literature, it is presented as a 'hunting' castle, or part of a greater military defense chain of castles by Frederick II, but none of this hypothesis make sense in this totally isolated location on a ca. 500 m high top. As said, it seems more a political sign against Pope Gregory IX (building the S. Francis basilica on top of the Assisi's Collis Inferiore), and a confirmation of the emperor's personal contribution as the leader of the 6th crusade, bringing the Jerusalem holy places under Christian control. The plausible intention of goodwill towards the Muslim world, the probable and significant astrologic input in the design of the castle, and the most probable sacral, social and political message gives this monument a complex and multilayered content, as intriguing as his design mixes the geometric and the arithmetic canons of Europe and the Mediterranean Basin.

The design draws two concentric octagons, with an open courtyard at the center and eight small octagonal towers at each corner of the external perimeter. Based on a possible (but not sure) metric unit of the 'imperial foot' of 0,52 m, the side of the overall circumscribed octagon signs (again) 40 feet and the ca.54,60 m diameter of the circle circumscription is to convert into the number 54,60: 0,52 = 105 feet, which indicates the particular arithmetic sequence of 105 = 1x3x5x7 i.e. the product of the first uneven prime numbers. The plan design is strictly squared in all particularities (**Figure 8b, c**). Each of the two floors is divided in eight trapezium-form rooms, covered by a central cross-rib square vault and two triangular side vaults. The parallel with the 'Dome of the Rock '-temple is evident as also this one is designed as a double concentric octagon signing the same overall diameter of 105 feet or ca. 55 m, what supports the hypothesis about a conscious imitation in Andria. A further connection with Islamic architecture is given by the slim-line corner-towers reminding the typology of the 4th century square towers alongside the byzantine defense wall round Constantinople, although the octagonal towers at the Andria-castle do not seem too much for defense as well as for semantic reasons.

However, any further comment on a probable metric modulation or other design parallels are hindered by sufficiently controllable historic and metric information about the initial composition (this last aspect hampered by the lack of net interior dimensions as all inside decorative marble wall-cladding has disappeared, what makes authentic reliable measuring impossible). Further research is needed.

## **5. Conclusion**

The above mentioned small selection of architectural and structural characteristics illustrate the impact and extraordinary image building capacity of the ancient design procedures and the role of semantics and symbolisms. The Vitruvian maxims on a.o. ordinatio, analogia, symmetria, euritmia [1], as well as the Pythagorean semantics on quantity, harmonic numbering and arithmetic sequences were the guiding criteria in the historic design; this same criteria became universal quality indicators by which also modern designers can be inspired in the choice and the definition about the form and the geometry of their project. Recent E.U. research programs [25] have proved in several occasions the possible input of heritage building analysis by digital modeling; the application of similar techniques and algorithms might be reversible and be introduced in creative new design.

Sustainable architectural construction means not only an economic or utilitarian driven concern but implies a at least as important social and humanitarian assignment. The quality of contemporary projects, and the long-term guarantee for visual and functional quality in the built environment will certainly be enriched by a design which is not looking for eye-catching artistic effects, as this last ones change with the wind, but by a comprehensive design based on the universal human scaled modulation of all times, with a simply legible semantic communication.

**169**

**Author details**

André Frans De Naeyer

provided the original work is properly cited.

Antwerpen, Belgium

*Architectural Design Canons from Middle Ages and Before: An Inspiration for Modern...*

Faculty Design Sciences, Conservation Built Heritage, University Colleges

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: andrefransdenaeyer@gmail.com

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95391*

*Architectural Design Canons from Middle Ages and Before: An Inspiration for Modern... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95391*
