**2. Role of national parks**

National parks including tiger reserves not only conserve biodiversity but also play an important role in local people's livelihoods by providing several direct and indirect benefits and services [5]. These areas are important components of tourism, agro-biodiversity, spirituality, capacity building, poverty reduction, and sustainable development. The ecological, economic, social, and cultural benefits provided by protected areas both conserve biodiversity and support human well-being. Apart from providing economic benefits through sustainable use of bioresources, these areas also serve as important sites for documenting and quantifying biodiversity and various services provided by them. In addition, protected areas act as a buffer to mitigate the impacts of environmental disturbances and climate change.

#### **2.1 Biodiversity conservation**

National parks are the critical tool to conserve biodiversity in the face of the global crisis of species extinction and the loss of the world's natural capacity to support all life and human existence. This can be evidenced by the fact that a large proportion of biological diversity exists only in protected areas. Many national parks of the country harbor important wild relative of cultivated crops and thus serving as a reservoir of agro-biodiversity. Furthermore, some species like brow-antlered deer (*Rucervus eldii eldii*), the Indian rhinoceros (*Rhinoceros unicornis*), the Asiatic lion (*Panthera leo persica*), and other large vertebrates can be found only in some national parks, and their populations outside are almost diminished. According to the report of the country-wide assessment of the status of tigers, co-predators, and their prey in India, there are about 1,706 tigers occupying 81,881 km2 of the area in 2010. This 20% increase in tiger numbers is due to the good management of tiger reserves and protected areas. Thus, national parks in India proved to be an effective strategy for species conservation. While conserving species, these areas also protect habitat, and therefore these are effective for checking land use pressures throughout the world as most of the national parks have maintained their borders against human-based encroachment [6]. Furthermore, healthier ecosystems with high biodiversity tend to resist erosion, soil loss, or water quality loss. According to a study conducted by the Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) Bhopal, it has been estimated that the stock value of tiger reserves to protect and conserve tigers vary from INR 22 to 656 billion [7].

#### **2.2 Ecosystem services**

Protected areas provide a range of associated economic, social, cultural, and spiritual benefits, which are together called ecosystem services. Clean water, clean air, access to food sources, buffers of weather events, cultural and spiritual values, and raw materials for consumers are some of the ecosystem services that ensure the well-being of humanity. Many cities and villages directly rely on these natural reserves for essential resources such as clean drinking and irrigation water. For example, the metropolitan city of Mumbai receives its drinking water from the

**79**

**3. Challenges to national parks**

*Sustainable Management of National Parks and Protected Areas for Conserving Biodiversity…*

Sanjay Gandhi National Park [8]. About 70% of protected areas of the country are inhabited by local communities and also partly grazed by local livestock. Almost 60% of protected areas are subjected to the collection of non-timber forest products [9]. For example, forest products like fuelwood, fodder, and green leaves are consumed and sold by the local people living close to Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve [10] and Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary [3]. Furthermore, natural and cultural resources in tiger reserves are important drivers of tourism, supporting local earnings, and employment [7]. A study conducted by the Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, provided quantitative and qualitative estimates for as many as 25 ecosystem services from selected tiger reserves of the country. It revealed that the benefits originating from selected tiger reserves had a monetary value ranging from INR 8.3 to 17.6 billion annually. In terms of unit area, this translates into INR 50,000–190,000 per hectare per year. While creating a new tiger reserve in the Pilibhit-Dudhwa landscape, covering an area of approximately

Although tourism in India is dominated by its cultural heritage, wildlife also acts as a significant component of tourism in the country. Since India is now hosting more than 50% of world tigers, therefore it is a center of attraction for a large number of domestic and foreign tourists every year. Further, national parks represent the beauty of undisturbed nature, and thus, it significantly attracts tourists, enthusiasts, and nature lovers, though the number of tourists has fallen in some national parks such as Keoladeo of Rajasthan [11]. Therefore, wildlife and nature tourism can potentially benefit local communities economically by creating opportunities for jobs and businesses. For example, some of the local *Adivasis* of Sanjay Gandhi National Park are employed within the park as caretakers of the animals, security guards, cleaners, casual labor, and workers in the lion and tiger safari [12]. Similarly, local people associated with ecotourism in Kaziranga National Park of Assam not only became economically well-equipped and enjoys better living conditions, but they also feel more politically empowered [13]. Furthermore, the Gonda people of Pench National Park earn livelihoods for their unique traditional arts and dance activities, which can alleviate poverty and improve the quality of life among these people. Thus, national parks are an important source of earning money for both local people and the government. For example, the park authorities of Sariska National Park collect and deposit to the state government about INR 28–53 lakh per year, while the Pench National Park has collected a revenue of about INR 28,808,123 during 2016–2017 [14]. Furthermore, it can also potentially promote the participation of local stakeholders for the effective conservation of biodiversity. Though the number of visitors in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries are increasing in the country, it still contributes less than 10% of all tourism in India. The park offers unusually large numbers of local employment opportunities for non-park staff [11].

Although protected areas provide opportunities for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development, numerous challenges related to the effective management of national parks also emerge which need to be addressed. It has been acknowledged that many of the national parks in the country are under pressure from the clearing, hunting, logging and, to a lesser extent, fire and grazing. Also, the majority of eco-development projects have not effectively addressed the

would cost approximately INR 500 billion [7].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92435*

1000 km2

**2.3 Wildlife tourism**

*Sustainable Management of National Parks and Protected Areas for Conserving Biodiversity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92435*

Sanjay Gandhi National Park [8]. About 70% of protected areas of the country are inhabited by local communities and also partly grazed by local livestock. Almost 60% of protected areas are subjected to the collection of non-timber forest products [9]. For example, forest products like fuelwood, fodder, and green leaves are consumed and sold by the local people living close to Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve [10] and Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary [3]. Furthermore, natural and cultural resources in tiger reserves are important drivers of tourism, supporting local earnings, and employment [7]. A study conducted by the Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, provided quantitative and qualitative estimates for as many as 25 ecosystem services from selected tiger reserves of the country. It revealed that the benefits originating from selected tiger reserves had a monetary value ranging from INR 8.3 to 17.6 billion annually. In terms of unit area, this translates into INR 50,000–190,000 per hectare per year. While creating a new tiger reserve in the Pilibhit-Dudhwa landscape, covering an area of approximately 1000 km2 would cost approximately INR 500 billion [7].

#### **2.3 Wildlife tourism**

*Advances in Forest Management under Global Change*

Indian case studies (**Figure 2**).

**2. Role of national parks**

**2.1 Biodiversity conservation**

tigers vary from INR 22 to 656 billion [7].

**2.2 Ecosystem services**

use, human relocation, and conflicts have been discussed. In the next section, two major conservation paradigms, i.e., preservationism and sustainable use, their merits, and demerits are discussed. Furthermore, major challenges to conservation and management of national parks are highlighted with suitable examples from

National parks including tiger reserves not only conserve biodiversity but also play an important role in local people's livelihoods by providing several direct and indirect benefits and services [5]. These areas are important components of tourism, agro-biodiversity, spirituality, capacity building, poverty reduction, and sustainable development. The ecological, economic, social, and cultural benefits provided by protected areas both conserve biodiversity and support human well-being. Apart from providing economic benefits through sustainable use of bioresources, these areas also serve as important sites for documenting and quantifying biodiversity and various services provided by them. In addition, protected areas act as a buffer to

mitigate the impacts of environmental disturbances and climate change.

their prey in India, there are about 1,706 tigers occupying 81,881 km2

2010. This 20% increase in tiger numbers is due to the good management of tiger reserves and protected areas. Thus, national parks in India proved to be an effective strategy for species conservation. While conserving species, these areas also protect habitat, and therefore these are effective for checking land use pressures throughout the world as most of the national parks have maintained their borders against human-based encroachment [6]. Furthermore, healthier ecosystems with high biodiversity tend to resist erosion, soil loss, or water quality loss. According to a study conducted by the Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) Bhopal, it has been estimated that the stock value of tiger reserves to protect and conserve

Protected areas provide a range of associated economic, social, cultural, and spiritual benefits, which are together called ecosystem services. Clean water, clean air, access to food sources, buffers of weather events, cultural and spiritual values, and raw materials for consumers are some of the ecosystem services that ensure the well-being of humanity. Many cities and villages directly rely on these natural reserves for essential resources such as clean drinking and irrigation water. For example, the metropolitan city of Mumbai receives its drinking water from the

National parks are the critical tool to conserve biodiversity in the face of the global crisis of species extinction and the loss of the world's natural capacity to support all life and human existence. This can be evidenced by the fact that a large proportion of biological diversity exists only in protected areas. Many national parks of the country harbor important wild relative of cultivated crops and thus serving as a reservoir of agro-biodiversity. Furthermore, some species like brow-antlered deer (*Rucervus eldii eldii*), the Indian rhinoceros (*Rhinoceros unicornis*), the Asiatic lion (*Panthera leo persica*), and other large vertebrates can be found only in some national parks, and their populations outside are almost diminished. According to the report of the country-wide assessment of the status of tigers, co-predators, and

of the area in

**78**

Although tourism in India is dominated by its cultural heritage, wildlife also acts as a significant component of tourism in the country. Since India is now hosting more than 50% of world tigers, therefore it is a center of attraction for a large number of domestic and foreign tourists every year. Further, national parks represent the beauty of undisturbed nature, and thus, it significantly attracts tourists, enthusiasts, and nature lovers, though the number of tourists has fallen in some national parks such as Keoladeo of Rajasthan [11]. Therefore, wildlife and nature tourism can potentially benefit local communities economically by creating opportunities for jobs and businesses. For example, some of the local *Adivasis* of Sanjay Gandhi National Park are employed within the park as caretakers of the animals, security guards, cleaners, casual labor, and workers in the lion and tiger safari [12]. Similarly, local people associated with ecotourism in Kaziranga National Park of Assam not only became economically well-equipped and enjoys better living conditions, but they also feel more politically empowered [13]. Furthermore, the Gonda people of Pench National Park earn livelihoods for their unique traditional arts and dance activities, which can alleviate poverty and improve the quality of life among these people. Thus, national parks are an important source of earning money for both local people and the government. For example, the park authorities of Sariska National Park collect and deposit to the state government about INR 28–53 lakh per year, while the Pench National Park has collected a revenue of about INR 28,808,123 during 2016–2017 [14]. Furthermore, it can also potentially promote the participation of local stakeholders for the effective conservation of biodiversity. Though the number of visitors in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries are increasing in the country, it still contributes less than 10% of all tourism in India. The park offers unusually large numbers of local employment opportunities for non-park staff [11].

### **3. Challenges to national parks**

Although protected areas provide opportunities for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development, numerous challenges related to the effective management of national parks also emerge which need to be addressed. It has been acknowledged that many of the national parks in the country are under pressure from the clearing, hunting, logging and, to a lesser extent, fire and grazing. Also, the majority of eco-development projects have not effectively addressed the

importance of local concerns [15, 16]. These issues and conflicts have developed a confidence crisis and negative attitude in local people's perceptions. Furthermore, linking economic benefits to conservation is difficult where wildlife is highly endangered, pressure on biomass resources is high, and stakeholders are many. This could be more serious if the economic benefits from the parks are few and the number of beneficiaries is large.

#### **3.1 Conservation**

India takes pride in tiger conservation worldwide through the establishment of tiger reserves under its Project Tiger. However, it turned a matter of shame, when the news of the disappearance of all the tigers from the Sariska National Park haunted all the conservationists, nature lovers, and the whole country in December 2004. Investigations revealed that poachers along with local villagers and trading middlemen had been killing the tigers since July 2002 [14]. This local extinction of tigers from the Sariska was the first confirmed tiger extinction in a Tiger Reserve, though Kailadevi Wildlife Sanctuary was also speculated for the local extinction of tigers. Not only in Sariska but more recently in 2010, the Panna Tiger Reserve has also become "tigerless," and even Sanjay Gandhi National Park may face the same in upcoming years [17]. Thus, wildlife conservation is not ensured against human pressures even under the well-controlled mechanisms of protection [18].

Apart from poaching, habitat degradation and destruction by various humanmediated activities possess serious threats to the wildlife even in the protected areas. For example, developmental works cause habitat degradation and fragmentation as happened in the Raja Ji National Park and Corbett National Park [19]. Also, the expansion of pastoralists creates pressure on wildlife, which results in increased human-wildlife conflicts [19].

Wild animals including tigers and elephants are frequently killed by surrounding villagers citing various reasons such as damage to crops, preying of livestock, and killing of local people. A series of such incidents can be cited in different protected areas such as poisoning and killing of elephants in Bandipur National Park and Palamau Tiger Reserve, poisoning of wild dogs in Kanha Tiger Reserve, and killing of tigers in Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, Kanha Tiger Reserve, Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, and Pench National Park. Thus, human-wildlife conflicts pose a major constraint for the conservation and sustainable development of protected areas. The nature and intensity of these conflicts vary with bio-geographical distribution and social characteristics [20].

Many protected areas in Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand are under the control of Naxalites (a group of people following the legacy of Marxism-Leninism), and these people often poison wild animals citing that they kill people. For example, as many as 20 cases of tiger poisoning were reported from the Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam reserve of Andhra Pradesh. The control of Naxalites is so prominent in some areas that no forest guard had even courage to enter in the Indravati reserve of Chhattisgarh since 2002.

#### **3.2 Resource use**

Regulating and managing resource use and extraction has always been a major challenge for protected area management. However, increased intensity of conservation efforts has introduced a complex bribery system, which opened another window to local people for accessing forest resources [3]. Further, activities of smugglers and poachers such as Veerappan continue to extract a substantial amount of forest resources, kill wildlife, and even murder government officials in some

**81**

conservation.

**3.3 Wildlife tourism**

*Sustainable Management of National Parks and Protected Areas for Conserving Biodiversity…*

protected areas. This access eventually increased extensive pressure from the local communities in the form of illicit tree felling, grazing, and extraction of various forest products leading to the degradation of the forest [21]. Such reports of forest degradation also echoed from the Bhadra Tiger Reserve, Biligiri Rangan Hills Temple Sanctuary, and Sariska National Park. These activities lead to poaching, jhum cultivation, construction, and developmental activities, which resulted in the extinction of some primates and other wildlife animals [22]. All these activities and resource use intensity lead to altered vegetation through time [23] resulting from reduced richness, regeneration, and density of forest trees [24]. Thus, man-made activities become more serious threats than natural fire and grazing in protected areas [6]. This is why the rate of forest loss is still high in some protected areas, not only in India but across the world [25]. Therefore, it becomes essential to protect

Local people are severely restricted or relocated from protected areas such as Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary, the Gir Forests, and Dachigam National Park for the sake of conservation during the 1970s, and thus, another important challenge has emerged for the sustainability of protected areas. The Baigas were displaced from the Banjar Valley Reserved Forest (now the Kanha National Park) because their slash and burn agriculture was interfering with the regeneration of the Sal (*Shorea robusta* C. F. Gaertn.). After the launch of Project Tiger in 1973, several relocations including Bandipur, Kanha, Nagarhole, and Ranthambhore National Park were carried and funded by the government [26], and recently the Adivasis and slum dwellers have been isolated from the Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Mumbai [12]. Whenever such a relocation takes place, there are great chances of compromise of livelihoods and rights of the local communities and forest dwellers. For example, the livelihoods of local communities were severely affected after displacement from Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary and Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve. The Sariska rehabilitation was ineffective because many spaces to which villagers were relocated lacked basic facilities and many residents returned to their original village in the sanctuary [14]. Such memories develop a negative attitude of local communities toward subsequent relocation programs. This eventually leads to the conflicts which again hinder the conservation and sustainable management of protected areas. The Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi, in 1989 reported that most of the forest managers have communicated about the cases of illegal grazing, hunting, and poaching in wildlife reserves. Furthermore, the forest guards have faced offenses such as setting reserves on fire, and while opposing such offenses, they often get attacked and assaulted by local communities [9]. Thus, the growing conflict between forest staff and local people perceived as an emerging threat to

Wildlife tourism works both ways; if it provides economic benefits on the one hand, it can also prove to be detrimental for biodiversity on the other hand. Tourism often causes environmental degradation and threat for biodiversity leading to a compromise in ecological services. For instance, in Kashmir, tourism has caused increased extraction of forest resources such as firewood and other raw materials. The construction of hotels and guesthouses in forests causes forest degradation and deforestation, and after construction, they pollute the environment due to unscientific disposal of solid and liquid waste. This results in ecological disturbance by soil erosion and forest destruction [27]. The increasing number of tourists and their management has appeared as another challenge for the sustainability of protected areas. The number of visitors in protected areas of India has increased

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92435*

natural areas from human impacts in such severe cases.

*Sustainable Management of National Parks and Protected Areas for Conserving Biodiversity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92435*

protected areas. This access eventually increased extensive pressure from the local communities in the form of illicit tree felling, grazing, and extraction of various forest products leading to the degradation of the forest [21]. Such reports of forest degradation also echoed from the Bhadra Tiger Reserve, Biligiri Rangan Hills Temple Sanctuary, and Sariska National Park. These activities lead to poaching, jhum cultivation, construction, and developmental activities, which resulted in the extinction of some primates and other wildlife animals [22]. All these activities and resource use intensity lead to altered vegetation through time [23] resulting from reduced richness, regeneration, and density of forest trees [24]. Thus, man-made activities become more serious threats than natural fire and grazing in protected areas [6]. This is why the rate of forest loss is still high in some protected areas, not only in India but across the world [25]. Therefore, it becomes essential to protect natural areas from human impacts in such severe cases.

Local people are severely restricted or relocated from protected areas such as Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary, the Gir Forests, and Dachigam National Park for the sake of conservation during the 1970s, and thus, another important challenge has emerged for the sustainability of protected areas. The Baigas were displaced from the Banjar Valley Reserved Forest (now the Kanha National Park) because their slash and burn agriculture was interfering with the regeneration of the Sal (*Shorea robusta* C. F. Gaertn.). After the launch of Project Tiger in 1973, several relocations including Bandipur, Kanha, Nagarhole, and Ranthambhore National Park were carried and funded by the government [26], and recently the Adivasis and slum dwellers have been isolated from the Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Mumbai [12]. Whenever such a relocation takes place, there are great chances of compromise of livelihoods and rights of the local communities and forest dwellers. For example, the livelihoods of local communities were severely affected after displacement from Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary and Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve. The Sariska rehabilitation was ineffective because many spaces to which villagers were relocated lacked basic facilities and many residents returned to their original village in the sanctuary [14]. Such memories develop a negative attitude of local communities toward subsequent relocation programs. This eventually leads to the conflicts which again hinder the conservation and sustainable management of protected areas. The Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi, in 1989 reported that most of the forest managers have communicated about the cases of illegal grazing, hunting, and poaching in wildlife reserves. Furthermore, the forest guards have faced offenses such as setting reserves on fire, and while opposing such offenses, they often get attacked and assaulted by local communities [9]. Thus, the growing conflict between forest staff and local people perceived as an emerging threat to conservation.

#### **3.3 Wildlife tourism**

Wildlife tourism works both ways; if it provides economic benefits on the one hand, it can also prove to be detrimental for biodiversity on the other hand. Tourism often causes environmental degradation and threat for biodiversity leading to a compromise in ecological services. For instance, in Kashmir, tourism has caused increased extraction of forest resources such as firewood and other raw materials. The construction of hotels and guesthouses in forests causes forest degradation and deforestation, and after construction, they pollute the environment due to unscientific disposal of solid and liquid waste. This results in ecological disturbance by soil erosion and forest destruction [27]. The increasing number of tourists and their management has appeared as another challenge for the sustainability of protected areas. The number of visitors in protected areas of India has increased

*Advances in Forest Management under Global Change*

number of beneficiaries is large.

human-wildlife conflicts [19].

Chhattisgarh since 2002.

**3.2 Resource use**

distribution and social characteristics [20].

**3.1 Conservation**

importance of local concerns [15, 16]. These issues and conflicts have developed a confidence crisis and negative attitude in local people's perceptions. Furthermore, linking economic benefits to conservation is difficult where wildlife is highly endangered, pressure on biomass resources is high, and stakeholders are many. This could be more serious if the economic benefits from the parks are few and the

India takes pride in tiger conservation worldwide through the establishment of tiger reserves under its Project Tiger. However, it turned a matter of shame, when the news of the disappearance of all the tigers from the Sariska National Park haunted all the conservationists, nature lovers, and the whole country in December 2004. Investigations revealed that poachers along with local villagers and trading middlemen had been killing the tigers since July 2002 [14]. This local extinction of tigers from the Sariska was the first confirmed tiger extinction in a Tiger Reserve, though Kailadevi Wildlife Sanctuary was also speculated for the local extinction of tigers. Not only in Sariska but more recently in 2010, the Panna Tiger Reserve has also become "tigerless," and even Sanjay Gandhi National Park may face the same in upcoming years [17]. Thus, wildlife conservation is not ensured against human

pressures even under the well-controlled mechanisms of protection [18].

Apart from poaching, habitat degradation and destruction by various humanmediated activities possess serious threats to the wildlife even in the protected areas. For example, developmental works cause habitat degradation and fragmentation as happened in the Raja Ji National Park and Corbett National Park [19]. Also, the expansion of pastoralists creates pressure on wildlife, which results in increased

Wild animals including tigers and elephants are frequently killed by surrounding villagers citing various reasons such as damage to crops, preying of livestock, and killing of local people. A series of such incidents can be cited in different protected areas such as poisoning and killing of elephants in Bandipur National Park and Palamau Tiger Reserve, poisoning of wild dogs in Kanha Tiger Reserve, and killing of tigers in Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, Kanha Tiger Reserve, Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, and Pench National Park. Thus, human-wildlife conflicts pose a major constraint for the conservation and sustainable development of protected areas. The nature and intensity of these conflicts vary with bio-geographical

Many protected areas in Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand are under the control of Naxalites (a group of people following the legacy of Marxism-Leninism), and these people often poison wild animals citing that they kill people. For example, as many as 20 cases of tiger poisoning were reported from the Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam reserve of Andhra Pradesh. The control of Naxalites is so prominent in some areas that no forest guard had even courage to enter in the Indravati reserve of

Regulating and managing resource use and extraction has always been a major challenge for protected area management. However, increased intensity of conservation efforts has introduced a complex bribery system, which opened another window to local people for accessing forest resources [3]. Further, activities of smugglers and poachers such as Veerappan continue to extract a substantial amount of forest resources, kill wildlife, and even murder government officials in some

**80**

several folds only during the past few years. However, the levels of sustainability and carrying capacity are not estimated for many protected areas. Although the increased number of tourist visitors is often blamed for the negative impacts and environmental degradation, the lack of resources for effective visitor management technologies is also the real gap that one should blame for. This is because all the money collected locally needs to be submitted to the central government in most national parks in the country [8]. Nevertheless, tourism is not considered a major problem in some national parks such as Keoladeo National Park of Rajasthan [11]. Similarly, increased pilgrimage tended to degrade the biodiversity and habitat in some protected areas such as Periyar Tiger Reserve and Sariska National Park. Further, the economic benefits generated from tourism are not shared with local inhabitants, which causes a conflict between local communities and park authorities [5]. A recent study found that lack of coordination among various stakeholders and lack of government incentives are the most significant barriers to sustainable development in protected areas of the country [28].
