**2. Effects of global warming on plant invasion**

The rising GHGs in the atmosphere such as N2O emission and other global change components affecting temperature can help hinder or promote plant invasions [26, 27]. For example, species may increase in size with warming and decline of canopy transpiration [28, 29]. Furthermore, previous studies and models indicate that invasive plant often responds unpredictably to global change components [26]. The response of plant species to elevated temperature depends on the features of their ecological and physiological characteristics. The previous study demonstrated that invasive species (*Lantana camara)* respond significantly to elevated temperature with increasing allopathic effects and high growth rate, suggesting that global warming may increase the invasions of plant species [30]. The world's climate with rising temperature can change the interaction, physiology, phenology, and dispersal pattern of plant species, and the introduced species may have an advantage over the native species in terms of responding more to this climate change [29]. The introduction of alien plant species is considered to survive if the introduced range is likely to their native range, temperature being a key factor for their further expansion, reproduction, and growth [31, 32]. Global warming provides opportunity for invasive species to expand into regions where they could not previously survive and reproduce [4]. In addition, drought resulting from the climate change can affect biodiversity which further results in a warmer climate region, therefore damaging soil properties and affecting the plant nutrient uptake ability. These changes can

**45**

*Plant Invasion and N2O Emission in Forest Ecosystems DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92239*

**3. Forest plant invasions**

threaten important biodiversity and foods for local populations. Drought and warm climate are likely due to an expansion of invasive species and can also lead to biodiversity loss and changes in frequency and intensity, which can affect seed germination, potential growth of young plants, and ecosystem services [33]. To date, global warming has been related to the rapid expansion of native plant populations [34, 35] and colonization of newly exposed land on local scale, although natural colonization of the region would occur. Consequently, under climate change, non-native species are likely to interfere with native biodiversity [36]. Climate change has also effects on plant-soil feedback such as the interaction among soil microbes and plants. Global warming as one of the components of climate change greatly affects input to the soil by litter production from decomposition [37, 38]. Warming affects seed germination of plants, for which invasive species show positive response specially in the summer season. Also, the total biomass of invasive species can be affected by global warming and they show high response in winter season compared to native species [39].

The plant species in forest ecosystems can successfully grow when the introduced range is likely in their native habitat and can further expand and become invasive with unlimited soil resources, rising temperature, and soil microbial facilitation with a positive interaction to species [31, 32]. The success of plant invasion in forest ecosystems can be affected by many factors: rising temperature [30], landscape structure [40], and disturbance, especially harvest-induced disturbance which increased the abundance of invasive plant species [41–43]. The overstory harvest increases the microclimate temperature. Such factors and resources availability at the proper time can help the introduced species invade in forest ecosystems [44]. Such types of impact change in forest succession alter nutrients, carbon and water cycle, and the competition between native and invasive plant species is a much more threat to changes in ecosystem services. Plantation and regeneration forests are also at risk due to rapid plant invasions [45]. In order to impose an impact on ecological systems, invasive species not only required high-relative biomass, but they should also have characteristics that differ from those already present in the native species, which are necessary to drive ecosystem process [46]. The traits between invasive and native plants in forests can differ due to invasive species being assigned with higher resource utilization, fast-decaying leaf, more decomposition, high photosynthetic rate, relative growth rate, and higher specific leaf area [47–51]. Higher forest canopy cover can lessen the plant invasion, and it may limit the light

source for invaded species when it is demanding for more light [52].

Plant invasion in forest ecosystem is causing economic and ecological damage and threatens biodiversity conservation [52]. Forest management is required to identify the invasive species and its invasion stages and possible expansion and then set up a plan for its control [25], The inventory of invasive plants will help on proper management and planning. It is based on the invasive species status, distribution, and effects and threats to forest ecosystem [53]. Early deduction of invasive species and their identification, based on to confirm whether it is new to the area and measure its establishment, expansion to other areas as well as predict its impact on the forest ecosystem and loss will lead to effective management plan. The rapid response with effective management/plan can lessen the further invasion with daily basis monitoring [53].

**4. Forest management with plant invasions**

*Plant Invasion and N2O Emission in Forest Ecosystems DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92239*

*Advances in Forest Management under Global Change*

invader impacts.

changes is a complex issue. Climate change affects forest composition, and in addition, forest disturbances such as destruction and degradation further facilitate plant invasion which results to acceleration of the global GHG emissions [14–16]. Disturbances in the forest ecosystem lead to a loss of biodiversity, loss of biomass, and decreased forest regeneration potential [17]. The modification of abiotic and biotic factors will affect the exchange rate of GHG emission released into the atmosphere by forest soil, primarily through changes in microbial-mediated process and plant-derived process (e.g., photosynthesis) [18–20]. Therefore, adopting effective forestry and sustainable management practices will ensure productivity, N2O mitigation, and biodiversity [21]. Soil N2O production has been widely linked to soil microbial activity [12], which can be affected by litter and rhizosphere inputs of invasive plants [22], land-use legacy, and many other factors which are still unknown [23]. These changes to forest ecosystems can accelerate nutrient cycling and increase soil N2O production to the atmosphere [24]. The world's forests are likely to face an increasing number of invasions in the future. It is necessary to identify the existing invasions and their potential for expansion and then set up invasive species management plan [25]. Managing forest invasion involves avoiding entry, eradicating nascent species, biological control, choosing host trees for resistance, and using cultural practices (silviculture and restoration) to mitigate

The problem on biological invasion is highlighted. It poses a threat to any ecosystem which includes forest ecosystems, causing economic and ecological damages worldwide. The factors contributing to plant invasion include microbial facilitation, global warming, and nutrients availability which make it more complex and still unknown. Based on the previous literature, we tried to understand and discuss the following issues: plant invasion in forest ecosystems, factors contributing to plant invasions, and soil N process and N2O emission in the context of forest plant invasion. The aim of our study is to highlight the mechanism of plant invasion and its control and management in the context of sustainable forest management.

The rising GHGs in the atmosphere such as N2O emission and other global change components affecting temperature can help hinder or promote plant invasions [26, 27]. For example, species may increase in size with warming and decline of canopy transpiration [28, 29]. Furthermore, previous studies and models indicate that invasive plant often responds unpredictably to global change components [26]. The response of plant species to elevated temperature depends on the features of their ecological and physiological characteristics. The previous study demonstrated that invasive species (*Lantana camara)* respond significantly to elevated temperature with increasing allopathic effects and high growth rate, suggesting that global warming may increase the invasions of plant species [30]. The world's climate with rising temperature can change the interaction, physiology, phenology, and dispersal pattern of plant species, and the introduced species may have an advantage over the native species in terms of responding more to this climate change [29]. The introduction of alien plant species is considered to survive if the introduced range is likely to their native range, temperature being a key factor for their further expansion, reproduction, and growth [31, 32]. Global warming provides opportunity for invasive species to expand into regions where they could not previously survive and reproduce [4]. In addition, drought resulting from the climate change can affect biodiversity which further results in a warmer climate region, therefore damaging soil properties and affecting the plant nutrient uptake ability. These changes can

**2. Effects of global warming on plant invasion**

**44**

threaten important biodiversity and foods for local populations. Drought and warm climate are likely due to an expansion of invasive species and can also lead to biodiversity loss and changes in frequency and intensity, which can affect seed germination, potential growth of young plants, and ecosystem services [33]. To date, global warming has been related to the rapid expansion of native plant populations [34, 35] and colonization of newly exposed land on local scale, although natural colonization of the region would occur. Consequently, under climate change, non-native species are likely to interfere with native biodiversity [36]. Climate change has also effects on plant-soil feedback such as the interaction among soil microbes and plants. Global warming as one of the components of climate change greatly affects input to the soil by litter production from decomposition [37, 38]. Warming affects seed germination of plants, for which invasive species show positive response specially in the summer season. Also, the total biomass of invasive species can be affected by global warming and they show high response in winter season compared to native species [39].
