**5. Approaches for sustainable management**

India followed the "preservationism" model for biodiversity conservation during the initial establishment of protected areas, but it resulted in increased conflicts with local people. In order to buffer conflicts of the local people, India was the first country to introduce the concept of "Joint Forest Management" in its National Forest Policy, 1988, which has the provision of involving the local communities for sustainable conservation and management of forests. Thus, there is a shifting paradigm from "preservationism" to "sustainable use" approach during the recent times. This approach is managing forest resources with varying degrees of success by taking care of community needs and aspirations for the past 30 years. Although rural communities and forest officers are developing a positive attitude toward

forest conservation, there are still some concerns like the functioning of forest committee, the role of women, freedom of working, and participatory approach in forest conservation and management [34].

### **5.1 Conservation**

The human-wildlife conflict was one of the major challenges for the conservation of species within protected areas. The government of India launched the eco-development project in the 1990s, to minimize such conflicts and effective conservation. In order to promote human security and protecting biodiversity simultaneously, the government of India introduced financial compensation as a policy against human-wildlife conflicts around the protected areas of the country. Similarly, some compensation incentives are instituted in Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) in response to crop damage, livestock, or human injuries caused by wildlife in protected areas. For example, crop loss due to wildlife is compensated by providing equivalent incentives under the "grain-for-grain" scheme in Pakke Tiger Reserve and northeast states of India [35]. Similarly, active bio-fences consisting of beehives or defensive crops (with pungent smell and thorns) were used to keep away elephants and other wild animals in Kaziranga National Park of Assam. Several services are implemented by WTI to help the cases of human-wildlife conflicts such as Mobile Veterinary Service, Guardians of the Wild, Primary Response Teams (PRTs), Rapid Response Teams (RRTs), and Sociologist-Biologist-Veterinarian expert teams that have been constituted to respond and handle human-wildlife conflict cases in Dudhwa National Park of Uttar Pradesh. Further, the safety of wildlife was ensured by developing canopy bridges in Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary of Assam, regular removal of snares from Bandipur Tiger Reserve of Karnataka, and installation of low voltage solar-powered fences in parts of Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, and Kaziranga National Park.

#### **5.2 Resource use**

Often resource use in many protected areas of the country is banned or restricted. According to the Supreme Court orders (dated 14.02.2000 and 21.02.2000 in I.A. No. 548 in WP No. 202/1995), the removal of dead, diseased, dying, or wind-fallen trees, driftwood, and grasses, etc. is restrained from any national park or game sanctuary [36]. This develops conflicts among the local people and forest officials, which is one of the major challenges for sustainability in protected areas. Later, the Government of India enacted the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, with provisions to acknowledge rights within forests including within protected areas. Until recently, bamboo has been considered as a "tree" in the country under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, and its felling and transit required prior permission from the forest department. However, a recent amendment has taken out bamboo from the category of "trees," and now local farmers can freely cultivate and harvest bamboo. This major step by the Indian government has economically empowered almost 20 million people including farmers, forest dwellers, and poor sections of society. Moreover, it has not only enhanced the income of farmers but also created job opportunities through boosting bamboo-dependent industries like handicraft industries in the country. Furthermore, the local people especially poorer sections, support conserving wildlife as it did not affect their livelihood as far as their primary needs are met [16].

**85**

priorities [38].

*Sustainable Management of National Parks and Protected Areas for Conserving Biodiversity…*

Several eco-development projects have been launched in the country to reduce the dependency of local people from forest products, enhancing their livelihoods. Currently, such eco-development projects are running in more than 80 protected areas of the country, most of them are centrally funded, while few heritage sites have received grants from international organizations such as Global Environment

In order to conserve large mammals and sensitive species that are threatened by human-wildlife conflicts, village relocations are often carried out. Many villagers are happy after relocation outside the protected areas, as they were provided with better facilities such as land for cultivation, drinking water, electricity, jobs, etc. Such happy relocations have been carried out satisfactorily in Nagarhole National Park of Karnataka and Sariska National Park of Rajasthan. In Bhadra wildlife sanctuary of India, the resettled families are satisfied with the relocated sites as they are now living a better life with all necessary facilities such as electricity, drinking

Under these projects, the cooperation of local communities has been awarded in terms of economic incentives and legal support as evidenced by the Periyar National Park. Further, the money collected by tourism is used to pay for salaries of members and park management and to build up a community development fund. However, these developmental activities are only promoted as long as the biodiversity and wildlife are not exploited. Despite enormous funding from India Eco-Development Project, the people-initiated natural management could no longer be managed to

Government policies for conservation and sustainable development of protected areas must respect the social and cultural traditions of the community while preparing rules and regulations. The management and action plans of the government should consider the improved development of both local people and protected area. Also, the state rules must consider the local adaptation and cultural traditions of a specific community. Thus, the selection of a conservation approach must be chosen wisely based upon the needs and requirements of the protected area. For example, the "sustainable use" approach may not be effective for species that are highly sensitive to human interference. Similarly, "preservationism" will not be effective in protected areas with a high density of local people that are highly dependent on forests for their livelihoods. Further, the governmental policies like compensation policy are governed by the bureaucratic style that is quite different from the environmental governance at local levels. Therefore, such policies are needed to be designed in such a manner that it considers the ecological and social dimension of human-wildlife conflicts so as to achieve better conservation and development

The governmental action plans must be clear enough and transparent in order to avoid conflicts and disputes. For example, the agreements for resource use and conservation between park officials and local communities must be very clear and transparent. Similarly, the rights and duties of local communities and forest should be undoubtedly defined, so as to avoid any disputes later on. Also, there should not be any incompatibility or inconsistency between state rules and local institutions. Further, the boundaries and zones of any protected area should be clearly

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92435*

**5.3 Eco-development**

Facility and the World Bank.

water, transport, market, etc. [37].

sustain the tigers and their prey [18].

**6. Recommendations for sustaining national parks**

*Sustainable Management of National Parks and Protected Areas for Conserving Biodiversity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92435*

#### **5.3 Eco-development**

*Advances in Forest Management under Global Change*

forest conservation and management [34].

**5.1 Conservation**

National Park.

**5.2 Resource use**

forest conservation, there are still some concerns like the functioning of forest committee, the role of women, freedom of working, and participatory approach in

The human-wildlife conflict was one of the major challenges for the conservation of species within protected areas. The government of India launched the eco-development project in the 1990s, to minimize such conflicts and effective conservation. In order to promote human security and protecting biodiversity simultaneously, the government of India introduced financial compensation as a policy against human-wildlife conflicts around the protected areas of the country. Similarly, some compensation incentives are instituted in Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) in response to crop damage, livestock, or human injuries caused by wildlife in protected areas. For example, crop loss due to wildlife is compensated by providing equivalent incentives under the "grain-for-grain" scheme in Pakke Tiger Reserve and northeast states of India [35]. Similarly, active bio-fences consisting of beehives or defensive crops (with pungent smell and thorns) were used to keep away elephants and other wild animals in Kaziranga National Park of Assam. Several services are implemented by WTI to help the cases of human-wildlife conflicts such as Mobile Veterinary Service, Guardians of the Wild, Primary Response Teams (PRTs), Rapid Response Teams (RRTs), and Sociologist-Biologist-Veterinarian expert teams that have been constituted to respond and handle human-wildlife conflict cases in Dudhwa National Park of Uttar Pradesh. Further, the safety of wildlife was ensured by developing canopy bridges in Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary of Assam, regular removal of snares from Bandipur Tiger Reserve of Karnataka, and installation of low voltage solar-powered fences in parts of Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, and Kaziranga

Often resource use in many protected areas of the country is banned or restricted. According to the Supreme Court orders (dated 14.02.2000 and 21.02.2000 in I.A. No. 548 in WP No. 202/1995), the removal of dead, diseased, dying, or wind-fallen trees, driftwood, and grasses, etc. is restrained from any national park or game sanctuary [36]. This develops conflicts among the local people and forest officials, which is one of the major challenges for sustainability in protected areas. Later, the Government of India enacted the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, with provisions to acknowledge rights within forests including within protected areas. Until recently, bamboo has been considered as a "tree" in the country under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, and its felling and transit required prior permission from the forest department. However, a recent amendment has taken out bamboo from the category of "trees," and now local farmers can freely cultivate and harvest bamboo. This major step by the Indian government has economically empowered almost 20 million people including farmers, forest dwellers, and poor sections of society. Moreover, it has not only enhanced the income of farmers but also created job opportunities through boosting bamboo-dependent industries like handicraft industries in the country. Furthermore, the local people especially poorer sections, support conserving wildlife as it did not affect their livelihood as far as their

**84**

primary needs are met [16].

Several eco-development projects have been launched in the country to reduce the dependency of local people from forest products, enhancing their livelihoods. Currently, such eco-development projects are running in more than 80 protected areas of the country, most of them are centrally funded, while few heritage sites have received grants from international organizations such as Global Environment Facility and the World Bank.

In order to conserve large mammals and sensitive species that are threatened by human-wildlife conflicts, village relocations are often carried out. Many villagers are happy after relocation outside the protected areas, as they were provided with better facilities such as land for cultivation, drinking water, electricity, jobs, etc. Such happy relocations have been carried out satisfactorily in Nagarhole National Park of Karnataka and Sariska National Park of Rajasthan. In Bhadra wildlife sanctuary of India, the resettled families are satisfied with the relocated sites as they are now living a better life with all necessary facilities such as electricity, drinking water, transport, market, etc. [37].

Under these projects, the cooperation of local communities has been awarded in terms of economic incentives and legal support as evidenced by the Periyar National Park. Further, the money collected by tourism is used to pay for salaries of members and park management and to build up a community development fund. However, these developmental activities are only promoted as long as the biodiversity and wildlife are not exploited. Despite enormous funding from India Eco-Development Project, the people-initiated natural management could no longer be managed to sustain the tigers and their prey [18].
