**Abstract**

Habitat loss due to human activities and climate change is synergistically posing serious threats to the global biodiversity leading to irreversible extinction of several species. In wake of recent extinction, several forests are declared as protected areas where no more human activities are allowed. However, the scope of these protected areas got broadened from mere conservation to poverty alleviation and sustainable development during the past decades. Though these protected areas seem to be supportive of the biodiversity conservation, several challenges and gaps have emerged that need to be addressed for effective conservation and sustainable management in these protected areas. Therefore, the present chapter aims to address the roles, challenges, and approaches for conservation, and sustainable management in protected areas of India. Based on the published literature, we have found that protected areas proved to be a successful strategy for the conservation of wild animals and plants. However, management of poaching, man-wildlife conflicts, funding, extensive resource use, and tourism is still a challenge for some national parks of the country. Although governmental policies have addressed some of these challenges, only limited success has been achieved so far. Therefore, further studies need to assess the efficiency of protected areas for biodiversity conservation and devise the mechanisms for effective sustainable management of these protected areas.

**Keywords:** biodiversity conservation, national parks, protected areas, sustainable management

## **1. Introduction**

The variability in all life forms at different scales on the earth is collectively termed as biodiversity. Further, biodiversity is not evenly distributed on the globe as tropical regions are relatively more diverse than other geographical regions. It is an integral component that ensures and sustains our own life by providing necessary services from oxygen to clean water and from food to clothing. Despite their central role in sustaining life, species are disappearing at alarming rates, and it has

**74**

pp. 52-53

*Advances in Forest Management under Global Change*

[10] Anuchin NP. Forest Taxation: Textbook. 6th ed. Moscow: VNIILM;

[11] Buzykin AI, Pshenichnikova TA. Thinning and productivity of diverse young Siberian larch. Forest Economy.

Nikitin VF, Savchenkova VA. Individual variability of morphological features of polish larch in conditions of introduction. Forest Engineering Journal. 2019;**4**(36):33-41. DOI: 10.34220/issn/2222-7962|2019.4/4

[12] Lavrenov MA, Vasiliev SB,

[13] Maudlin IV, Sudachkova NE, Buzykin IA. Influence of planting density on xylogenesis and metabolism of scots pine and Siberian larch. Forest

Science. 2003;**4**:47-53

2004. p. 552

2011;**3**:33-39

[1] Buzykin AI, Pshenichnikova LS. Formation of Pine-Deciduous Young Plants. Novosibirsk: Nauka; 1980. p. 168

Inyushkin SV. Assessment of the state and growth of experimental pine and larch crops in the southern taiga subzone of Central Siberia. Forestry

Chisty VI. Forestry and Reforestation. Minsk: The Design PRO; 2003. p. 236c

characteristics of larch forests in the south of Western Siberia. Coniferous of the Boreal Zone. 2008;**XXV**(l-2):51-58

[5] Plaksiva IV, Sudachkova NE, Buzykin AI. Influence of planting density on xylogenesis and metabolism of common pine and Siberian larch.

[6] Runova EM, Serkov DV. Forest management and taxation assessment of pine-leaf stands in the Irkutsk region. Current Problems of the Forest

[7] Runova EM, Markatyuk AA,

Gavrilin II, Vedernikov IB. Current state of boreal forests in eastern Siberia in the aspect of natural renewal of scots pine. Systems Methods Technologies.

[8] Runova EM, Vedernikov IB. Factors of stability of coniferous boreal forests of the Angara region to

successional processes. Forest Bulletin.

[9] Zhang SA. Current state of the pine forests of the Angara region /CA Zhang, OA Puzanova, EM Runova// Successes of Modern Natural Science. No. 7. 2013.

Complex. 2014;**39**:33-35

2013;**1**(17):163-169

2012;**1**(84):127-131

2003;**4**:47-53

[2] Varaksin GS, Polyakov VI,

Information. 2002;**9**:23-28

[3] Gvozdev VK, Grigoriev VP,

[4] Klyuchnikov MV. Forest

**References**

been estimated that about 27% of the total species are facing threats to extinction [1]. Much of today's large-sized vertebrate animals represent less than 5% of their historical ranges. Many species such as the greater one-horned rhino (*Rhinoceros unicornis*), Asiatic lion (*Panthera leo persica*), and the hard-ground barasingha (*Rucervus duvaucelii branderi*) are restricted to microscopic remnants of their historical range. The biggest threats are posed by habitat destruction by human activities together with changing climatic conditions. Therefore, there is an urgent need to take measures to protect biodiversity in order to sustain life on earth.

Several strategies and measures have been proposed for biodiversity conservation that varies with the type of habitat and their requirement. Protected areas are one of the prominent strategies for the in situ conservation of species and their habitats. However, this concept is not recent to India, and provisions for the establishment of reserved forests and laws such as the death penalty for killing elephants date back to the third century B.C. as mentioned in Kautilya's *Arthashastra* [2]. Many of today's existing national parks once served as a hunting preserve for the local Maharajas and Emperors during the colonial and precolonial era [3]. It was in 1936 when the Hailey (now Jim Corbett) National Park was formally notified as to the first national park of the country, and there were only four national parks till the 1970s (**Figure 1**). However, the continued hunting and habitat destruction resulted in a dramatic decrease in the population of tigers in the country. In the wake of this alarming decline of tigers, the then prime minister of India, Late Smt. Indira Gandhi, launched the "Project Tiger" in 1973, which still stands as the world's most comprehensive tiger conservation initiative. She established nine tiger reserves, hired guards to patrol them, and forcibly moved whole villages outside their perimeters. These efforts proved to be fruitful as the tiger numbers topped to 4,000 along with an increase in their prey, and thus, India had put forward a global model for wildlife conservation. Since then, the protected area network of the country increased exponentially after the 1980s, and presently there are about 104

**Figure 1.** *An exponential increase in the total number of national parks in the country India after the 1970s [4].*

**77**

**Figure 2.**

*Sustainable Management of National Parks and Protected Areas for Conserving Biodiversity…*

the geographical area of the country [4]. Currently, there are about 870 protected areas in 2019 including 104 national parks, 551 wildlife sanctuaries, 88 conservation

Although these protected areas were initially established for biodiversity conservation, their objectives have now expanded to also include human-centered socioeconomic development. Besides being critical to preserving global biodiversity and stemming from the extinction crisis, these protected areas bring tremendous cultural, ecological, spiritual, and scientific benefits to society. Now, a new paradigm of conservation incorporates the socioeconomic development of local people and encourages the sustainable use of resources within the protected areas. This approach promotes the utilizing of various benefits from protected areas for the socioeconomic development of the local residents. Thus, the scope of national parks has been broadened to poverty alleviation and the development of the nation. Although this paradigm shift has been widely accepted and appreciated, there are

some challenges to the effective management of these protected areas.

*Major roles, challenges, and approaches for sustainable development of protected areas in India.*

Therefore, the present chapter aims to assess the roles and challenges of national parks for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development in India using published case studies. To accomplish this, we have searched the available literature databases, viz., Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and NCBI, using keyword combinations such as "National parks AND India," "Sustainable development AND India," "Wildlife sanctuary AND India," and "protected areas AND India" from the year 1985 to recent. Additionally, gray literature from other additional sources including books, unpublished theses, governmental reports, and newsletters was also consulted. After removing the duplicate, insignificant, and inappropriate studies, in total, 50 more relevant studies were included for the preparation of this chapter. Here, we have first discussed the major roles of national parks in conservation, tourism, and ecosystem services. Then various challenges faced by national parks such as conservation, tourism, resource

, which is 1.23% of

IUCN Category II national parks covering an area of 40,501 km2

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92435*

reserves, and 127 community reserves.

#### *Sustainable Management of National Parks and Protected Areas for Conserving Biodiversity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92435*

IUCN Category II national parks covering an area of 40,501 km2 , which is 1.23% of the geographical area of the country [4]. Currently, there are about 870 protected areas in 2019 including 104 national parks, 551 wildlife sanctuaries, 88 conservation reserves, and 127 community reserves.

Although these protected areas were initially established for biodiversity conservation, their objectives have now expanded to also include human-centered socioeconomic development. Besides being critical to preserving global biodiversity and stemming from the extinction crisis, these protected areas bring tremendous cultural, ecological, spiritual, and scientific benefits to society. Now, a new paradigm of conservation incorporates the socioeconomic development of local people and encourages the sustainable use of resources within the protected areas. This approach promotes the utilizing of various benefits from protected areas for the socioeconomic development of the local residents. Thus, the scope of national parks has been broadened to poverty alleviation and the development of the nation. Although this paradigm shift has been widely accepted and appreciated, there are some challenges to the effective management of these protected areas.

Therefore, the present chapter aims to assess the roles and challenges of national parks for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development in India using published case studies. To accomplish this, we have searched the available literature databases, viz., Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and NCBI, using keyword combinations such as "National parks AND India," "Sustainable development AND India," "Wildlife sanctuary AND India," and "protected areas AND India" from the year 1985 to recent. Additionally, gray literature from other additional sources including books, unpublished theses, governmental reports, and newsletters was also consulted. After removing the duplicate, insignificant, and inappropriate studies, in total, 50 more relevant studies were included for the preparation of this chapter. Here, we have first discussed the major roles of national parks in conservation, tourism, and ecosystem services. Then various challenges faced by national parks such as conservation, tourism, resource

#### **Figure 2.**

*Major roles, challenges, and approaches for sustainable development of protected areas in India.*

*Advances in Forest Management under Global Change*

sures to protect biodiversity in order to sustain life on earth.

been estimated that about 27% of the total species are facing threats to extinction [1]. Much of today's large-sized vertebrate animals represent less than 5% of their historical ranges. Many species such as the greater one-horned rhino (*Rhinoceros unicornis*), Asiatic lion (*Panthera leo persica*), and the hard-ground barasingha (*Rucervus duvaucelii branderi*) are restricted to microscopic remnants of their historical range. The biggest threats are posed by habitat destruction by human activities together with changing climatic conditions. Therefore, there is an urgent need to take mea-

Several strategies and measures have been proposed for biodiversity conservation that varies with the type of habitat and their requirement. Protected areas are one of the prominent strategies for the in situ conservation of species and their habitats. However, this concept is not recent to India, and provisions for the establishment of reserved forests and laws such as the death penalty for killing elephants date back to the third century B.C. as mentioned in Kautilya's *Arthashastra* [2]. Many of today's existing national parks once served as a hunting preserve for the local Maharajas and Emperors during the colonial and precolonial era [3]. It was in 1936 when the Hailey (now Jim Corbett) National Park was formally notified as to the first national park of the country, and there were only four national parks till the 1970s (**Figure 1**). However, the continued hunting and habitat destruction resulted in a dramatic decrease in the population of tigers in the country. In the wake of this alarming decline of tigers, the then prime minister of India, Late Smt. Indira Gandhi, launched the "Project Tiger" in 1973, which still stands as the world's most comprehensive tiger conservation initiative. She established nine tiger reserves, hired guards to patrol them, and forcibly moved whole villages outside their perimeters. These efforts proved to be fruitful as the tiger numbers topped to 4,000 along with an increase in their prey, and thus, India had put forward a global model for wildlife conservation. Since then, the protected area network of the country increased exponentially after the 1980s, and presently there are about 104

*An exponential increase in the total number of national parks in the country India after the 1970s [4].*

**76**

**Figure 1.**

use, human relocation, and conflicts have been discussed. In the next section, two major conservation paradigms, i.e., preservationism and sustainable use, their merits, and demerits are discussed. Furthermore, major challenges to conservation and management of national parks are highlighted with suitable examples from Indian case studies (**Figure 2**).
