**2.1 Prevention**

*Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production*

restrict to allowable pesticides made from natural materials only [11].

In the 1940s with development of synthetic pesticides, the whole scenario of crop pest management changed. Pesticides played a major role in crop production due to their efficacy, convenience, flexibility, and economy. It began with the introduction of alkyl thiocyanate insecticides, and then the discovery of remarkable insecticidal properties of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) in 1939 by Paul Muller. DDT was followed by the manufacture of other chlorinated hydrocarbons, including aldrin, endrin, heptachlor and recognition of the herbicidal activity of the phenoxyacetic acids-MCPA (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid) and 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid). A number of synthetic inorganic insecticides containing arsenic, mercury, tin, and copper were also developed in nineteenth century. By the 1950s, overuse of insecticides had generated numerous wellrecognized cases of pest resistance and destruction of natural enemies of pests [12]. Due to over reliance on synthetic pesticides from the late 1940s to mid-1960s, the period has been called "the dark ages" of pest control. However, in the late 1950s, entomologists began to identify the problems associated with extensive and intensive use, misuse, and abuse of insecticides and pesticide resistance, secondary pest outbreaks, hazards of toxic residues in food commodities and biomagnifications, environmental pollution, and killing of nontarget beneficial organisms. Although many components of IPM were developed long time back through trial and error experiences, farmers had developed a number of mechanical, cultural, and physical control measures of different pests; however, the concept of IPM came into existence only after realizing the harmful effects of chemical pesticides. The term Integrated Pest Control was first used as "integrated control" by Barlett [13] for the integrated use of biological and chemical control to manage insect pests of

**1.2 Integrated pest management: a historical perspective**

Although multiple sources define IPM in diverse ways, previous models primarily focused on the ecological, and to some extent on the evolutionary, aspects of pest management [4]. IPM is a holistic "approach" or "strategy" to combat plant pests and diseases using all available methods, while minimizing applications of chemical pesticides [5]. The basic aim of IPM is not to eradicate pests, but to manage them, maintaining their populations below economic injury levels [6, 7]. IPM is a combination of methods to manage the pest population with considerations of economic efficiency and environmental effects rather than an eradicative method, which was used in traditional practices [8]. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) defines integrated pest management as careful consideration of all available pest control methods and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that deter the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and minimize risks to human health and the environment. The United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service [9] defines integrated pest management as a sustainable, decisionmaking process that aims at keeping pest population at below economic threshold levels by employing pest control techniques such as biological, cultural, physical, and chemical methods to identify, manage, and reduce risk from pests and pest management tools and strategies in a way that minimizes overall economic, health, and environmental risks. This strategy avoids undesirable short-term and long-term ripple effects and will ensure a sustainable future [10]. IPM differs from organic agriculture as it allows the judicious use of pesticides, fertilizers, and other materials made from synthetic materials when necessary whereas organic agriculture largely

**1.1 Definition of integrated pest management**

**4**

The cheapest and most reliable way to avoid many pest problems is to provide an environment that discourages pest activities/infestation. These types of methods include suppression of harmful organisms from becoming problems by planning and managing various options such as:


### **2.2 Pest identification**

Pest identification is one of the foremost strategies to control the pest population. Moreover, when the identity of a pest is not known, then, a strategy built to control the pest at a particular site cannot be transferred to another, as pest species or strain at another site might behave differently. Thus, a solid foundation must be built on pest's systematic, taxonomy, etiology, and spatial distribution [18].

### **2.3 Establishing a periodic inspection and monitoring system**

A pest is an anthromorphic categorization which is beneficial and harmful at the same time. For instance, termites considered beneficial organisms in forests converting dead trees to organic matter are also considered as pests as they on wood having high economic value [19]. Pest inspection includes regular site inspections and trapping to determine the extent of infestation levels and types of pests at particular site. It also includes regular check on the occurrence of species identified properly and considered to be pests or beneficial organisms, the damage caused by the pests, the crop characteristics, and the environmental factors. Monitoring procedure is a key element of IPM programs as it helps early detection, timely information on pest activity, ranking of the severity of infestations, identify its causes, and estimation of future populations. Environment monitoring methodologies must be designed for assessing instantaneous and dynamic aspects of the pest's density, activity, or incidence [18]. Understanding these environmental interactions allows crop advisors to react to changing environmental conditions and helps to determine acceptable pest population levels, effective reduction measures, and breach of the action threshold.

#### **2.4 Determine economic injury and action threshold level of pest activity**

The primary objective in integrated pest management is not to eliminate a pest but to bring it into acceptable boundary. FOA defines pest as any species/strain/biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to plants and plant products, materials, or environments and includes vectors of parasites or pathogens of human and animal disease and animals causing public health nuisance. In IPM, a few pests can be tolerated and it is compulsory to take action when pest numbers reach a certain level, this level is known as threshold. The lowest level of injury to crop plants where the damage can be measured is called the damage boundary and the lowest number of insects that will cause economic damage is referred to as economic injury level (EIL). Economic threshold level (ETL) is defined as the pest density at which control measures should be applied to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching economic injury level. An action threshold level (ATL) is the pest population size that requires remedial action for human-health, economic, or aesthetic reasons and it will vary depending on the site structure and how it is being used (**Figure 1**). As ETL and ATL are pest and site specific, meaning that it may be acceptable at one site but at another site it may

#### **Figure 1.**

*To make control practice profitable, or at least break even, it is necessary to set the economic threshold (ET) below the economic injury level (EIL). Graphic: National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core Manual, NASDARF.*

**7**

*Integrated Pest Management: A Paradigm for Modern Age*

to control pests with little impact on the environment.

not be acceptable. Next step involves decision-making process that draws on accurate,

In IPM, implementation of treatment strategy involves mechanical, cultural, biological, or chemical controls, or a combination of these strategies. Although using a single strategy may be successful for a short duration but by integration of these practices may provide safe guards against ecological disruptions (pest resistance or destruction of natural enemies) that often develop because of reliance on a single strategy [20]. If all methods have failed and the monitoring system shows that pest population is still beyond action thresholds, then the use of synthetic chemicals should be last resort only, but when used, the least toxic materials should be chosen to minimize exposure to all nontarget organisms. Ultimately, the goal is

Lastly, evaluation is often considered as one of the most important steps in integrated pest management [21]. A regular evaluation program is essential step to determine the success of the pest management strategies. It is the process of reviewing an IPM program and the results it has generated. Moreover, understanding the effectiveness of the IPM program allows making necessary modifications to the IPM plan prior to pests reaching the action threshold and requiring action again. A record keeping system is essential to establish trends and patterns in pest outbreaks. Information recorded at every inspection or treatment should include pest identification, its population size, distribution, recommendations for future prevention,

**3. Pest management tactics under integrated pest management**

a different set of mechanisms for suppressing pest populations.

they are not large numbers during the plant growth period [27].

The different pest management tactics to suppress pests includes host plant resistance, cultural control, behavioral control, mechanical/physical control, biological control, and chemical control. Each category as discussed below employs

Host plant resistance approach is the first line of defense in IPM. During domestication of crops many resistance traits have been lost [22, 23]. It involves the use of pest-resistant and pest-tolerant cultivars developed through traditional breeding/ genetic engineering [24–26]. The cultivars produced possess physical, morphological, or biochemical characters that reduce the plant's attractiveness for the pest to feed, develop, or reproduce successfully and thus reduce the yield losses. Moreover, it also involves withstanding the infestation/infection of pests to reduced level that

Adopting good agronomic practices that avoid/reduce pest infestations and damage is referred as cultural control. The various cultural practices have been

timely information to make pest prevention and its management decisions.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92283*

**2.5 Developing management strategies**

**2.6 Evaluating and record keeping**

and complete information on its treatment.

**3.1 Host plant resistance**

**3.2 Cultural control**

grouped as below:

not be acceptable. Next step involves decision-making process that draws on accurate, timely information to make pest prevention and its management decisions.
