Sustainable Utilization of Indigenous Plants to Mitigate Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases amongst Selected Rural Households of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa

*Mbusiseni V. Mkwanazi, Sithembile Z. Ndlela and Michael Chimonyo*

### **Abstract**

The objective of the study was to explore IK used to control ticks and associated diseases. A structured questionnaire (n = 250) were administered randomly to collect IK amongst the households active in goat production. Challenges on the use of ethno veterinary plants were also captured using focus group discussions. There was an association between goat ownership and gender, males used IK (70%) more than their female counterparts. Ticks were ranked as the major ectoparasites affecting goat productivity. Amongst ticks, *Amblyomma* species were ranked as the most important. *Cissus quadrangularis. Lin* (32%), *Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey* (27%) and *Portulaca pilosa L.* (25%) plants had the highest FL values for their use to control ticks. Four plant species were identified to treat goats against tick-borne diseases. *Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims* and *Boophane disticha* were reported to treat heart water. *Aloe marlothii A.Berger* and *Erythrophleum africanum (Benth.) Harms* plants cure anaplasmosis. Livestock farmers hold substantial knowledge of ethno-veterinary plants to control ticks and their associated challenges. More research is required to affirm the acaricidal properties claimed to promote and optimize sustainable use of these medicinal plants.

**Keywords:** animal diseases, heart water medicinal plants, skin damage, treatment, wounds

### **1. Introduction**

The production of goats is increasing in the developing countries due to several key drivers of change in the livestock production sector [1]. One of which is the unforeseeable drastic effect of changing climates. Thus, addressing the issues of climate change in the context of livestock intensification involve rearing of species that are robust and adaptable to changing extreme conditions such as severe drought, increase temperatures and water scarcity issues [2] faced in the world. Goats are, therefore, more appropriate under such environments. Goats are inexpensive to raise and are, thus, a viable option for resource-limited households. Their high fecundity and relatively small space requirements and exceptional ability to produce under marginal environments such as mountainous and degraded lands are other attributes. The importance of goats is even higher in drier agro ecological zones where crop production is unreliable due to low and poorly distributed rainfall patterns coupled with droughts. Goats are also able to feed on grasses, bushes, shrubs, tree leaves and crop residues which would otherwise go to waste.

Although, goats are suitable under marginal lands, their productivity is still low owing to several constraints such as infectious diseases and parasites [3]. Communal production systems are characterized by poor management and low productivity. Farmers in communal production systems hardly use drugs to treat goats, consequently, diseases and ectoparasites are rife and major threats to goat production. Surveys have indicated that ticks are one of the constraints that limit goat productivity [4]. Ticks cause substantial losses such as diseases, reduced productivity through high mortalities and they are economically the most important ectoparasites of goats. Ticks suck blood, which damages the quality of the skin and hides and introduce toxins into goats [5]. In goats, skin lesions, particularly between the hooves, lead to secondary infections and may cause lameness [6].

The most common methods used to control ticks are through commercial acaricides. In developing countries, however the supply of acaricides are inconsistently available or not available at all [1]. Goats owned by resource-limited farmers are reared on communal rangelands where they browse extensively in mixed pastures with cattle. During dipping of cattle, goats are often ignored yet these species graze together. Many resource-limited farmers cannot afford acaricides and depend extensively on indigenous knowledge (IK) and practices. Indigenous knowledge is critical in goat health and it enhances cost-effective management of ticks [1]. Over centuries, resource-limited communities have learnt how to survive in difficult environments. They know appropriate varieties of crops to plant, when to sow, which plants are poisonous, which can be used for control of diseases in livestock [7]. Though such knowledge is valuable, however government veterinary services are an impediment to the development and use of IK as they regard it as based on mythology due to lack of scientific validation. As such, farmers are exposed to modern veterinary services leading to infrequent application due to failure to purchase the acaricides and at times under dosing, thus contributing to the development of resistance of ticks to acaricides.

The use of ethno-veterinary plants, which is part of IK is, however, important because it is easily accessible and locally available [1]. The study, therefore, will assist through the use of IK and its practices to eradicate ticks in goats, thereby enhancing global food security through provision of healthy chevon. Information obtained can also be used to design cost effective control programmes, which are locally available and affordable to farmers. Indigenous knowledge could also be blended with conventional knowledge (CK) to strengthen veterinary livestock care. Gathering IK could also increase the choices for farmers to control ticks and associated challenges in goats without only depending on CK. Indigenous knowledge could be useful because it controls even parasites that have developed resistant to acaricides. The objective of the study was to explore the use of IK used to control ticks and tick-borne diseases in goats.

### **2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1 Ethical clearance consideration**

The respondents' rights, religions, culture and dignity were respected. The respondents were assured that no confidential information would be disclosed, *Sustainable Utilization of Indigenous Plants to Mitigate Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95935*

and they had a right to stop the interview whenever they did not feel comfortable. The experimental procedures were performed according to the ethical guidelines specified by the Certification of Authorization to Experiment on Living Humans provided by the UKZN Social Sciences – Humanities & Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee (Reference No: HSS/0852/017).

#### **2.2 Study site**

The study was conducted at Jozini municipality of uMkhanyakude district in the KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. Jozini lies at 27º 24' 06.9' S; 32º 11' 48.6 E, and covers about 3 082 km<sup>2</sup> , with an altitude ranging from 80 to 1900 m above sea level. Jozini experiences subtropical climate, with an average annual rainfall of 600 mm. Although the area receives rainfall throughout the year, most rains are received between January and March, with the months of June and July being dry and cool. Highest mean monthly temperature is recorded in January (30°C) and lowest in July (11°C). The average daily maximum and minimum temperatures at Jozini are 20 ºC and 10 ºC, respectively. The vegetation type of the area is mainly coastal sand-veld, bushveld and foothill wooded grasslands [8]. Agricultural practices in this district include production of field crops, vegetables and extensive livestock farming.

#### **2.3 Study design and data collection**

Eight communities were visited across the Jozini Area. Scheduled meetings with local authorities such as chiefs and local headmen were arranged to gain access to communities. The visited communities were Biva, Nyawushane, Mkhonjeni, Gedleza, Mkhayane, Makhonyeni, Mamfene and Madonela. They were randomly selected amongst communities active in goat production. Households were identified by the local chiefs and selected based on their personal experience on indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) to control ticks. The sampling technique involved approaching participants with extensive knowledge on the use of ethno-veterinary plants in goats. Enumerators were obtained from the local villages to ensure that farmers are comfortable to participate during the study. The questionnaire was pre-tested for accuracy and clarity of questions. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from 250 households.

Data collection included household demographic information such as gender, age, source of income and employment status. Effects of ticks in goats, tick species and tick-borne diseases prevalent in the study area. Factors that limit the use of IK were also captured. Indigenous methods and practices used to control ticks and associated tick challenges were also captured. Information such as the (1) Local names of plants (2) part of the plant used (3) method of preparation and dosage were also captured during the survey. Apart from the questionnaires, further information on challenges with ethno-veterinary plants was collected through focus group discussions (FGD) with knowledgeable persons from the communities.

#### **2.4 Plant collection and identification**

Following the survey with the selected key respondents, 13 plant specimens were identified and collected. During collection of plant parts, leaves and bark were collected to ensure that plants continues to grow. The specimens were harvested, prepared, packaged and stored according to the herbarium rules and regulations. Plants specimens were then pressed and transported to the University of Kwa Zulu–Natal for botanical identification. For each plant species collected, a voucher specimen was prepared by The Bews Herbarium of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.

#### **2.5 Statistical analyses**

All data were analyzed using SAS [9]. The PROC FREQ procedure for chi-square was used to compute association between households' demographic profile and IK use and challenges of IK. Mean rank scores for the effects of ticks on goat productivity, reasons of keeping goats, goat production constraints, common external parasites and common ticks and tick-borne diseases in the study site were determined using PROC MMEANS of SAS [9].

Fidelity level (FL) values were determined to capture the most used ethnoveterinary plants, as this could demonstrate their possible efficacy. Fidelity level is the percentage of respondents who use a certain plant for the same function [10] and was calculated as:

$$\frac{Na}{N} \times 100\tag{1}$$

*N*a - is the number of respondents who claim the use of a plant species to treat a particular ailment; *N* - is the number of respondents who use the plant as medicine for any ailment.

#### **3. Results**

#### **3.1 Household socio-demographic information of respondents**

**Table 1** shows the association between household socio- demographic information and IK use of the farmers in the study site. There was an association (P < 0.05) between


#### **Table 1.**

*Socio-economic characteristics of respondents and association with indigenous knowledge use (n = 250). This result originated from the authors own work.*

*Sustainable Utilization of Indigenous Plants to Mitigate Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95935*

goats' ownership and gender, males were using IK (70%) more than females. The association between marital status and IK use was (P < 0.05). Farmers that were not married used IK more than those that are married. There was an association (P < 0.05) between educational status and IK use in the study area. Farmers that did not receive formal education were found to depend on IK more than those that received formal education. Unexpectedly, there was no association (P > 0.05) between IK use and religious belief. Although farmers that believed in tradition were using IK (56%) more than Christians. There was also no association between sources of income and IK use (P > 0.05), however farmers that depended on government grant (46%) used IK more. Even though there was no association (P > 0.05) between IK use and employment status, however farmers that were unemployed were more (46%) likely to use IK.

#### **3.2 Livestock inventory and effects of ticks on productivity of goats**

As expected, households owned different types of livestock (**Figure 1**). Livestock species owned by respondents consisted of cattle, goats, sheep, chickens, pigs, ducks and donkeys. Cattles (89%) were the most kept livestock species in the study area, followed by goats (80%), chickens (61.3) and sheep (51%) in that chronological order of importance. Ducks (28%), pigs (24%) and donkeys (10%) were least important species in the study area.

**Table 2** shows the effects of ticks on goat productivity as ranked by farmers. Wounds were ranked the first. The loss of body condition due to ticks were reported as the second effect of ticks that thwarts goat productivity. Challenges of limping were ranked the third, followed by transmission of tick-borne diseases (**Table 2**). Skin irritation, destroying teats and anemia were least important.

#### **3.3 Constraints to goat production**

The most important external parasites constraining goat productivity are shown in **Figure 2**. Farmers ranked ticks as the most important external parasites affecting goat productivity. Lice were ranked the second and mites as the third constraint. Whilst the flies were ranked the least external parasites affecting goats productivity. **Table 3** shows the mean rank scores of different tick species

**Figure 1.**

*Livestock numbers kept per household in the study site (N = 250). This result originated from the authors own work.*


#### **Table 2.**

*Effects of ticks on goat productivity. This result originated from the authors own work.*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Common parasites prevalent in the study site. This result originated from the authors own work.*


#### **Table 3.**

*Mean rank scores of ticks and tick-borne diseases. This result originated from the authors own work.*

and associated tick- borne diseases affecting goat productivity in the study site. *Amblyomma* species were ranked as the most important amongst the ticks, followed by *Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi* ranking the second and the least being the *Hylomma* species. Amongst tick-borne diseases, heart water was ranked as the most important, followed by anaplasmosis and babesiosis in that descending order.


*Sustainable Utilization of Indigenous Plants to Mitigate Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95935*

**Table 4.**

 *Ethno-veterinary plants used to control ticks. This result originated from the authors own work.*

### **3.4 Ethno-veterinary control of ticks and tick related conditions in goats**

Nine plant species belonging to eight families were identified to control ticks and related tick challenges. Six medicinal plants were used as tick repellents from goats namely, *Cissus quadrangularis. Lin, Stapelia gigantea N.E. Br*.*, Portulaca pilosa L., Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey, Achyranthes aspera L and Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes.* **Table 4** shows methods of plant preparation and dosages used. In addition, three ethno-veterinary plant species were identified to treat tick wounds: *Cissus quadrangularis. Lin, Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl.* and *Spirostachys africana Sond.* Other plant species are broad spectrum, for example *Cissus quadrangularis. Lin,* which is used to control ticks can also be effectively used to treat wounds. The use of plant leaves was most prominent in the study area, followed by barks. *Cissus quadrangularis. Lin* mixture is smeared on the wound to prevent maggot development. Leaves from *Aloe marlothii A.Berger* are applied on the wounds.

The juicy liquid from *Aloe marlothii A.Berger* is then applied topically on the wounds to prevent the development of maggot. The wound was cleaned before the prepared mixture of *Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl.* is applied (**Table 4**). Fidelity level values were determined to estimate the ethno-veterinary plants use values (**Table 5**). *Cissus quadrangularis. Lin* (32 %), *Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey* (27 %), *Portulaca pilosa L.* (25 %) were the plants having the highest FL values for their use to control ticks. *Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes* had the least FL value of 17 %, followed by *Stapelia gigantea N.E. Br* (3 %), respectively. Leaves were the most frequently used plant parts, constituting (55 %), followed by barks (25 %). Roots had a frequency of (13 %) and lastly the fruits constituting (7 %).

### **3.5 Ethno-veterinary plants used to treat tick-borne diseases in goats**

**Table 6** shows ethno-veterinary plants, methods of preparation and dosages used for treatment of tick-borne diseases in goats. The *Boophane disticha* is administered orally to kill the *Ehrlichia ruminantium* bacterium *spp* that causes heart water. *Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims* is widely used to treat heartwater in the study area. *Aloe marlothii A.Berger* plant is used to cure anaplasmosis.

### **3.6 Challenges of using indigenous knowledge**

During group discussions, farmers acknowledged that there are numerous challenges pertaining to the use of ethnoveterinary plants. Farmers attributed some of the challenges to lower rainfall patterns that have led to the limitation of ethno-veterinary plants used to make remedies for both ticks and other associated challenges


*Na – Indicates the number of respondents who claim a use of plant species for a particular ailment, N – indicates the number of informants who use the plant as medicine for any ailment, FL – Fidelity level.*

#### **Table 5.**

*Fidelity level indices of ethno-veterinary plant species used to control ticks in goats. This result originated from the authors own work.*

