**Table 6.**

*Ethno-veterinary plants used to treat tick-borne diseases. This result originated from the authors own work.*

### *Sustainable Utilization of Indigenous Plants to Mitigate Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95935*

including tick-borne diseases. For example, ethno-veterinary plants such as *Croton sylvaticus Hochst.* (Ugibeleweni), *Leonotis leonurus (L.) R.Br* (umhlahlampethu), *Erythrophleum lasianthum Corbishley* (Umkhwango), *Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims* (Umfusamvu) are found in the wild. Due to lower rainfall patterns coupled with increased drought occurrence, ethno-veterinary plants are becoming scarce. The scarcity of plants is also exacerbated by increasing human population, overharvesting and deforestation. The exorbitant increase in the human population that are using IK has two limitations to ethno-veterinary plants. Firstly, the number of settlers in the area is increasing and they remove important plants during preparation and building of shelters. Secondly, as the number of people who uses IK increases, some of the people harvest plants inappropriately whereby one uproots the whole plant, which then destroys plant growth.

### **4. Discussion**

Ethno-veterinary knowledge and practices contribute gigantically to the veterinary management of goats and the use of IK is capturing much popularity. For example, about 80% of farmers living in sub-Saharan Africa today depend on ethno-veterinary plants for their livestock health [11]. Indigenous people do not reveal IK effortlessly as it is a source of their livelihood [12]. Indigenous knowledge is normally transferred and passed to the next generation through oral conversations. As a result, a vast of IK remain undocumented. Indigenous knowledge is also restricted to the elderly generation, thus with the demise of older generation, there is fear and danger that IK will rapidly vanish while not promoted to enforce policies for sustainable development of livestock veterinary care, hence the need for the current study. The observed association between goat ownership and gender, with males using IK more than females was anticipated. This finding corroborates with that of Mkwanazi et al. [1]. The probable explanation could be that in resourcelimited areas men are usually the head of households and therefore, culturally obligated to take decisions on livestock including goats. Women are culturally not allowed to enter livestock kraals, thus making it difficult for women to participate and make purposeful decisions. In addition, there is a belief that ethno-veterinary plants should not be collected by menstruating women as this would reduce the healing power of the plants [13]. Women, however, should not be deprived of such a privilege, because in the modern society men are scantly at home as they migrate to seek for better opportunities in urban areas, as a result woman remain behind and enforce decisions. Moreover, most households nowadays are headed by women, therefore, men should be encouraged to educate women on IK and livestock management.

The finding that most unmarried household heads used IK more could be influenced by the lack of additional household income, resulting in farmers opting to use IK so that the negligible remittances that they receive could be used to purchase essential things such as food and paying school fees for children. The observation that farmers with informal education used IK more was not surprising because most of them grew up using IK to control tick and associated challenges in goats, hence their high dependency on ethno-veterinary plants. The observed finding that traditionalists were using IK more as opposed to Christians is not surprising. Christian converts associate IK use with demons. This is rather worrisome given that young people are easily lured to Christianity as opposed to learning African ways of living. Therefore, this presents a threat of disappearance of IK for the future generations. The observation that unemployed farmers use IK more could be linked with the nature of the sources of income in resource-limited areas, most unemployed

#### *Sustainable Utilization of Indigenous Plants to Mitigate Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95935*

farmers are old and therefore, depend on sales from farming and government grant incentives for survival. This observation resonates with that of Sanhokwe et al. [4].

The observation that cattle were the most popular livestock species is influenced by social status, since in resource-limited areas cattle are an emblem of wealth. Therefore, cattle are considered very important because of the economic roles they perform [14]. They perform multiple roles such draught power, slaughtered during burial of chiefs, kings and generally men who are heads of households and in wedding ceremonies. Although goats are an alternative for farmers who do not afford to keep cattle, but they are usually referred as poor man's cow [15]. The finding that chickens were the third livestock species kept by farmers deviates from the work of Nyahangare et al. [14], who reported chickens as the most populous species kept by resource-limited farmers. Chickens have low input requirements, which makes it easier for farmers to accommodate them in their homesteads. Despite the lowly rank of other species such as ducks, pigs and donkeys, however but they still contribute substantially. The study area experiences frequent droughts; therefore, donkeys occupy a very important niche of transporting water during water shortages.

The observation that the primary reason for keeping goats was to perform cultural ceremonies resonates with Mdletshe et al. [16]. In resource-limited areas, goats are used to communicate with ancestors and are scantly slaughtered outside the context of traditional ceremonies. Keeping goats for sales confirm the notion that farmers sell their goats in times of need and generate cash income, which is generally used to purchase food and other essentials. The observation that milk ranked the least concurs with Mahanjana and Cronje [17] and Masika and Mafu [18]. Most farmers do not milk goats for human consumption, hence the need to educate farmers on the importance of goat's milk as it has therapeutic properties and is more digestible than cow milk. Thus, dissemination of information to farmers on goat milk can ensure continued access to high quality protein by the less fortunate and those allergic to lactose, particularly young children.

The observation that experts showed awareness and could identify the effects associated with ticks suggest that these challenges are evident in the study area. The observation that farmers ranked wounds as the major effect of ticks on goat productivity could be influenced by that ticks gouge through the skin leading to the development of wounds. In resource-limited areas farmers use traditional practices such as the use of thorns and scissors to remove ticks from goats, however such practices tend to destroy the stomach part of the tick only while leaving the head inside the skin. Therefore, goats would rub themselves trying to appease the pain, thus causing the wound. The finding that ticks cause loss of body condition demonstrates the seriousness to include goats in tick control programs. This is important to consider because availing resources to goats will help improve their productivity and hence their contribution to livelihood. The loss in body condition could be due to that ticks suck blood, thereby denying goats adequate nutrients. Subsequently, making goats vulnerable to diseases. The observed challenge of limping in goats could be due to that ticks attach between the hoofs, causing wounds that may lead to hoof rot. Eventually making goats to limp and unable to reach mountains and grazing areas for browsing. Jongejan et al. [6] recorded 89% of goats suffering from lameness due to predilection of ticks between their feet. The observation that tick-borne diseases ranked the fourth should not be taken light, because in the past goats, especially Nguni breeds have been assumed to be resistant tick-borne diseases. Hence, there is a need for further research to be done on tick-borne diseases in goats.

Farmers can identify different tick species in their goats using color patterns [19, 20]. The finding that ticks were ranked as the most external parasites affecting goats agrees with Mkwanazi et al. [1]. The probable explanation could be that goats are hardly dipped in resource-limited areas and much priority given to cattle, although these species graze together in communal rangelands [1]. High infestation of ticks could also be due to that during the cool-dry season, where water and feed resources are deficient, goats travel far to mountains and valleys where ticks are abundant [21]. Ticks were scored high and perceived as a major cause of mortality in kids under communal farming conditions in South Africa [22]. The observation that lice were ranked the second contradicts findings by Sanhokwe et al. [4] who reported mites to be second challenge after ticks on goats. It should be alluded that prominence of external parasites in the study area could be influenced by poorly managed rangelands where parasites burden is rife. The observation that *Amblyomma* tick species were ranked as the most important amongst the ticks agrees with Jongejan et al. [6] who reported *Amblyomma* as the predominant adult tick species on goats with a relative proportion of 66%.

Goats in resource-limited areas have been found to be infested with a large population of *Amblyomma* and *Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi* [1]. The observation that farmers mentioned the presence of *Hylomma* infestation on goats in the study site was rather befuddling because Horak et al. [23] reported that *Hyalomma* species are not present in the study area as farmers suggested. In particular areas where the *Hyalomma* has been spotted, goat infestation is very low; less than 2 ticks per goat. Secondly, *Hyalomma* that infests dogs are not common in the study area [23] suggesting that although farmers have knowledge on ticks, they often confuse different tick species. Perhaps the most striking finding was that most of the IK experts did not directly connect ticks with the spread of tick-borne diseases. Farmers, however, were able to define tick-borne diseases using clinical symptoms, but it should be borne in mind that some diseases exhibit differential diagnosis. Thus, affecting the accuracy of the diagnosis.

The observation that heart water ranked the first amongst tick-borne diseases could be influenced by the high prevalence of *Amblymma* species in the study area that is known to be the carrier of *Ehrlichia ruminantium* bacteria transmitting heartwater in goats. The observation that farmers could rank anaplasmosis the second was surprising, considering that anaplasmosis in goats is a subclinical and non-pathogenic disease of little economic importance [23]. Infected animals show few clinical signs of the disease. Consequently, the correlated symptoms such as slimy mucous around the nose, lying down, weakness and shivering of goats form part of a range of signs by which heart water can be identified.

Nine common ethno-veterinary plant species were identified to be used by farmers to control ticks and related challenges. These plants are from different families *Vitaceae, Asphodelaceae, Apocynaceae, Portulacaceae, Apocynaceae, Asparagaceae, Europhorbiaceae* and *Celastraceae.* Other plant species have a broad-spectrum nature. For example, *Cissus quadrangularis Lin* from *Vitaceae,* is used to control ticks and treat wounds. Similarly, *Aloe marlothii A.Berger* is used to treat anaplasmosis and tick wounds. Plants from the genus *Aloe* have been successfully used throughout the world due to their biologically active ingredients [24]. *Cissus quadrangularis. Lin* has many biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-bacterial and antiinflammatory activity. *Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl.* plant is known to have various biological activities such as antioxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-fungal and cytotoxic effects. In addition, the plant has been reported to have insecticidal activities with properties including L-azatidine-2-carboxilic acid and bufadienolides, scillirosidin and proscillaridin A [25].

The effects against ticks from other plants including *Stapelia gigantea N.E. Br*, *Portulaca amilis Speg.* and *Achyranthes aspera L.* have not been reported in literature, however, farmers indicated that their leaves are excellent tick repellents. Therefore, there is a need of in-depth research on their potential efficacy

#### *Sustainable Utilization of Indigenous Plants to Mitigate Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95935*

as tick repellents. The observation that FL values of *Cissus quadrangularis. Lin*, *Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey* and *Portulaca pilosa L.* (25%) were high, showed that most farmers in the study area generally prefer these plants and they constantly utilize them to control ticks. The observation that *Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes* had the least FL value disagrees with Mkwanazi et al. [1]. Some of the medicinal plants have low FL values because some farmers did not know their preparation methods and dosages. Acaricidal validation of these plants is essential to isolate their active ingredients and thus, used to produce drugs.

The four plants; *Boophane disticha, Erythrophleum africanum (Benth.) Harms* and *Pittosporum viridiflorum* Sims*. Boophane disticha* were identified to treat goats against heartwater and have intensive usage in the traditional medicine practice of indigenous people around the world. For example, *Boophane disticha* has been widely used in cattle to treat babesiosis, however in this study it is used against heartwater. This is possibly due to its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities [26]. *Pittosporum viridiflorum* Sims is reported to repel ticks [27, 28] and to have acaricidal properties against larvae of *Rhipicephalus appendiculatus* [27]. In the current study, however, it is reported to treat heartwater. Multiple properties including wound healing, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and low toxicity [29] have been found in *Pittosporum viridiflorum* Sims.

The observation that leaves and bark were common plant parts used to prepare these remedies agrees with Maroyi et al. [29]. The high use of leaves could presumably be due to strong seasonality of rainfall that hinders the growth of many plant species during the dry season. Leaves are also readily available. Leaf harvesting does not inhibit the growth and survival of the whole plant species [30] as compared to roots, which could be another plausible reason for their greater usage in remedy preparations. The most common preparation method used was boiling the plant in water. This could possibly because boiling allows time for the active compound to infuse to the water through detaching the chemicals and making the solution potent.

The limited plant availability because of lower rainfall patterns could mean that different plant species respond differently to changes in climatic conditions [31]. Some plant species are still available in the same place, however, have adapted to new climatic conditions through selection. Other plant species moved to greater latitudes or altitudes. This could be the case with some medicinal plants such as *Croton sylvaticus Hochst*, *Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims* and *Erythrophleum africanum (Benth.) Harms* that are now found in far areas. *Croton sylvaticus Hochst* was reported to be found in far-away mountains and no longer widely accessible. This could be attributed to climate change, causing some plants to migrate to higher areas until there are no further places to inhabit.

Despite the use of these ethno-veterinary plants, however majority are threatened by anthropogenic disturbances [32]. The extensive use of medicinal plants is the most common threat to its availability. The most serious issues or threats with regards to extracting medicinal plants is habitat degradation and over harvesting. As a result of over harvesting, for example, many of these plant species with fewer exceptions are now harvested from the wild habitat. In addition, plant materials are being lost due to lack of systematic conservation, hence the need of conserving the erosion of the remaining plant species. Proper conservation strategies for plants that are widely used such as *Aloe marlothii A.Berger* and *Cissus quadrangularis. Lin* should be done.

### **5. Conclusions**

The study showed that there is still a considerably strong use of IK of plantbased remedies to control ticks and associated tick challenges in livestock,

including goats. Nine plant species were identified to control ticks and related challenges such as wounds, using *Cissus quadrangularis. Lin, Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey* and *Portulaca pilosa L.* being populous across. Heartwater was a major disease of economic importance. Heartwater is more of a recent introduction to the area, hence experts had a more scientifically informed understanding of the disease, gleaned from veterinarians and animal health technicians. The high dependence on ethno-veterinary remedies and practices on ticks and their associated challenges highlights the need to support IK in veterinary care. There is a need, for government institutions to collaborate with IK experts to identify and standardize IK practices in wider use for effective control of ticks and diseases in livestock**.**

### **Acknowledgements**

The authors also unequivocally acknowledge the UKZN Life Science Department, The Bews Herbarium for plant specimen identification. We are also grateful to the community of Jozini and livestock keepers for their contribution during data collection.

### **Funding**

The study was funded by the National Research Foundation (NRF) of the Republic of South Africa at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (Project name: Exploring indigenous knowledge systems GUN: 112406).

## **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

### **Author details**

Mbusiseni V. Mkwanazi, Sithembile Z. Ndlela and Michael Chimonyo\* Animal and Poultry Science, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: michaelchimonyo@gmail.com

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Sustainable Utilization of Indigenous Plants to Mitigate Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95935*

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Section 10
