Goat Type Selection and Molecular Markers; a Solution for Milk Production in Recently Desertified Zones

*Erwin Strahsburger and Juan Scopinich-Cisternas*

### **Abstract**

Goat farming has been severely affected by Desertification, limiting their water and food resources and inducing physiological heat stress that reduces the doe milk yield. Does well adapted to heat stress would be a possible solution, but creole or indigenous goats from desert or arid areas produce between 0.5 to 1.5 L of milk per day, which is lower than the 3 L of milk per day produced by dairy goats like the Saanen breed. Nevertheless, in this chapter, we will discuss the disadvantages of introducing common dairy goats in dry places. Instead, we propose the introduction of desert goats from the Middle East or India, because they produce high-quality milk with low feed intake, making a profitable goat farming activity, and an opportunity to include crossbreeding strategies to improve the herd milk yield. Creole goats, on other hand, has been an underestimated livestock animal with a rich and unveil genetic patrimony that migth improve the herd milk yield. The effect of improved diets and extensive husbandry conditions remains unexplored in desert creole goats, and the use of advanced knowledge in goat genomics, genetic expression, and a wide variety of molecular markers can improve the studies on creole goats for crossbreeding strategies identifying the best traits involved in high-quality milk production and adaptation to dry environments. In this way, the synergy between goat type selection and molecular markers should boost goat farming in recently new desert or arid zones, counteracting the detrimental effects produced by the desertification.

**Keywords:** goat type, lactation, mating, Creole, molecular markers, crossbreeding, desert, arid, genomics

### **1. Introduction**

The current climate change is a consequence of the increased content of atmospheric CO2, CH4, N2O, and particulate matter, which raised in 1.2°C (2018) the surface air temperature [1]. This warming climate change has impacted the hydrological cycle inducing a Hadley cell expansion and poleward movements of the jet stream, making dry areas becoming drier and wet areas became wetter [1]. This effect has been observed mainly in countries situated between 30 degrees latitude south and 30-degree latitude north (Hardly cell) and correspond very well with the reported literature by these countries to counteracts or diminish the drought effect

on farming activities [2–5]. Among these detrimental effects, desertification is defined as the effects of constant dry or persistent drought on fertile lands, making them desert and unsuitable for agricultural activities.

Farming land is a limited resource and climate change is reducing it, due to the desertification of rural areas usually used for agricultural purposes [6]. This devastating impact requires mitigation actions to prevent the advance of poverty in farming communities, the food shortage, and the loss of farming land [5, 6]. In this sense, is necessary to take action and start goat breeding plans in places with advanced desertification conditions that threaten the goat farming activity and their rural communities. One of these actions has been the migration of Pastoral activities to livestock production to sustain the goat farming in lands hardly affected by desertification [5]. This adaptation involves changes in the feed resources, the growth of forage resistance to desert or arid conditions but with good nourish properties, and the improvements in goat management to reduce the heat stress and sustain the goat milk and milk derivatives such as Cheese, and Yogurt [2, 5, 7].

Fortunately, the solution to sustaining goat farming activities is the goat itself. Among livestock animals, the goat is the best candidate to sustain farming activities in desert or arid zones [3, 8]. This is because domestic goat (*C. hircus*) is originally from the middle east and then was diversifying and habitat diverse places in Europe, Asia, and North Africa, to finally arrives in America and Australia by the European conquers [9–11]. *C. hircus* species has three genetic lineages. The first lineage A is present in diverse goat types across many continents and started at >200,000 years ago (YA), a long period before the beginning of goat domestication estimated around 9,000–13,000 YA according to fossil evidence [12]. While the lineage B and C started immediately after goat domestication and expanded around 10,000 YA to South and West Asia [12]. Regarding the descendant of lineage A, there is a weak cluster geographically marked (around 10%), suggesting that most of them have been widespread across the globe due to their natural migration with the human population across human history [10, 13]. That suggests domestic goat has a genetic diversity across the globe, being a huge source of diverse goat types with different adaptation traits to improve milk production in different local environments and resist climate change in rural places with limited resources [3, 14].

This chapter will discuss goat diversity and its potential in developing high milk production in desert zones. The unsuccessful experiences of not-desert dairy goats introduced in desert zones will be commented on, and the advantage of desert goats as well. Besides, the unexplored creole goats will be commented as an unexplored goat type with a valuable genetic patrimony to adapt to harsher conditions. Finally, taking advantage of all advances in genomics and molecular markers to follow goat milk production, will be discussed how these tools have been used and which are their potential to assist crossbreeding plan to improve goat milk production in areas affected by desertification.

### **2. Methodology**

The literature analysis was done using google scholar and keywords such as; dry, desert, milk production, goat, farming, casein among other related words. Those studies performed on countries with hot, arid, or desert zones were considered for analysis and others studies from other countries that not belong to dry or desert areas were added to enrich the discussion.

*Goat Type Selection and Molecular Markers; a Solution for Milk Production in Recently... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99346*

### **2.1 Comparison of Milk Yield in Diverse Goat Types**

**Table 1** is a comparative and normalized analysis of milk yield per day for diverse goat species that inhabit hot, desert, or arid zones was performed. Not all these studies have reported the same milk yield parameter in terms of kg of milk per day. For those studies with a reported total lactation yield, the total milk yield was divided by the lactation period to obtain the milk yield in kg/day. In cases of total or daily milk, the yield was reported in liters, the conversion to kg was performed using the goat milk density of 1,11285 kg/l. That value comes as the average of the milk density considered in a range of 0.9917 to 1.2324 kg/l according to the report by Gabas et al. [29].


#### **Table 1.**

*Goat breeds milk production.*

### **3. The dairy goat type for desertify zones**

### **3.1 Milk production by dairy goat naturally not adapted for arid or drought zones**

Dairy goats like Saanen (Sweden), Toggenburg (Sweden), Alpine (France), and Anglo-Nubian (England) have a remarkable high milk yield under extensive breeding conditions producing between 600 to 1000 kg of milk per lactation period and extraordinarily exception until 3000 kg of milk as described for a Toggenburg goat animal in 1997 [16, 30]. Therefore, seems common sense to introduce any of these dairy goats in arid zones to promote goat milk production. However, this naive approach does not always have succeed. Common dairy goats are naturally adapted to live in moistening and cold environments with plenty of food and water covering all their metabolic demands. While in dry or arid zones they have a limited food resources and dry conditions that do not satisfy their metabolic demand for high milk production [31].

Common dairy goats introduced in tropical or desert environments have a low milk yield barely producing. 200 L and 80 L, respectively [16, 22, 32, 33], as a consequence of the heat stress condition and changes in their cellular metabolism and immune response [22, 33–37]. Dairy goats under heat stress conditions reduce their food intake between 22 and 35% and their milk production between 3 and 10% with a reduced content of lipids, proteins, and lactose [35]. In Trinidad and Tobago, Saanen goats were introduced to improve local goat milk production but this initiative never prospered because the animals never were able to adapt to their arid conditions, manifesting detrimental thermoregulation, reduced prolificacy, and low kidding interval [38]. In a similar situation, local farmers from Tanzania imported Saanen, Toggenburg, and Norwegian goats to start dairy goat farming, and they reached a maximum milk yield of 1.2 kg per day, which was three times less than the expected 3.5 kg per day for Saanen and Toggenburg and the half of expected 2.3 kg for Norwegian goats [17]. These authors also noted that dairy goats had a low birth rate of 64%, while in a cool and moist environment the Saanen goat has an 81% of birth rate (**Figure 1**) [39], concluding that new breeding schemes must be planned to support a more productive goat farming activity [17].

Another interesting experience was took place in the Atacama Desert in Northern Chile. This place is one of the driest deserts in the world with less than 5 mm of rainwater per year, and comprise the Pampa of Tamarugal as an agricultural area with a protected forest placed at its core [40–42]. Underground of this Pampa of Tamarugal there is a water basin that sustains these agricultural activities and its forest, which have trees with deep roots to reach this water source [43, 44]. However, even with this water and food supplies available, the high temperatures and low moisture may induce heat stress on dairy goats affecting their milk yield (**Figure 1**). That explains the low milk yield observed in Saanen goats introduced in this Pampa in 2008–2009 by local ranchers within a regional strategy to improve goat milk production in local communities [33]. They include a low number of animals and in consequence, their statistics is not strong enough, but still this study worth its analysis.

They perform a crossbreeding between Saanen goat using one male and ten females, and another crossbreeding with one creole male and six Saanen females. In the first crossbreeding group they had seven pregnant goats and one of them had a spontaneous abortus, while the second crossbreeding group had four pregnant goats and any spontaneous abortus. Unexpectedly, all pregnant goats of the first group ended their gestation period delivering twins of the same gender or different genders. While the second group had only one pregnant goat that delivered twins of the same gender [33]. Usually, Saanen has a 22–45% of goat's twins birth

*Goat Type Selection and Molecular Markers; a Solution for Milk Production in Recently... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99346*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Milk production of Saanen goat in different environments. Source: The final version of Figure 1 was developed be the authors.*

rates according to the doe age [39], so these unexpected results might be linked to some genetic traits present in the male Saanen [45], although this observation was unexplored by the authors [33].

The litter size observation is relevant because could be considered as a predictive value for milk yield. In Alpine goats with twins or triplets offspring produced on average 32 kg more milk than singletons goats [46]. Similarly, a study performed in the United Kingdom demonstrated that Saanen goat with single birth, during its first, second, and third lactation period produced at the 50 days a total of 143, 150, and 91 kg of milk, respectively. While twin birth goats produced 156, 205, and 216 kg of milk in the same period [47]. That constitutes an increment of 37% and 137% regarding the singleton milk yield during the second and third lactation periods.

From that perspective, for Olave et al., the high amount of twin birth observed in their study would auspice a high milk yield in that study group. However, they reported an opposite result. The maximum milk yield was 1,8 L of milk at day 10, decreasing the milk production at 1 L at 50 days and then 0.5 L until 100 days of lactation. Although the authors [17] did not determine the average total milk yield per goat, their graphic suggests a total milk production of around 60 L at day 50. Considering a milk density of 1.112 kg per mm3 [29], the authors probably produced around 66.7 kg of total milk at day 50, which is around 46% less than the expected for a Saanen goat only the 32% of the expected production for a mother goat with twin birth rate at the second lactation period [47].

In summary, the study of Olave et al. [33] is interesting because demonstrates that the introduction of common dairy goats in desert zones, even under a controlled condition with plenty of food and water, finally is hardly affected by the low moisture and high temperatures reducing their milk yield. Therefore, seems do not recommendable to introduce common dairy goats in desert zones, unless a high investment in technology would be endorsed to adapt the desert environment for a more moisture and cool husbandry. Although this investment could be afforded by developed countries, for smallholder from developing countries [48, 49] cheaper alternatives are needed, being important to explore new crossbreeding programs with native and dairy goats without major changes in goat farming.

### **3.2 Milk production by dairy goat adapted to arid or drought zones**

In arid or desert zones, native goats have been well adapted to produce high-quality milk under limited supply conditions. In Israel, the black Bedouin goat that habitat at the desert of Negev (**Figure 2**), can produce between 0.95 to 1.561 kg of milk per day during the first lactation period in goats of 1–2 biological years (**Table 1**), and until 1.640 kg per day in older goats of 3–7 biological years [50]. This goat produces quality milk with a stable content of protein, fat, and lactose in 3.5%, 5.5%, and 5%, respectively, until the fourth lactation period [15]. Therefore, this goat is a highly efficient livestock animal that produces high-quality milk under desert conditions [51].

Black Bedouin goat has a better adapted physiological response for dryness conditions than Saanen goat. The Bedouin goat can adapt its feed intake from 63.9 g/kg to 52.0 g/kg after 3 days of dehydration, while for the Saanen goat the same adaptation involves a more extensive feed intake reduction from 95.0 to 55.3 g/kg in the same period [52]. In other words, Bedouin goat is already adapated for goat farming under low consumption of nutrients and waters in heat stress envirnments, reaching a basal physiological condition without stress. Meanwhile, for Saanen goats, there is a higher gap between the standard food and water demands under milk farming production, and a basal physiological state under heat stress conditions, being more physiologically stressfull for this dairy goat. Curiously, both Bedouin and Saanen goats were able of reaches the same water and food intake rate after three days of dryness [52]. In consequence, the black Bedouin goat tolerates much better the heat stress and constitutes a better race option for goat farming in arid and desert zones [53].

#### **Figure 2.**

*Distribution of desert and creole goats with the potential to boost milk production in desertified areas. The map represents the land and ocean temperatures departures for average Dec 2020 with respect to a 1981–2010 base period (map from National Center for environmental information, GHCNM v4 0.1.20210105.qfe). The maps shows the habitat of selected goat breed that habitat to hot area in the Middle East, India and northern Chile. The goat breeds are: 1, northern Chilean Creole goat; 2, Barki goat; 3, Zarabi goat; 4, black Bedouin goat; 5, Ardi goat; 6, Kutchi goat; 7, Beetal goat; 8, Jamunapari goat. Source: The final version of Figure 2 was developed be the authors.*

#### *Goat Type Selection and Molecular Markers; a Solution for Milk Production in Recently... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99346*

Black Bedouin (Dhaiwi), Sahrawi (Desert) and Jordanian Damascus (Shami) goats are from Jordan (**Figure 2**), and like many other goats of the middle east have a common genetic origin [54]. Black Bedouin, Sharawi and Ardi goats belong to the same phylogenetic cluster according to genetic studies based on the polymorphisms of 17 microsatellite [54]. Curiously, the Ardi goat does not belong to the Jordan Country but to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), the nearby country (**Figure 2**). This goat is capable of regulating its hearth beat, corporal temperature, and diverse hormones like cortisol, triiodothyronine, and thyroxin according to the season (winter or summer), showing its evolutionary adaptation traits to live in hot and dry environments [55]. Consequently, the Ardi goat is considered the best animal for goat farming across all KAS, supporting harsher conditions, limited feed nutrition, and still give enough meat and milk to sustain economically to local farmers [56]. For that reason has been included in a national breeding program to spread its genetic trait on the herd of goat farmers across the KAS to increase the meat and milk productivity and decrease the national poverty rate [56]. The Ardi goat has a milk yield production of around 225 kg for milk yield [57], and within a crossbreeding plan with Damascus goat, they have produced a hybrid offspring capable of produce until 514.19 kg for milk yield and better milk quality in term of fats and proteins content than the Ardi and Damascus goats by itself, suggesting a good opportunity to improve the herd genetic background and increase the milk production among goat ranchers [57].

Egypt is another country of the middle east, and its coast harbor the Barki goat (**Figure 2**), which has evolved to live in arid zones [18]. Its genome possesses genes related to thermotolerance, body size, energy metabolism, digestive and nervous system, and immune response [18]. In a study with a lactation period of 16 weeks, the Barki and Zarabi goats have a low milk yield of around 0.7 kg/day of milk and 1.0 kg/ day, in comparison with the 1.3 kg/day produced by Damascus Breed (**Table 1**) [58]. The crossbreeding between Zaraibi or Damascus male with Barki Dam produced an offspring that increased the milk yield to an equal or similar value of Zarabi and Damascus parental goats (**Table 1**) [58]. This improvement may be related to the polymorphism of the β-lactoglobulin gene [57], a molecular marker for milk production [19]. In this genotype the alleles most related to milk production in decreasing order are; A > B > C > D. Therefore, goats with A or B genotypes will produce more milk than those with C or D genotype. For example, in Damascus goat the most frequent polymorphism is AC (33%), BD(25%), BB(17%) and AA(17%), while in Zarabi goat is mainly BD(73%) and a reduced population of AC(27%), and for Barki goats is BD (73%) [59]. Therefore, using molecular markers to select those parents with A or B genotype and then identify in the offspring those with AA, BB or AB genotype, could help to adders crossbreeding strategies between Barki and Zaraibi or Damascus goats to improve the genetic background of the selected herd keeping only those kids with the AA genotype for milk production, shown in **Figure 3**.

Another interesting dairy goat from dryer zones is the Indian Beetal goat (**Figure 2**). Its lactation curve showed a milk yield of 1.2–1.3 kg/day according to the parity and doe age [60], and its milk has been used for yogurt production with good sensory and nutritional characteristics [20]. The Beetal goat, together with Kutchi and Jamunapari breeds are classified among the more productive dairy goats in India (**Figure 2**) [16] and considered a useful multipurpose goat for tropical and dry environments [34, 61]. Regarding the crossbreeding strategies, the crossbreed between Barbari and Beetal goat produced an offspring more productive than their parents [62]. The Barbari goat produced 0.886 kg for milk yield, meanwhile, the Barbari x Beetal crossed goat produced 1,045 kg for milk yield (**Table 1**) [63]. In the same way, a crossbreed between Beetal with Saanen or Alpine goats produced offspring with the same milk yield as Saanen and Alpine goats in tropical

#### **Figure 3.**

*Example of a crossbreeding strategy assisted by* β*-lactoglobulin molecular markers. Source: the figure developed by the authors.*

environments (291.4 kg vs. 303.1 kg), but with a shorter lactation period (230 days vs. 248.2 days) [22] (**Table 1**). That improvement was an advantage for local farmers because involve the same milk production but in a shortened period.

In other desert areas, the crossbreeding experiences using parental desert goat breeds and non-desert dairy goats have given different results. However, these studies have shown inconsistency in the parity, milking frequency per day, feed conditions, lactation stage, and environmental factors, making it difficult to do a fair comparative analysis between them. For example, in Sudan, the crossbred Saanen-Nubian goat produced 1.2 L (≈ 1.3 kg) per day and with only one milking per day (**Table 1**), with limited food, and during the second lactation period [21], while in a similar experience applying the same crossbreeding strategy (Saanen-Nubian) had an offspring able of produced 2.55 kg for daily milk yield during the second lactation period and increasing to 3.37 kg for milk yield in the third lactation period [23]. In this last study, the pure parental Saanen and Nubian breed animals produced 0.67 and 0.73 kg of milk daily, evidencing the detrimental effect of the heat stress on their milk production, and suggesting that the off spring have acquired the best adaptative traits from their Saanen and Namibia goat parental to produce high milk yield in the desert and arid conditions.

Another good experience was reported for a crossbreeding between the Sahelian and Anglo-Nubian goats. The offspring produced 1.37 kg milk per day, while the Sahelian goats only produce 0.74 kg/day, half of the hybrid milk production. Besides, this hybrid crossbred goat increased their milk quality from 4.7% to 5.8% for total lipids concentration and from 3.9% to 4.1% for total protein contents [64]. On the contrary, in Iran, the crossbreeding between local goat Mamasani and Saanen breed had a progeny able to produce 1.31 kg of milk per day, the double volume produced by the local Mamasani goat (0.65 kg per day) (**Table 1**). However, this progeny produced low-quality milk with reduced fat-protein contents, changing the expected 4.8% to 4.1% of fat and protein contents from 3.9% to 3.6%, respectively [24]. In Albania, the crossbreed goat between Alpine and local goats produced 30% more milk than native goats, but still was half of the milk yield of the Alpine breed and the milk quality was not evaluated [25].

#### *Goat Type Selection and Molecular Markers; a Solution for Milk Production in Recently... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99346*

In consequence, a great diversity of goat breeds well adapted for arid and desert zones are good candidates for crossbreeding plans addressed to improve the goal milk yield of the herd. However, each crossbreeding plan has to be meticulously planned and executed because diverse experiences have shown different results, some of them very successfully but others barely succeed.

#### **3.3 The creole goats in dairy goat farming; an unexplored type**

Creole goats arrives with the colonizers and was adapted to the local environment across the centuries. Genetic studies based on the polymorphism of microsatellite markers were done on goats located across the American continent and their results show that creole goat comes from Iberia and Africa and are geographically clustered [65, 66]. Their origin started in Veracruz (Mexico) and goes in three directions; to the North, to Central America passing through Panama and to the Vice Kingdom of Peru, and then to Argentina [67]. Meanwhile, the Portuguese introduced the goat in Brazil, explaining this particular genetic cluster differentiated from the rest of America [65, 66].

The Creole geographical cluster has a low diversity due to the inbreed tendency among farmers that introduced goats during the 19th century to increase the goat farming production according to European breeding programs [65]. Nevertheless, between geographically groups their different origin and admixture with different parental populations contribute to producing a high significant genetic distance among Creole groups (distance 0.16), compared with the genetic distance observed between Iberian Groups (0.05) and African groups (0.11) [66]. This genetic distance also reflects the differences regarding the adaptation against different geographic environmental conditions such as dry, hot, wet, or moisture places, selecting a goat breed well adapted to local conditions [65, 66]. Therefore, these Creole goats represent an underestimated genetic patrimony that changes according to the geographic distribution and with the threat to be lost due to the transboundary practices that replace the creole goat with common dairy goats in modern goat farming practices [66].

In Northern Chile in desert and arid zones the creole goats (**Figure 2**) were introduced by Spanish conquers during the XVI century and used with multi-purpose uses [68]. Throughout Chilean history, these goats were admixed with others breeds without any record and breeding plan, raising a broad diversity among Chilean creole goats [69]. In desert and arid zones, the Chilean creole goats are a robust animal, resistant to diseases, and adapted to pastoring with longer walks distances until reach the foods [69]. However, they have low milk yield of 0.2–0.9 kg/ day in comparison with the milk production by Saanen goat of 1.0–2.3 kg/day under the same husbandry conditions, and the crossbreeding between Saanem and creole goats had an offspring able to produce 0.6–1.6 kg/day improving the genetic background of Chilean creole goats (**Table 1**) [70]. In the same way, the indigenous goats that live in Nigeria such as Sahel, Red Sokoto, and West African Dwarf have low milk yield between 0.3–0.5 kg/day (**Table 1**) being historically breeding for multi-purpose [26, 49]. For that reason, the creole or native goats are usually prejudged as low milk producers but without any serious studies that determine the milk yield under intensive breeding conditions.

In Greece, Italy, and India, genetics studies using molecular markers on casein genes as genetic markers for milk production, found a good potentiality for milk production in creole goats, proposing an affordable alternative for local goat farming [27, 71]. In Mexico, a study demonstrated that the milk yield of creole goats changes from 0.65 kg/day to 1.14 kg/day just moving from pasturing farming to stalled management and improved diet [72]. Thus, the potential of native and

creole goats in dry local areas is still an unexplored field, and more studies about their milk yield under intensive husbandry conditions in desert and arid zones is still pending.

### **4. Goat milk quality**

### **4.1 Benefits of goat Milk**

Milk is a supplementary food from livestock animals like cows, goats, donkeys, and other mammals, and also is considered a rich source of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and immune defense factors [28]. Cow milk is the most demanded by consumers, but goat milk has better nutritional properties enriched in vitamin A, riboflavin, growth factors, and lipids of short-chain such as; capric, caproic, and caprylic acids [28]. These lipids have better dissolution properties for serum cholesterol preventing coronary disease, cystic fibrosis, and gallstone, and can reduce body weight by promoting lipid oxidation, reducing lipogenesis, and increasing the synthesis of ketonic bodies [73]. Finally, goat milk is easily digested because has more dispersive bulbs and is recommended for milk allergic individuals for their reduced content or even lacks α-casein protein [28, 74].

#### **4.2 Goat Milk quality**

The goat milk quality is expressed in terms of sanitary, dietetic, nutritional, and technological properties, and evaluated according to their gustative, rheological, gastronomic, and hedonic features [75]. In general, the milk quality is determined according to the content of protein, lipid, and carbohydrates, among other parameters, and these concentrations are crucial for cheese production. The cheese yield depends on the protein content, while the texture, fineness, flavor, taste, and nutritional value is depending on the content of fatty acids and lipo-vitamins [75]. Environmental stress can affect the goat milk quality that finally affects the cheese quality. Saanen goats exposed to heat stress have low-quality milk with a low content of fat, protein, non-fat dry matter, and lactose [37]. However, with just a few adjustments the milk quality can be improved. The lipid profile can be modified according to the diet contents and management procedures, but protein concentration is more dependable on goat genetic background [46, 75–78]. In a study with Saanen goats, the milk quality was improved after the introduction of a diet based on stoned olive cake silage modified with a lipid profile [79]. Meanwhile, in Creole goat, a new integral diet (1 kg) increases in 6% the protein and lactose content and 200% the milk volume [72]. Alpine goat fed with a diet based on alfalfa hay with different quality plus concentrates pellets did not change the total protein or casein milk concentration but modified the lipids and lactose concentration according to the diet used [80].

These fluctuations in the milk protein and lipid concentration according to diets used may be explained in terms of the relationship between the doe and the kid. In general, proteins are crucial for kid nutrition and their milk concentration remains constant adjusting protein synthesis according to the food intake rate [81]. Meanwhile, lipid content and lipid profile are dependable on gene expression and metabolic activity, and are controlled by metabolic precursors and hormones added to diets or promoted by nutritional factors that modified the rumen microflora activity [82]. In fact, the goat lipids metabolism is more complex than expected. A recent study about gene expression in mammary gland cells during a diet improvement demonstrated that lipid profiles change according to the gene expression of

the protein associated with goat metabolism and protein transport, instead of genes directly related to lipids synthesis [83]. This observation encourages to do more studies to understand these correlations and the links among lipid metabolism, genetic polymorphism, and diet composition, and how this can affect the milk lipid content.

### **5. Molecular markers for dairy goats**

### **5.1 General characteristic of domestic goats**

The domestic goat is a livestock animal with attractive properties. A comparative genomic study reveals major differences between domestic goat breeds and their ancestor *C. aegagrus*, related to coat color, which is more uniform in domestic goats, and genes linked to the immune system, behavior, and reproduction, which are features related to domestication practices [84]. In another study, the complete genome annotation of a female Yunnan black goat using whole-genome optical mapping methodology found common characteristics with cattle, but more efficiency for milk secretion in goats, due to the presence of genes related to Prolactin hormone and its metabolism. Besides, an expansion in genes related to the olfactory receptor gene subfamilies was observed in goats and linked to the historical selection of a broad spectrum of forage during the expansion of goat farming. Finally, another remarkable fact is that the goat immune system has a Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) highly conserved with sheep and humans, suggesting an interesting animal model for immunological studies [85].

Transcriptomics analysis reveals interesting traits in goat breed for goat farming activities. In the Inner Mongolia Cashmere goats, the transcriptomic analysis reveals the expression of genes related to keratin and keratin-associated proteins of the primary and secondary hair follicles tissue that were directly associated with the goat hair phenotype [85]. Later, a gene knockout by CRISP/Cas9 technology produced modified Cashmere goats that express long secondary hair [86]. In Alpine goats, a similar transcriptomic study but using a cow microarray (there was no goat genome array available at that time) identified the gene expression associated with the animal response against food deprivation. Under this food poor condition, the milk yield was reduced to 16%, and the lactose, protein, and lipids concentration was reduced to 10%, 25%, and 45%, respectively [36]. These changes provoke a downregulation of many genes in the mammary gland cells, and some of them corresponded to casein genes, cell proliferation gene, and estrogen receptor gene, among others [36]. In this way, was possible to associate the gene expression with milk production, although still needs to be confirmed with other studies. Currently, there is a wide technology accessible to afford this challenge like those used to produce transgenic goats to synthesize human lysozyme or spider web protein and released through the milk [87, 88]. Therefore, the technology is available for improvements in goat milk production to move forward goat farming activity to produce a high volume of milk with high quality in arid and desert zones.

### **5.2 αS1, αS2, β, and** Κ**-casein polymorphism**

The most abundant milk proteins are: αs1(CSN1S1), αs2 (CSN1S2), β (CSN2) and κ-casein (CSN3), β-lactoglobulin (BLG), and α-lactalbumin (LALBA) and they represent 95% of the total protein content in ruminant milk [89]. These proteins are encoded on chromosome 6 in a segment of 250 kbps [90], have different posttranslation modification [91], and their milk concentration changes according to the gene expression of these casein genes [92].

These casein genes have a polymorphism within the same breed [93] and among diverse breeds [27, 90], and this biodiversity might impact the goat milk quality and milk properties in term of their role with the immune system, nutritional quality, and as raw material to produce other products derived from milk [91].

The most stronger correlation between casein polymorphism and milk quality has been described for the αS1-casein gene [89, 94, 95]. This gene has 18 alleles (represented as a capital letter) and is phenotypically grouped as "strong" with a milk yield of 3,6 g/L (A, B1, B2, B3, B4, C, H, L, M), "intermediate" with milk yield of 1.6 g/L (E, I), "weak" with milk yield of 0.6 g/L (F, G), and "null" because did not synthesize the αS1-casein protein (N, O1, O2, ON) [94, 95]. In the Sicilian goat breed Girgentana and Argentata dell etna, the "strong" alleles were identified as homozygote or heterozygote with null allele [27]. In Spanish goats, the most predominant alleles were B and E, while other goats showed different heterozygosity; Murciana-Granadina (B, E), Malagueña (E), Payoya (B, E), Canaria-Palmera (A, B), Canaria-Majorera (B, E, D + O), and Canaria-Tinerfeña (B, E, D + O) [96]. In the Malagueña goat breed, the BB genotype produces 6.94 g/L, meanwhile, EE phenotype produces 4.58 g/L [96]. In Girgentana goats, the genotypes AA not only produce more casein protein in milk (43.4 g/day) than FF genotype (25.4 g/day) but also more milk volume (1.419 kg of milk per day) than the FF (1.014 kg of milk per day) after improvements in diet nutrition [97].

Saanen and Alpine goats with the AF genotype produced more αS1-casein protein in milk than the FF genotype (4.26 g/L vs. 1.21 g/L) [98]. Meanwhile, in another study on dairy French Saanen and Alpine goats, the αS1-casein polymorphism predicted the fat and protein content but was influenced by the goat gender [99]. The authors also found that almost 65% of the Saanen goats studied were AA and AE genotypes, being biallelic for the αS1-casein gene [94]. Future studies that apply molecular techniques like PCR to identify αS1-casein polymorphism in Saanen goats, may validate the biallelic tendency, and impulse improvements in milk goat farming through selective crossbreeding strategies [99].

In the West Africa goats such as; Borno, Red Sokoto, and West African Dwarf Cameroon the most frequent alleles found are B and B′, while in the Nigerian Dwarf breed was the A, B, and B′ alleles [100]. Thus, the natural segregation for high milk production by goat farmers has promoted the dominance of certain strong and intermedia alleles in the goat herd.

Polymorphism in αs2-casein have seven alleles with three different gene expression levels: A, B, C, E and F, associated with a high expression of αs2-casein (2.5 kg/l); D allele with moderate expression (1.25 kg/l) and O (null) allele with no expression and undetected αs2-casein content [101, 102], but still inducing an allergic reaction for those people immune sensitive to milk casein proteins [103].

Variations in the β-casein gene (CSN2) locus involves ten alleles with different gene expression. Alleles A, A1, C1, E, O, O′, D, F, C, and B that has been identified from the cDNA analysis, using MS analysis, and from the electrophoretic pattern [104]. The C and F alleles are associated with low concentration or traces of β-casein protein in milk due to mutation that makes an unstable mRNA that finally reduces the protein content [104]. In consequence, this milk with low content of casein is the best option to produce infant milk formula for those kids with restricted acces to milk products due to their cow milk allergies [105].

In the case of the kappa-casein gene (CSN3), up to 21 allelic variants has been described, and according to their isoelectric point they are separated into two groups, AIEF (A, B, B´, B´´, C, C´, F, G, H, I, J, L,) and BIEF (D, E, K, M, N, O, P, Q, and R) [106]. This last group shows differences in their milk protein content according to the genotype, and the BB alleles are those with higher content of

#### *Goat Type Selection and Molecular Markers; a Solution for Milk Production in Recently... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99346*

casein in the goat milk with a 2.98% [107]. In the Murciano-Granadina goat, the BB genotype had an effect on the rennet coagulation time evidencing the important role of Κ-casein in cheese production [104]. Therefore, these reports evidence the importance in identify the Κ-casein genotype in the herd to find the best goats for goat cheese production.

### **5.3 Single nucleotide polymorphism**

The genetic polymorphism of genes related to protein content in goat milk is not only limited to casein genes. The molecular technique denominated KAS PCR (Kompetitive Allele Specific PCR) was applied on 40 genes previously identifies as molecular markers and includes; caseins genes, genes related to the immune systems, growth, proliferation, and milk production [108]. The study analyzes 48 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) present across these 40 genes encoded in the genome of Alpine and Saanen goats. The study found 13 polymorphic SNPs and 4 of them were directly associated with the protein, fat, and lactose milk content. These 4 SNPs encode two interleukins receptors (Il1RN, IL15RA), one suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOC3), and a growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor (GHRHR) [108]. In this way, these casein genes and other molecular markers are currently used to study milk yield in dairy goats.

The SNPs technology consists in analyze a single nucleotide change (transition or transversion) present in a small region of selected loci in both chromosomes to identify a genotype classified as homo or heterozygous [109]. The uses of SNPs analysis in conjunction with massive sequencing or arrays technologies allow analyze hundreds or even thousands of polymorphic genes and correlated them with a specific phenotype [109]. The SNPs analysis has been successfully used in collaboration with the International Goat Genome Consortium (www.goatgenome.org) and the data reported by diverse researchers in the field have been able of creating a 52 K SNP CHIP that detects more than 50,000 SNPs in diverse goats breed [110]. The CHIP was constructed using diverse breeds as references, including milk representative types such as Saanen, Alpine, LaMancha, and Toggenburg breed, and as a meat representative to Boer and Rangeland breed, and as milk-meat representative to Nubian goat breed. Thus, the CHIP technology can be applied to diverse goat breeds, including mixed-breed [111, 112]. The CHIP allows the understanding of genetic diversity among goat breeds and their relationship with a specific productive trait [111]. In South Africa for instance, a study used the 52 K CHIP to analyzes genetically the most local representative breeds and correlated them with their adaptation characteristic to different environments. That study identified many SNPs associated with the geographical distribution and physiological adaptation to local environments [113]. A total of 205 pathways were identified after the analysis of 474 adaptive genes with significant SNPs classification. The temperature was a selective environmental factor for the most adaptive animal, and several genes linked to heat stress responses, circadian rhythms, and vascular smooth contraction were involved in this natural selection [114]. That describes a more efficient metabolism to adsorbed nutrients from food with low nutritional value, and efficient use of water sources, reducing the water loss released through the urine and feces [114]. Besides, these goats encoded genes related to better resistance against disease in comparison with other non-desert goats [114]. All these features are consistent with previous physiological studies on the goat that habitat in desert zones [31]. For example, a goat adapted for harsh environments has a small body with a high efficient metabolism rate and a functional rumen adapted to obtain a high amount of nutrients from low-grade nutritional foods [31]. Also, a desert goat can perform

a high efficient nitrogen recycling system and water recycling system, allowing survival for long periods with limited sources of water and foods [31, 115]. In consequence, although for a traditional goat farmer a desert goat could look smaller and thinner than a highly efficient dairy goat, they still can produce high-quality milk under restricted diet conditions. This is important because dairy goats well adapted to arid and desert zones will not require expensive investments in farming management to improve their milk yield. The achievement of this goal supported by molecular makers and techniques currently available, would allow to afford the next challenge for goat farming in arid and desert zones, to produce high volume of high-quality milk in a current climate change scenario.

### **6. Conclusion**

In conclusion, goats are extraordinary farming animals capable of being productive under harsher conditions, because the origin of this species comes from the middle east, a place with limited conditions to sustain life. The expansive goat dispersion across the globe associated with human migration along the centuries has generated a genetical richness superior to any other livestock farming animals, allowing its uses as a multi-purpose animal. Taking advantage of this biological diversity and current knowledge about goat physiology and genomic expression, today is possible to create crossbreeding plan that introduces goats bred from the Middle East, India, or even creole goat to produce hybrid offspring well adapted to dry or drought environments and still produce a high volume of high-quality milk. The advances and discovery of new molecular markers associated with milk yield can support breeding plan through the selection of the best parents and offspring to improve the herd genetic background and overcome the nutritional deficiency and heat stress conditions to produce high-quality milk in lands affected by desertification and without major changes in the goat farming management conditions.

### **Acknowledgements**

The authors acknowledge to the doctoral program of *Agricultura para Ambientes Áridos y Desérticos* of Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, Arturo Prat University. Juan Scopinich-Cisternas is financed by a doctoral scholarship from this doctoral program.

### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Goat Type Selection and Molecular Markers; a Solution for Milk Production in Recently... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99346*

### **Author details**

Erwin Strahsburger1 \* and Juan Scopinich-Cisternas2

1 Faculty of Medicine, University of Atacama, Copiapo City, Chile

2 Fellow from Doctoral Program of Agriculture in Desert and Arid Zones, of the Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, Arturo Prat University, Iquique City, Chile

\*Address all correspondence to: erwin.strahsburger@uda.cl

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **References**

[1] Chen J, Dahlin MJ, Luuppala L, Bickford D, Boljka L, Burns V, et al. Air Pollution and Climate Change: Sustainability, Restoration, and Ethical Implications. Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology. 2020. 1-48 p.

[2] Rust JM, Rust T. Climate change and livestock production: A review with emphasis on Africa. South African J Anim Sci. 2013;43(3):256-267.

[3] Scopinich-Cisternas J, Strahsburger E. Goat type: The key factor to produce goat milk with economic profitable purpose in arid and desert zones. Idesia. 2019;37(4):122-123.

[4] Scopinich-Cisternas J, Strahsburger E. The goat farming management for arid and desert zones: A technical approach to produce high quality milk during all the year. Idesia. 2020;38(1):119-125.

[5] Feleke FB, Berhe M, Gebru G, Hoag D. Determinants of adaptation choices to climate change by sheep and goat farmers in Northern Ethiopia: the case of Southern and Central Tigray, Ethiopia. Springerplus. 2016;5(1).

[6] Houghton R, Connors S, Krinner G. Land | Ch2: Land–climate interactions. IPCC Rep. 2019;131-248.

[7] Rashamol VP, Sejian V, Bagath M, Krishnan G, Archana PR, Bhatta R. Physiological adaptability of livestock to heat stress: an updated review. J Anim Behav Biometeorol. 2018;6(3):62-71.

[8] Koluman Darcan N, Silanikove N. The advantages of goats for future adaptation to Climate Change: A conceptual overview. Small Rumin Res. 2018;163(February 2017):34-38.

[9] Amills M, Capote J, Tosser-Klopp G. Goat domestication and breeding: a

jigsaw of historical, biological and molecular data with missing pieces. Anim Genet. 2017;48(6):631-644.

[10] Amills M, Ramírez O, Tomàs A, Badaoui B, Marmi J, Acosta J, et al. Mitochondrial DNA diversity and origins of South and central American goats. Anim Genet. 2009;40(3):315-322.

[11] Pidancier N, Jordan S, Luikart G, Taberlet P. Evolutionary history of the genus Capra (Mammalia, Artiodactyla): Discordance between mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome phylogenies. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2006;40:739-749.

[12] Luikart G, Gielly L, Excoffier L, Vigne J-DD, Bouvet J, Taberlet P. Multiple maternal origins and weak phylogeographic structure in domestic goats. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98(10):5927-5932.

[13] Alberto FJ, Orozco-terwengel P, Streeter I, Villemereuil P De, Benjelloun B, Librado P, et al. Convergent genomic signatures of domestication in sheep and goats. Nat Commun. 2018;9(813):1-9.

[14] Ollivier L, Foulley JL. Aggregate diversity: New approach combining within- and between-breed genetic diversity. Livest Prod Sci. 2005;95(3): 247-254.

[15] Shkolnik A, Maltz E, Gordin. S. Desert conditions and goat milk production. J Dairy Sci,. 1980;63(10): 1749-1754.

[16] Serradilla JM. Use of high yielding goat breeds for milk production. Livest Prod Sci. 2001;71(1):59-73.

[17] Nziku ZC, Kifaro GC, Eik LO, Steine T, Ådnøy T. Reasons for keeping dairy goats in Tanzania, and possible goals for a sustainable breeding

*Goat Type Selection and Molecular Markers; a Solution for Milk Production in Recently... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99346*

program. Anim Prod Sci. 2017;57(2):338-346.

[18] Kim ES, Elbeltagy AR, Aboul-Naga AM, Rischkowsky B, Sayre B, Mwacharo JM, et al. Multiple genomic signatures of selection in goats and sheep indigenous to a hot arid environment. Heredity (Edinb) [Internet]. 2016;116(3):255-264. Available from: http://dx.doi. org/10.1038/hdy.2015.94

[19] Kahilo K, El-Shazly S, El-Khadrawy A, Fattouh I. Genetic Polymorphism in β-lactoglobulin Gene of Some Goat Breeds in Egypt and its Influence on Milk Yield. Life Sci J. 2014;11(10):232-238.

[20] Kumar S, Guru M, Dev A, Science A, Panwar H, Angad G, et al. Evaluation of quality of yoghurt prepared from goat milk of Beetal breed. Indian J Dairy Sci. 2018;7(1):54-60.

[21] EI Gadir MEA, EI Zubeir IEM. Production performance of crossbred(saanen and Nubian) goats in the second kidding under sudan condition. Pakistan J Biol Sci. 2005;8(5): 734-739.

[22] Shelton M. Breed Use and Crossbreeding in Goat Production. 3rd World Congr Genet Appl to Livest Prod. 1986;4:523-532.

[23] Gol MY. Evaluation of Some Productive Traits and Milk Composition of Goats in Khartoum State [Internet]. University of Khartoum, Sudan.; 2015. Available from: http://khartoumspace. uofk.edu/handle/123456789/13993

[24] Hosseini SM, Yang LG, Abbas Raza SH, Khan R, Kalantar M, Syed SF, et al. Comparison of Weight Gain, Milk Production, and Milk Composition of Iranian Mamasani Goat and its Cross with Saanen. J Vet Sci Anim Husb [Internet]. 2017;5(2):203. Available

from: http://www.annexpublishers.co/ full-text/JVSAH/5203/Comparison-of-Weight-Gain-Milk-Production-and-Milk-Composition-of-Iranian-Mamasani-Goat-and-its-Cross-with-Saanen.php

[25] Kume K, Papa L, Hajno L. Effects on milk production in F 1 crossbred of Alpine goat breed (♂) and albanian goat breed (♀). Ital J Anim Sci. 2012;11(3):258-261.

[26] Egwu GO, Onyeyili PA, Chibuzo GA, Ameh JA. Improved productivity of goats and utilisation of goat milk in Nigeria. Small Rumin Res. 1995;16(3):195-201.

[27] Marletta D, Bordonaro S, Guastella AM, Criscione A, D'Urso G. Genetic polymorphism of the calcium sensitive caseins in sicilian Girgentana and Argentata dell'Etna goat breeds. Small Rumin Res. 2005;57(2-3):133-139.

[28] Turkmen N. The Nutritional Value and Health Benefits of Goat Milk Components. In: Watson RR, Collier RJ, Preedy V, editors. Nutrients in Dairy and Their Implications for Health and Disease [Internet]. 2017th ed. London: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 441-449. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ B978-0-12-809762-5.00035-8

[29] Gabas AL, Alexandre R, Cabral F, Augusto C, Oliveira F De, Telis-romero J. Density and Rheological Parameters of Goat Milk. Cienc e Tecnol Aliment. 2012;32(2):381-385.

[30] Haenlein GFW. About the evolution of goat and sheep milk production. Small Rumin Res. 2007;68(1-2):3-6.

[31] Silanikove N. The physiological basis of adaptation in goats to harsh environments. Small Ruminant Research. 2000.

[32] Knights M, Garcia GW. The status and characteristics of the goat (Capra

hircus) and its potential role as a significant milk producer in the tropics: A review. Small Rumin Res. 1997;26(3): 203-215.

[33] Olave J, Canales T, Meneses R. Introducción de cabras lecheras saanen a la pampa del tamarugal para el mejoramiento del ganado local. Bol INIA [Internet]. 2009;197:130-134. Available from: http://www2.inia.cl/ medios/biblioteca/boletines/ NR36706.pdf

[34] Devendra C. Milk Production in Goats Compared to Buffalo and Cattle in Humid Tropics. J Dairy Sci [Internet]. 1980;63(10):1755-1767. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds. S0022-0302(80)83135-3

[35] Salama AAK, Caja G, Hamzaoui S, Badaoui B, Castro-Costa A, Façanha DAE, et al. Different levels of response to heat stress in dairy goats. Small Rumin Res. 2014;121(1):73-79.

[36] Jyotiranjan T, Mohapatra S, Mishra C, Dalai N, Kundu AK. Heat tolerance in goat-A genetic update. Th Pharma Innov J. 2017;6(9):237-245.

[37] Kljajevic N V., Tomasevic IB, Miloradovic ZN, Nedeljkovic A, Miocinovic JB, Jovanovic ST. Seasonal variations of Saanen goat milk composition and the impact of climatic conditions. J Food Sci Technol. 2018;55(1):299-303.

[38] Lallo CHO, Paul I, Bourne G. Thermoregulation and performance of British Anglo-Nubian and Saanen goats reared in an intensive system in Trinidad. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2012;44(3):491-496.

[39] Ince D. Reproduction performance of Saanen goats raised under extensive conditions. African J Biotechnol. 2010;9(48):8253-8256.

[40] Houston J. Variability of Precipitation In The Atacama Desert: Its Causes And Hydrological Impact. Int J Climatol. 2006;26:2181-2198.

[41] Clarke JDA. Antiquity of aridity in the Chilean Atacama Desert. Geomorphology. 2006;73(1-2):101-114.

[42] Viguier B, Jourde H, Yáñez G, Lira ES, Leonardi V, Moya CE, et al. Multidisciplinary study for the assessment of the geometry, boundaries and preferential recharge zones of an overexploited aquifer in the Atacama Desert (Pampa del Tamarugal, Northern Chile). J South Am Earth Sci [Internet]. 2018;86:366-83. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jsames.2018.05.018

[43] Jayne RS, Pollyea RM, Dodd JP, Olson EJ, Swanson SK. Contraintes spatiales et temporelles sur l'écoulement régional des eaux souterraines dans la pampa du bassin du Tamarugal, désert d'Atacama, Chili. Hydrogeol J. 2016;24(8):1921-1937.

[44] Chávez RO, Clevers JGPW, Decuyper M, de Bruin S, Herold M. 50 years of water extraction in the Pampa del Tamarugal basin: Can Prosopis tamarugo trees survive in the hyper-arid Atacama Desert (Northern Chile)? J Arid Environ. 2016;124:292-303.

[45] Gomes de Lima L, Oliveira N, Rodrigues R, Araujo B, Thayse L, De Morales K, et al. Advances in Molecular Genetic Techniques applied to Selection for Litter Size in Goats (Capra hircus): a review. J Appl Anim Resarch. 2020;48(1):38-44.

[46] Goetsch A L, Zeng SS, Gipson TA. Factors affecting goat milk production and quality. Small Rumin Res. 2011;101:55-63.

[47] Hayden TJ, Thomas CR, Forsyth IA. Effect of Number of Young Born (Litter Size) on Milk Yield of Goats: Role for Placental Lactogen. J Dairy Sci [Internet]. 1979;62(1):53-57. Available

*Goat Type Selection and Molecular Markers; a Solution for Milk Production in Recently... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99346*

from: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds. S0022-0302(79)83201-4

[48] Ayalew W, King JM, Bruns E, Rischkowsky B. Economic evaluation of smallholder subsistence livestock production: Lessons from an Ethiopian goat development program. Ecol Econ. 2003;45(3):473-485.

[49] Escareño L, Salinas-Gonzalez H, Wurzinger M, Iñiguez L, Sölkner J, Meza-Herrera C. Dairy goat production systems: Status quo, perspectives and challenges. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2012;45(1):17-34.

[50] Maltz E, Shkolnik A. Milk Production in the Desert: Lactation and Water Economy in the Black Bedouin Goat. Physiol Zool. 1980;53(1):12-18.

[51] Maltz E, Shkolnik A. Milk Production in the Desert : Lactation and Water Economy in the Black Bedouin Goat. Physiol Zool [Internet]. 1980;53(1):12-18. Available from: http:// www.jstor.org/stable/30155770

[52] Silanikove N. Effect of dehydration on feed intake and dry matter digestibility in desert (black bedouin) and non-desert (Swiss saanen) goats fed on lucerne hay. Comp Biochem Physiol -- Part A Physiol. 1985;80(3):449-452.

[53] Maltz E, Shkolnik A. Milk composition and yeild of the black bedouin goat during dehydration and rehydration. JDairy Res. 1984;51(August 1979):23-27.

[54] Al-Atiyat RM. Genetic diversity analyses of tropical goats from some countries of Middle East. Genet Mol Res. 2017;16(3):1-13.

[55] Al-Samawi KA, Al-Hassan MJ, Swelum AA. Thermoregulation of female Aardi goats exposed to environmental heat stress in Saudi Arabia. Indian J Anim Res. 2014;48(4):344-349.

[56] Aljumaah RS. Simulated genetic gain of a close breeding program for Ardi goat in Saudi Arabia. J Saudi Soc Agric Sci [Internet]. 2019;18(4):418-22. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jssas.2018.02.001

[57] Kamal El-den M, Mohammed K, Dahmoush A. Genetic evaluation of milk yield and milk composition of Saudi Aradi and Damascus goats. Arch Agric Sci J. 2020;3(2):118-126.

[58] Shrestha JNB, Fahmy MH. Breeding goats for meat production. 2. Crossbreeding and formation of composite population. Small Rumin Res. 2007;67(2-3):93-112.

[59] Ahmed S, Othman E. Genotyping Analysis of Milk Protein Genes in Different Goat Breeds Reared in Egypt. J Genet Eng Biotechnol. 2009;7(2):33-39.

[60] Waheed A, Khan M. Lactation curve of Beetal goats in Pakistan. Arch Tierzucht [Internet]. 2013;56(89):892- 898. Available from: http://doi.fbndummerstorf.de/2013/at56a089.pdf

[61] Devendra C. Sustainable small rumiant production system in asia. Proc The4th ISTAP"Animal Prod Sustain Agric Trop. 2006;18-36.

[62] Prasad H, Sengar OPS. Milk yield and composition of the beetal breed and their crosses with Jamunapari, Barbari and Black Bengal breeds of goat. Small Rumin Res. 2002;45:79-83.

[63] Prasad H, Tewari HA, Sengar OPS. Milk yield and composition of the beetal breed and their crosses with Jamunapari, Barbari and Black Bengal breeds of goat. Small Rumin Res. 2005;58(2):195-199.

[64] Sanogo S, Shaker MM, Nantoumé H, Salem AFZM. Milk yield and composition of crossbred Sahelian × Anglo-Nubian goats in the semiintensive system in Mali during the

preweaning period. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2012;45(1):305-310.

[65] Ginja C, Gama LT, Martínez A, Sevane N, Martin-Burriel I, Lanari MR, et al. Genetic diversity and patterns of population structure in Creole goats from the Americas. Anim Genet. 2017;48(3):315-329.

[66] Sevane N, Cortés O, Gama LT, Martínez A, Zaragoza P, Amills M, et al. Dissection of ancestral genetic contributions to Creole goat populations. Animal [Internet]. 2018;12(10):2017-2026. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1751731117 003627

[67] Primo A. El ganado bovino ibérico en las Américas: 500 años después. Arch Zootec. 1992;41(154):13.

[68] Contreras C, Meneses R, Cofré P. Cabra Criolla [Internet]. Boletin IN. Mujica F, editor. Razas ovinas y caprinas en el Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias. Osorno: Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias; 2004. 77-80. p. Available from: www2.inia.cl/ medios/biblioteca/boletines/ NR32226.pdf

[69] Contreras C, Meneses R, Romero O, Cofré P. Razas caprinas para zonas aridas y semiaridas de Chile. Tierra Adentro. 2001;41:63-80.

[70] Jahn E. Producción de leche con distintos genotipos de cabras. In: Cofre B P, editor. Boletin INIA No 66, Produccion de Cabras Lecheras [Internet]. Instituto. Chillan, Chile: INIA, Minsterio de Agricultura, Chile.; 2001. p. 109-120. Available from: http:// www2.inia.cl/medios/biblioteca/ boletines/NR28598.pdf

[71] Kumar A, Rout PK, Mandal A, Roy R. Identification of the CSN1S1 allele in Indian goats by the PCR-RFLP method. Animal. 2007;1(8):1099-1104. [72] Maldonado-Jaquez JA, Granados-Rivera LD, Hernandez-Mendo O, Pastor-Lopez FJ, Isidro-Requejo LM, Salinas-Gonzalez H, et al. Use of total mixed ration as supplement in grazing local goats : Milk production response and chemical composition. Nov Sci. 2017;9(1):55-75.

[73] Park YW, Juarez M, Ramos M, Haenlein GF. Rheological characteristics of goat and sheep milk. Small Rumin Res. 2007;68:88-113.

[74] Kondyli E, Svarnas C, Samelis J, Katsiari MC. Chemical composition and microbiological quality of ewe and goat milk of native Greek breeds. Small Rumin Res [Internet]. 2012;103(2- 3):194-199. Available from: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres. 2011.09.043

[75] Morand-Fehr P, Fedele V, Decandia M, Le Frileux Y. Influence of farming and feeding systems on composition and quality of goat and sheep milk. Small Rumin Res. 2007;68:20-34.

[76] Martin P, Szymanowska M, Zwierzchowski L, Leroux C. The impact of genetic polymorphisms on the protein composition of ruminant milks. Reprod Nutr Dev. 2002;42: 433-459.

[77] Catota-Gómez LD, Parra-Bracamonte GM, Cienfuegos-Rivas EG, Hernández-Meléndez J, Sifuentes-Rincón AM, Martínez-González JC. Frequency and association of polymorphisms in CSN3 gene with milk yield and composition in Saanen goats. Ecosistemas y Recur Agropecu [Internet]. 2017;4(12):411-417. Available from: http://era.ujat.mx/index.php/ rera/article/view/1165

[78] Yurchenko S, Sats A, Tatar V, Kaart T, Mootse H, Jõudu I. Fatty acid profile of milk from Saanen and

*Goat Type Selection and Molecular Markers; a Solution for Milk Production in Recently... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99346*

Swedish Landrace goats. Food Chem. 2018;254:326-332.

[79] Keles G, Yildiz-Akgul F, Kocaman V. Performance and milk composition of dairy goats as affected by the dietary level of stoned olive cake silages. Asian-Australasian J Anim Sci. 2017;30(3):363-369.

[80] Morand-Fehr P, Sauvant D. Composition and Yield of Goat Milk as Affected by Nutritional Manipulation. J Dairy Sci [Internet]. 1980;63(10):1671- 1680. Available from: http://linkinghub. elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/ S0022030280831298

[81] Fekadu B, Soryal K, Zeng S, Van Hekken D, Bah B, Villaquiran M. Changes in goat milk composition during lactation and their effect on yield and quality of hard and semi-hard cheeses. Small Rumin Res. 2005;59(1): 55-63.

[82] Toral PG, Bernard L, Belenguer A, Rouel J, Hervás G, Chilliard Y, et al. Comparison of ruminal lipid metabolism in dairy cows and goats fed diets supplemented with starch, plant oil, or fish oil. J Dairy Sci [Internet]. 2016;99(1):301-316. Available from: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/ pii/S0022030215008504

[83] Faulconnier Y, Bernard L, Boby C, Domagalski J, Chilliard Y, Leroux C. Extruded linseed alone or in combination with fish oil modifies mammary gene expression profiles in lactating goats. Animal [Internet]. 2017;1-12. Available from: https://www. cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/ S1751731117002816/type/journal\_article

[84] Dong Y, Zhang X, Xie M, Arefnezhad B, Wang Z, Wang W, et al. Reference genome of wild goat (Capra aegagrus) and sequencing of goat breeds provide insight into genic basis of goat domestication. BMC Genomics. 2015;16(1):1-11.

[85] Wang W, Dong Y, Xie M, Jiang Y, Xiao N, Du X, et al. Sequencing and automated whole-genome optical mapping of the genome of a domestic goat (Capra hircus). Nat Biotechnol. 2013;31(2):135-141.

[86] Wang X, Cai B, Zhou J, Zhu H, Niu Y, Ma B, et al. Disruption of FGF5 in cashmere goats using CRISPR/Cas9 results in more secondary hair follicles and longer fibers. PLoS One. 2016; 11(10):1-12.

[87] Service RF. Mammalian Cells Spin A Spidery New Yarn. Science (80- ). 2002;295(5554):419-421.

[88] Carneiro I de S, Menezes JNR de, Maia JA, Miranda AM, Oliveira VBS de, Murray JD, et al. Milk from transgenic goat expressing human lysozyme for recovery and treatment of gastrointestinal pathogens. Eur J Pharm Sci [Internet]. 2018;112(October 2017):79-86. Available from: https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ejps.2017.11.005

[89] Selvaggi M, Laudadio V, Dario C, Tufarelli V. Major proteins in goat milk: An updated overview on genetic variability. Mol Biol Rep. 2014;41(2): 1035-1048.

[90] Marletta D, Criscione A, Bordonaro S, Maria A, Urso GD, Marletta D, et al. Casein polymorphism in goat ' s milk To cite this version : HAL Id : hal-00895642 Casein polymorphism in goat ' s milk. Le Lait, INRA Ed. 2007;87(6):491-504.

[91] Rout PK, Verma M. Post translational modifications of milk proteins in geographically diverse goat breeds. Sci Rep [Internet]. 2021;11(1):1- 16. Available from: https://doi. org/10.1038/s41598-021-85094-9

[92] Boutinaud M, Rulquin H, Keisler DH, Djiane J, Jammes H. Use of somatic cells from goat milk for dynamic studies of gene expression in

the mammary gland. J Anim Sci. 2002;80(5):1258-1269.

[93] Hassan YA, Ibrahim MT, George E. Genetic polymorphism of Casein cluster in Sudan Nubian dairy goats. 1992;(Haenlein).

[94] Martin P, Bianchi L, Cebo C, Miranda G. Genetic Polymorphism of Milk Proteins. In: McSweeney PLH, Fox PF, editors. Advanced Dairy Chemistry: Volume 1A: Proteins: Basic Aspects, 4th Edition [Internet]. Boston, MA: Springer US; 2013. p. 463-514. Available from: https://doi. org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4714-6\_15

[95] Marletta D, Criscione A, Bordonaro S, Guastella AM, D'Urso G. Casein polymorphism in goat's milk. Lait [Internet]. 2007;87(6):491-504. Available from: http://www.lelaitjournal.org/10.1051/lait:2007034

[96] Caravaca F, Amills M, Jordana J, Angiolillo A, Agüera P, Aranda C, et al. Effect of αs1-casein (CSN1S1) genotype on milk CSN1S1 content in Malagueña and Murciano-Granadina goats. J Dairy Res. 2008;75(4):481-484.

[97] Pagano RI, Pennisi P, Valenti B, Lanza M, Di Trana A, Di Gregorio P, et al. Effect of CSN1S1 genotype and its interaction with diet energy level on milk production and quality in Girgentana goats fed ad libitum. J Dairy Res. 2010;77(2):245-251.

[98] Grosclaude F, Mahe M-F, Brignon G, Di Stasio L, Jeunet R. A Mendelian polymorphism underlying quantitative variations of goat alpha S1-Casein. Genet Sel Evol. 1987;19(4):399-412.

[99] Carillier-Jacquin C, Larroque H, Robert-Granié C. Including α s1 casein gene information in genomic evaluations of French dairy goats. Genet Sel Evol. 2016;48(1):1-13.

[100] Caroli A, Chiatti F, Chessa S, Rignanese D, Ibeagha-Awemu EM, Erhardt G. Characterization of the casein gene complex in west african goats and description of a new αs1- Casein polymorphism. J Dairy Sci [Internet]. 2007;90(6):2989-2996. Available from: http://linkinghub. elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022030 20770111X

[101] Ramunno L, Cosenza G, Pappalardo M, Longobardi E, Gallo D, Pastore N, et al. Characterization of two new alleles at the goat CSN1S2 locus. Anim Genet. 2001;32(5):264-268.

[102] Ramunno L, Longobardi E, Pappalardo M, Rando A, Di Gregorio P, Cosenza G, et al. An allele associated with a non-detectable amount of casein in of αS2 casein in goat milk. Anim Genet. 2001;32(1):19-26.

[103] Marletta D, Bordonaro S, Guastella AM, Falagiani P, Crimi N, D'Urso G. Goat milk with different αs2-casein content: Analysis of allergenic potency by REAST-inhibition assay. Small Rumin Res. 2004;52(1-2):19-24.

[104] Caravaca F, Ares JL, Carrizosa J, Urrutia B, Baena F, Jordana J, et al. Effects of αs1-casein (CSN1S1) and κ-casein (CSN3) genotypes on milk coagulation properties in Murciano-Granadina goats. J Dairy Res. 2011;78(1):32-37.

[105] Albenzio M, Campanozzi A, D'Apolito M, Santillo A, Mantovani MP, Sevi A. Differences in protein fraction from goat and cow milk and their role on cytokine production in children with cow's milk protein allergy. Small Rumin Res [Internet]. 2012;105(1-3):202-205. Available from: http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2012.02.018

[106] Prinzenberg EM, Gutscher K, Chessa S, Caroli A, Erhardt G. Caprine κ-casein (CSN3) polymorphism: New developments in molecular knowledge. J Dairy Sci [Internet].

*Goat Type Selection and Molecular Markers; a Solution for Milk Production in Recently... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99346*

2005;88(4):1490-1498. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds. S0022-0302(05)72817-4

[107] Chiatti F, Chessa S, Bolla P, Cigalino G, Caroli A, Pagnacco G. Effect of k-casein polymorphism on milk composition in the orobica goat. J Dairy Sci [Internet]. 2007;90(4):1962-1966. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10. 3168/jds.2006-508

[108] Kusza S, Loor J, Cziszter LT, Ilie DE, Sauer M, Padeanu I, et al. Kompetitive Allele Specific PCR (KASP TM) genotyping of 48 polymorphisms at different caprine loci in French Alpine and Saanen goat breeds and their association with milk composition. PeerJ. 2018;6:e4416.

[109] Vignal A, Milan D, San Cristobal M, Eggen A. A review on SNP and other types of molecular markers and their use in animal genetics. Genet Sel Evol. 2002;34(March):275-305.

[110] Tosser-Klopp G, Bardou P, Bouchez O, Cabau C, Crooijmans R, Dong Y, et al. Design and characterization of a 52K SNP chip for goats. PLoS One. 2014;9(1):e86227.

[111] Brito LF, Kijas JW, Ventura R V., Sargolzaei M, Porto-Neto LR, Cánovas A, et al. Genetic diversity and signatures of selection in various goat breeds revealed by genome-wide SNP markers. BMC Genomics. 2017;18:229.

[112] Mucha S, Mrode R, Coffey M, Kizilaslan M, Desire S, Conington J. Genome-wide association study of conformation and milk yield in mixedbreed dairy goats. J Dairy Sci. 2017;101(3):2213-2225.

[113] Mdladla K, Dzomba EF, Muchadeyi FC. Landscape genomics and pathway analysis to understand genetic adaptation of South African indigenous goat populations. Heredity (Edinb) [Internet].

2018;120(4):369-378. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41437-017- 0044-z

[114] Mdladla K, Dzomba EF, Huson HJ, Muchadeyi FC. Population genomic structure and linkage disequilibrium analysis of South African goat breeds using genome-wide SNP data. Anim Genet. 2016;47:471-482.

[115] Alamer M. Physiological responses of Saudi Arabia indigenous goats to water deprivation. Small Rumin Res. 2006;63:100-109.

### **Chapter 3**

## Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects

*Innocent M. Tshibangu*

### **Abstract**

DR Congo's copper belt is south of the dismembered former province of Katanga. The population has grown over the past twenty years due to the resumption of industrial and artisanal mining. This situation has led to an increase in demand for agricultural products including meat. The majority of these products are imported due to insufficient local production. Goat meat is the most consumed of the ruminants and most of these animals are imported from Zambia. Thousands of the goats are slaughtered daily and its meat sold in all markets and especially next to thousands of drinking establishments as appetizers. Unfortunately, this opportunity does not benefit local breeders because of several factors including the low productivity of the local goat, a stray breeding system, insufficiency and lack of space for breeding, contamination of pastures by heavy metals, insecurity, supremacy of the mining code over agricultural law, the dispossession of agricultural land belonging to peasants for the benefit of private farmers ... In perspective, the establishment of a collaborative structure between breeders, development agents and technicians, researchers and policy makers in sectors related to goat farming and its environment will provide access to information and improve goat production.

**Keywords:** Katanga, goats, indigenous, breeding, mining, Miombo

### **1. Introduction**

For the CFSVA [1], despite the country's enormous agricultural potential, the majority of the population of the DRC remains largely exposed to poverty, food insecurity, malnutrition and hunger. According to the UNDP\_RDC report, more than 71% of Congolese live on less than one US dollar / person / day. In terms of the Human Development Index, the UNDP ranked the country 41st out of 53 in Africa and 176th out of 189 countries in 2018 [2]. For the country as a whole, only one percent of arable land is used, and the country resorts to massive imports of almost all food products such as maize, rice, wheat, sugar, poultry, fish, meat, dairy products and other foodstuffs [3–6]. The majority of the population of the DRC lives on agricultural activities, often associated with animal husbandry [7]. According to Brunneau [8], in Katanga, Kasai, Kivu provinces many villagers have lost their farmland to mining companies. Southern Katanga is one of the populated regions of the DRC. Mining, urbanization, insecurity in some parts of the country

and the fluidity of the roads have allowed a rural exodus and an attraction of several populations from other towns and villages of the country. This massive presence of populations constitutes a potential market for agricultural products including milk, meat and vegetables. The same CFSVA report [1] mentions that in the DRC, poultry, goats, pigs, sheep and cattle are common livestock species and are thus among the important sources of income and meat production; they can be used as active savings assets for small farmers. Goat and pork meat is consumed in the HMK region. Goat meat is mainly sold cut in markets or around bars and drinking flow. The majority of goats sold and slaughtered in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB) are imported from Zambia through the borders of Kasumbalesa, Kipushi, Kasenga, and others. According to the President of the Zambia Cross-Border Traders Association (CBTA), there is a high demand for animals and a huge market for goat meat in DRC. In only Kasumbalesa border on average, more than 4,500 goats are traded monthly [6], not counting sellers not officially registered and other points of entry into the DRC from Zambia. The optimal management of goat breeding and agricultural perimeters: soils, livestock resources, including the production, use, conservation, complementarity of species and the sharing of the resulting benefits, is therefore a necessity for an improvement of living conditions and income for the peasants of the Katanga Mining Hinterland.

Listing the constraints and opportunities of the goat sector in the KCB would serve as support for responsible decision-making at the level of decision-makers and actors involved.

### **2. Presentation of the environment**

The Katanga copper belt area is included in the Hinterland-Minier of the former province of Katanga, which is currently dismembered. This mining area is currently located in the provinces of Lualaba and Haut-Katanga. It was from Kolwezi (Lualaba) to Sakania (Haut-Katanga) (**Figure 1**). These two new provinces are

**Figure 1.** *Katangan copper belt region of Democratic Republic of Congo. (Source: Ref. [9]).*

#### *Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98941*

subdivided into five territories for Lualaba, three of which are mining (Lubudi, Mutshasha and Dilolo) and six territories for Haut-Katanga, five of which are mining (Kambove, Kipushi, Sakania, Pweto and Mitwaba). The main minerals mined in this area are copper, cobalt, zinc, manganese, uranium, germanium, gold, cassiterite and silver.

Beyond the mining sector, the copper belt is also an agricultural and livestock area. The main agricultural products are maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, vegetable crops, rice, soya and other.

Animal husbandry is a secondary activity practiced by the majority of farmers and non-farmers. The main livestock species are in order of importance the chickens, the goat, the pig, the rabbits, the ducks …

The vegetation of the mining hinterland of Katanga (**Figure 1**) is characterized by an open forest (Miombo), wooded savannas, swampy meadows and grassy savannas. There is a specific cupricola vegetation installed on soils highly contaminated with copper and other metals characteristic of the region [10].

The different types of soils encountered are ferrisols, arreno-ferrals, hydrokaolisols, recent tropical soils, the tropical black earths on alluvium.

The climate is classified as warm and temperate. Precipitation is heavier in summer than in winter. The Köppen-Geiger classification is of the Cwa type. The annual average temperature is 20.5°C. The average annual precipitation is 1240 mm. The climatological characteristics of the region are presented in **Figure 2**.

The economic activities of the population bordering on mining are based on a subsistence economy, which is an economy chosen or suffered, relatively or totally separate from economic flows, where there is essentially self-consumption. The production of food, movable or immovable goods necessary for existence depends on the family or a small group without there being any trade or in a very limited way. They are mainly based on subsistence farming, the production of embers, small trade, fishing, hunting, breeding, crafts, education and in some urban planning sites, some households live off the property rights of the Earth. Several studies show that 61% of people earn their income from farming. This shows that agriculture remains the main income-generating activity in areas around mines and in general in rural areas [11].

#### **Figure 2.**

*Ombrothermal diagram of the hinterland-Minier of Katanga region. (source: Climate-data.org, 2021. Climat Lubumbashi (Congo-Kinshasa): https://fr.climate-data.org/afrique/congo-kinshasa/katanga/lubumbashi-503/)*

### **3. Material and methods**

This study on goat breeding in KCB was made possible by a compilation of official documents, in particular: reports from state institutions such as national and provincial ministries, provincial inspections of agriculture, fishing and breeding; the national statistics institute. Reports from international organizations. Reports from state institutions and development NGOs, scientific articles, theses and dissertations from higher studies, the laws of the country and archives of the territorial administration, testimonies from village chiefs, reports from cadastral services and mining cadastre, as well as data from our own investigations and professional experience and our discussions with goat breeders.

The protein content was determined by the Digesdahl method (CP = Nx6.25). Contents of parietal fiber (ADF and NDF) were determined by the FibreBag Gerhardt procedure as described by Van Soest et al. [12]. The ether extracts (EE) were determined by the Soxtec System using the method described by Matsler and Siebenmorgen [13]. The organic material was determined by placing the samples in a muffle furnace at 560°C overnight. Crude ash levels were deduced by the difference of dry matter and organic matter. Dry matter concentration was determined after drying leaves and root in an oven at 105°C for 24 h. Soil total concentrations of copper, cobalt, zinc and lead were measured in duplicate, and results reported in mg/ kg dry soil. The pH was determined using a pH-meter glass electrode in a soil to distilled water ratio of 1: 2.5. The mineral content of the soil was determined according to the method described by Alsac [14]. Digestion was carried out on 0.5 g soil with 6 ml of hydrochloric acid and 2 ml of nitric acid (aqua regia) at 95°C for 75 min on a heating block. The digest was then adjusted to 50 ml. Mineral content were done using atomic absorption spectrometry, according to the NF EN ISO 17294-1 and 17294–2 French standard method [15]. The minimum detection limit for each of these metals in leaves and roots samples were Cu: 3 ppb, Co: 5 ppb, Pb: 10 ppb and Zn: 1 ppb. For Influence of Washing, Samples of the plant, were collected from the shallows, slopes and trays on each of the sites. Whole plants of were harvested at the same places where soil profiles were dug for soil sampling. Roots were separated directly from the aerial parts of plants, washed and tops sampled into two parts. Fractions were packaged and labeled. In the laboratory, one of two aliquot of each aerial part was washed with deionized water containing Alconox [16].

### **4. Constraints**

#### **4.1 Mining and decline in peasant farming activities**

The presence of the mining industry in the KCB has had an impact on agricultural activities in general and goat breeding in particular. Mining companies and artisanal mining activities have resorted to an active local workforce. This practice has had the following consequences [11]: - Food insecurity due to the drop in agricultural production per capita: exodus of young people to the mines and adults and old people who remain in the rural environment must feed everyone who is in the quarries and in the city, Diversion of agricultural labor: the villages are depopulated by young people who prefer quarries than the village because of the high income provided by mining activity, Rise in food prices so much both plant and animal origin, Ecological imbalance which paralyzes certain crops and other rural activities, Disappearance of certain villages and centers.

The granting of mining squares resulted in the expropriation of agricultural land and even the relocation of local peasant farmers. The acquisition of land by some

#### *Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98941*

mining companies to the detriment of communities is a form of land grabbing. The precedence of the mining code over the agricultural law [17] has a lot to do with the dispossession of agricultural land. Land, the precious capital that provided the bare minimum of subsistence to small producers, through agriculture is in alteration. At the provincial level, the study carried out by in 2015 by [11], revealed that out of a total of 496,865 km<sup>2</sup> of land, 356,220 km<sup>2</sup> are occupied by mining companies, or 71.69%. Another study estimates that 85% of the territory of former Katanga is divided into mining squares ceded to third parties, Yan Gorus (2009) cited by [11]. The part of the land that remains unassigned to mining companies is approximately 140.645 km<sup>2</sup> , or 28% of the land. It is also necessary to subtract from it all the space occupied by the national parks (17.870 km<sup>2</sup> ) as well as the water surfaces (lakes: approximately 26.899 km<sup>2</sup> ) and the 95.932 km<sup>2</sup> remain free for agriculture without considering to what degree they lend themselves to this in terms of fertility without subtracting urban space. According to the same study 87% of farmers have reduced the area of their fields as a result of the pressure exerted by the occupation of land for mining activities. Areas that were once used for agricultural activities are closed to indigenous populations. However, the agricultural activity practiced in rural areas is nothing other than shifting slash-and-burn agriculture with the practice of fallow. For the communities, this leads to the reduction of areas or cultivable land, and as a result, a drastic reduction in subsistence income.

Mining has opened a door to easy but very precarious and unsecured gain for the young people who engage in it. For most of the peasants in this region, mining is a quick and easy way to earn income, to the detriment of farming and goat farming. The breeding time to obtain an adult animal that can be cheap being "long", the peasants, men, women and even children, prefer to practice artisanal mining and other activities related to it including washing. Minerals, prostitution, petty trade and transport. These activities are not without negative consequences on the health and social life of the population: precarious income, sexually transmitted diseases, debauchery, drugs, banditry, unemployment and teenage delinquency and especially contamination with characteristic metallic trace elements from the cuprocobalt-bearing region. Exposure and contamination to heavy metals in KCB has been well described by [18, 19].

#### **4.2 Small business**

The rush for mining centers and quarries fostered intense commercial activity. As with the artisanal mining mentioned above, the petty trade, especially in foodstuffs from the countries of southern Africa, mainly from neighboring Zambia, has taken a toll on agricultural and livestock activities. This activity also has consequences on the social life of households, including household instability, monetary instability, the advent of COVI-19 which, at certain periods, has forced the confinement of populations, the instability of prices of manufactured products, debts, the eviction of artisanal miners unexpectedly by the politico-administrative authorities … All these acts have repercussions on the life of the peasants: their social and monetary stability which could be guaranteed by an activity agricultural and/or goat breeding.

#### **4.3 Seasonality and nutritional value of forages**

The south-eastern region of the former dismembered province of Katanga is characterized by a CWa type climate according to the Koppen classification. Pastures are mainly made up of seasonal grasses and rarely legumes. The rainy season is spread out from November in the first half of April and the dry season is from April to October. During the long dry season, with cold periods (**Figure 2**), the grassy vegetation dries up completely and leaves in place highly lignified straw of poor nutritional quality for ruminants. Likewise, the crop residues of the main food crops are very lignified and do not provide an acceptable quality fodder, especially since the method of rearing straying, without supplementation leaves ruminants no choice but to be satisfied with these quality poor foods.

This situation is to the detriment of the animals with the consequence of a decrease in performance and an economic loss for local breeders.

### **4.4 Exploitation of the clear forest "Miombo"**

Following the flourishing mining activities in the region, the residents exploit natural resources of the clear forest: the Miombo. Among the available resources exploited we find caterpillars, edible mushrooms, game, honey ... and especially wood.

Of all these non-timber and wood resources, the exploitation of wood, firewood and charcoal production is one of the intense activities of farmers. Due to the insufficient supply of electrical energy for domestic needs, charcoal is the primary resource for cooking for all households in the region (**Figure 3**). This activity is preferred by peasants (**Figure 4**) after agriculture. Logging is one of the activities of environmental degradation and imbalance of Miombo ecosystems.

### **4.5 Other agricultural activities**

Some agricultural and livestock activities are adopted by agro-pastoralists because of the short time frame and simplicity. Market gardening activities are preferred by many farmers because of their short duration and market demand. Chicken breeding, mainly broilers, is also preferable to goats rearing, among other things, to the short raising time, the demand and preference of more and more

**Figure 3.** *Distribution of sources of income for peasants in the KCB [9].*

*Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98941*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Peasants selling charcoal in KCB. (source: Alexis Huguet, 2019. En RDC, le charbon de bois vital pour les foyers, mortel pour les forêts. Agence France-Presse.)*

consumers and the availability of chicks and feed imported completely without difficulty from neighboring Zambia. All these activities are without consequences because market gardening crops face competition with that from Zambia and also they are exposed to rapid degradation in the event of unsold, for lack of techniques and means of conservation and/or processing. The cost of local production of broilers is so far higher than the selling price of imported chicken. This constitutes a huge difficulty for local semi-intensive poultry farmers.

#### **4.6 Insecurity and theft**

The insecurity experienced by the DRC following the various wars that have taken place for more than twenty years; have caused negative effects on animal husbandry as a whole. Armed groups have had to constantly resort to farm animals for food in various war zones including the Hinterland-mining region of Katanga. Several villages have been victims of this practice and some agro-pastoralists have abandoned the practice of goat breeding. An example is the incursion of militiamen and the looting in the city of Diambala and Kakokonya, in the territory of Kipushi (Haut-Katanga). During the night of Thursday, January 16, 2014, these attackers took goats, agricultural products and other goods from the population of these localities.

Another constraint linked to insecurity is theft. The wandering breeding system and the precarious housing conditions of the animals are factors that contribute to the loss of animals by theft. The high selling price of goats in urban centers and large towns in the region is the determining factor in this practice. Stray animals are stolen either by some inhabitants of the village or by strangers in the village. This practice is often organized at night during which thieves, coming from urban centers, bring in vehicles and spray insecticides in goat houses to steal animals without agitation or noise. Several villages, some of which have benefited from NGDOs aid, nowadays find themselves without goats because of this practice.

### **4.7 Poverty and urgent household needs**

Several NGOs have contributed to the rebuilding of goat herds in the dismembered province of Katanga after the unfortunate events of the repetitive wars that have raged in the country. Unfortunately, some breeders, having benefited from these donations, have preferred to sell their herd for emergency medical care or children's schooling. Some preferred other activities, mainly petty trading and the sale of charcoal or market gardening which allows them to have permanent access to cash.

### **4.8 Heavy metal contaminations**

Several studies have shown that soils and fodder are contaminated with trace metal elements characteristic of the region (**Tables 1**–**3**) [16, 20–22]. This situation does not encourage fodder vegetation to spread in certain potentially grazing areas. Goats reared on vegetation in Lubumbashi in its southwest and northwest part had debris and tissues including meat, liver and kidneys containing high levels of Cd and Pb exceeding the recommended standards [18]. And that the feces of these goats had high levels of Cu, Cd, Pb and Zn [18]. This is explained by the presence of the former foundry plant of the state mining company, "Générale des Carrières et des Mines: *Gécamines*" and of a new plant of the Lubumbashi slag processing company (STL). High concentrations of heavy metal are in soils and vegetation found in the direction of the prevailing wind as found by others authors in the Penga Penga site [20]


#### **Table 1.**

*Physicochemical characteristics of the two soils studied: Contents of pH, TOC (%) and ETM extractable by ammonium acetate-EDTA (mg,kg<sup>1</sup> ).*


*Contaminated soil without amendment (T0), with 15 g of limestone (C15), 105 g of compost (M105) per kg of soil, 15 g of limestone +105 g of compost (CM1) per kg of soil and reference soil of experimental garden (SN). Source [20].*

#### **Table 2.**

*Contents of ETM extractable by ammonium acetate-EDTA in the harvested plants (mg.Kg<sup>1</sup> MS).*

*Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98941*


*1: KAS - Kasombo; KINS -Kinsevere; LUI - Luiswishi,*

*2: S — shallows; T — Trays; SI — Slopes;*

*Values with different uppercase letters in a row arc significantly different at p < 0,05,*

*Values with different uppercase capital letters in one column arc significantly different at p < 0,05,*

*\*: p < 0,05; \*\*: p < 0,01;* p < *0,001; NS: not significant.*

*SEM: standard error of the mean.*

*Source [16].*

#### **Table 3.**

*Heavy metal concentration in Adenodolichos rhomboideus leaves according to site, topography and washing at Lubumbashi.*

(**Table 1**). In the same area hi gh levels were found in the fodder of *Setaria pallidefusca*, in the leaves of amaranths and chard perry [20] (**Table 2**).

High levels of heavy metals were found in different soils and fodder in a few sites near certain mining quarries in Kasombo (Kipushi), MMG (Kinsevere) and Luisuishi (Lubumbashi) [16]. For these authors, the Cu contents were high in all the sites, the Pb contents were read high at Kasombo and Luiswishi; Co levels were high at the Luiswishi sites and moderately at Kasombo, while Zn was higher at Kasombo and Luiswishi (**Table 3**).

As the region is a mining area, there is no policy of choosing pasture with uncontaminated vegetation to practice goat breeding. The consumption of forages containing high levels of heavy metals can have several consequences in animals and in consumers of goat meat. The consumer can, through the food chain, become intoxicated by regularly consuming meat from these farms.

More than 40% of samples of kidneys, livers and muscles from goats reared in the prevailing wind area levels of cadmium, lead, copper and zinc above the recommended standards (**Table 4**). While samples collected from farms indicate values below recommended limits in feces. Samples of offal and meat from goats collected from contaminated sites showed high levels of Pb and Cd in kidneys and liver (**Table 5**) [18].

Samples taken from edible offal in some markets show that only the Pb contents are above the recommended limits in the kidneys and liver (**Table 6**). In view of these results, the regular consumption of goat offal may be the basis of lead poisoning in humans.

#### **4.9 Rearing practices, pathologies and genetic type of goats**

#### *4.9.1 Rearing practice*

Another constraint is linked to the practice of traditional and rudimentary rearing [25]. The majority of goat keepers resort to straying and tethering [26] (**Figure 5**) without supplementation, prophylaxis or breeding stock selection. The


#### **Table 4.**

*Average concentrations of Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn in the feces of goats reared in Lubumbashi (mg/kg).*


#### **Table 5.**

*Heavy metal concentrations (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) found in certain tissues of goats reared in the contaminated zone.*


#### **Table 6.**

*Heavy metal concentrations (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) found in the meat and certain offal of goats sold at the market (ppm).*

practice of stake tying is often done during the maize growing period, at the start of the rainy season, to prevent goats from grazing the young plants of this food crop. Animals are satisfied with natural vegetation regardless of its composition. A few rare breeders sporadically bring in crop residues.

Prophylaxis is almost non-existent and goats hardly ever receive veterinary services. These are often limited to inspecting meat and collecting state taxes. The practice of straying, which is the general breeding method for almost all breeders, promotes uncontrolled mating. This practice has harmful consequences such as consanguinity, the transmission of venereal diseases, the increase in genetic defects and abnormalities. This does not promote good animal yields for growth and reproduction.

#### *4.9.2 Genetic type*

The average sub-sternal gracefulness index (IGs) of adult animals in this region, all sexes combined, is close to 1, indicating that these goats are mostly brevipedes,

*Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98941*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Grouping of farms based on farming method. SystemeE: Breeding system; divagation: Rambling goats system; piquet: Stakes attachment system. Source [26].*

and that considering the average weight and other body measurements, in particular the average height at the withers greater than 50 cm, they belong, like small ruminants of the "Mossi" breed, to the small-format genetic type<sup>7</sup> . However, these authors have found that these goats are very heterogeneous, this does not allow them to be classified into a homogeneous genetic type. This gives rise to a great possibility of selection.

The small size and low weight of these animals may be due to the fact that the grazing in the study area is generally poor. Indeed, soils have a high metal content, acid rain makes phosphorus virtually unavailable, and uncontrolled bushfires destroy huge amounts of organic matter every year and deplete the soil of nitrogen [27].

The poor performance of these goats does not allow them to be marketed within a reasonable time (**Table 7**). The live weight of adult goats ranging from 12.8 to 26.3 kg [29] and some authors found weights of 13.28 and 14.41 kg respectively for females and males at the age of 9 months [28]. The male: female ratio is on average 1: 3. However, 11.4% of herds have a zero ratio with absence of males [29]. And this zero ratio can reach more than 60% for some goat herds in the region [30].

#### *4.9.3 Pathology*

Several symptoms related to pathologies have been documented by some authors [26, 29, 31].

In the event of pathologies, breeders resort to pharmacopeia, using some local substances and plants, and the main symptoms encountered in goats are: diarrhea, cough, mange, cachexia [26] (**Figure 6**). An extrapolation of the etiological causes of some of the symptoms of the diseases was carried out on the basis of the diagnoses carried out in the field: - weight loss, usually associated with bloating of the abdomen, poor general condition and a "pricked hair »Is a sign of significant gastrointestinal verminosis; –the causes of abortion are undoubtedly diverse: their etiology has not been specifically studied; –diarrheas are frequently cited, but their


*Source [28].*

#### **Table 7.**

*Weight (kg) of local kids from birth to 270 days.*

intensity and frequency vary from one farm to another. This variability could be linked to farming conditions and more specifically to hygienic conditions; - the diarrhea described as "red" by the breeders are in fact bloody diarrhea; the udder problems, which the breeders clearly dissociate from agalactia, are probably mastitis in the majority of cases: they describe swollen udders, red and painful; the skin problems revealed by breeders most often result in the presence of scabs and scratching lesions, probably due to the presence of ectoparasites (scabies, lice, ticks, even myiasis); –Cough a sign of an upper and/or lower respiratory disorder. It is more frequent, according to pastoralists, during the rainy season which lasts from October to April [31].

A few cases of reproductive pathologies including physiological (mucosanguinolent or bloody discharge) and pathological (mucopurulent or purulent discharge) vaginal and/or uterine secretions in 13% and 5% of the 739 non-pregnant goats examined, respectively in farms. And that a number of cases (n = 59) of more specific pathological situations were also observed including eleven cases of

*Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98941*

hydrosalpinx, eleven cases of paraovarian cysts, two cases of hydrometer and one case of paracervical cyst. Six cases of genital tract abnormalities were observed out of 346 males examined. They mainly concerned the testes (atrophy, cryptorchidism, hydrocele, orchitis) [29].

In addition to reproductive pathologies, a few cases of contagious ecthyma, scabies and estrosis have also been detected [30]. A few cases of caprine brucellosis have also been reported in the killings of goats in the city of Lubumbashi, around 9.8% of cases recorded [30].

Other pathologies are linked to gastrointestinal parasitosis. **Table 8** provides information on the symptoms linked to infestations of these parasitosis.

#### **Figure 6.**

*Grouping of farms in relation to the pathological symptoms encountered. Aucccune: None, Diarhée: Diarrhea, Maigreur: Weight loss,Toux et gale: Cough and scabies. Source [26].*


#### **Table 8.**

*Symptoms and causes related to gastrointestinal parasitic infections.*

### **5. Opportunities for goat breeding in the Katanga copper belt**

#### **5.1 Market opportunity**

The DR Congo is the world's leading producer of cobalt (the leading strategic mineral in the electric automobile industry with a third of world reserves31, the leading African producer of copper and the fourth in the world. The mining code [17] of 2002, inspired by the World Bank and designed to attract foreign investment, encouraged the rise of the mining sector. DR Congo's mining industry has been one of the most dynamic in sub-Saharan Africa over the past two decades. There are currently several industrial companies that exploit deposits mainly of copper and cobalt and nearly sixty cooperatives including those working in artisanal mining [11]. There are also several other independents not officially recognized who sell directly to expatriate intermediaries, mainly Chinese and Indo-Pakistani. This situation has encouraged a massive exodus of the Congolese populations to the mining centers and agglomerations of this region. Added to this is the insecurity due to the wars and armed groups that have taken place in certain regions of the Northeast favoring the influx of displaced people from internal wars to the more secure Southeast. The presence of all these populations has constituted a labor force for mining companies and also for artisanal mining which represents about 20% of the mining production of the DRC. Currently more than ten million people depend directly or indirectly on this mining activity [33]. This has fostered a strong demand for primary foodstuffs including meat products.

Goat meat is among the meat products most consumed by the population of Katanga. This meat is the most preferred of ruminant meats, because it is sold in all public markets and especially near the thousands of bars and drinking establishments scattered throughout the KCB, in the form of CABRI commonly called "MITSHOPO", appetizers (pieces of goat meat cooked on a hearth of wood fires). Every day vendors slaughter thousands of goats in large towns, villages and in artisanal mining quarries. Raising domestic animals is generally a savings opportunity for marginalized farming households in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Goats are the second farmed species in this region [26, 27, 29] and in DRC after chicken [25]. It is rustic, easy to breed and easy to handle, with the ability to adapt to harsh and poor grazing areas. Goat droppings are also used as organic manure which serves to amend the acidic soils (ferrisols) which characterize the region. They can also be used to produce biogas in combination with other crop residues. The vegetation of the HMK lends itself well to the rearing of goats.

#### **5.2 Feeding**

Some studies on forages have shown interesting results. The studies carried out the supplementation of goats fed on hay of *Imperata cylindrica* and *Setaria palidefusca* supplemented by hay of the legumes *Stylosanthes guianensis, Leucaena leucocephala* and *Adenodolichos rhomboideus* have shown a good opportunity in the rearing of goats in terms of growth performance (**Table 9**), especially in the dry season, if grass and legume hay are used [34]. These legumes showed good nutritional values and were very palatable for indigenous goat [34–36] (**Tables 10** and **11**). They improved the consumption of hay and nutrients (**Figure 7**).

Tests carried out on ten forage species (**Table 12**) have shown the good productive and nutritive capacities of these forage [21]. Some of these species have adapted well despite their first attempts at cultivation in the region. Their use in fodder crops or in association with spontaneous vegetation would be an asset for the

*Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98941*


*Means followed by different letters in the column are different.*

SEM: standard error of the mean; *WI:* initial live weighr; WF: final live weight; GWF: liveweight gain; *ADG: average daily gain, HA = hay; HAR = hay and A, rhomboideus; HAL = hay and L, leucocephala; and HAS = hay and S, guianensis,*

*Source [34].*

#### **Table 9.**

*Effect on the growth performance of the consumption of hay consisting of a mixture of Setaria palidefusca and* Imperata cylindrica*, complemented with the forage from Adenodolichos rhomboideus,* Stylosanthes guianensis *or* Leucaena leucocephala *in local goats at Lubumbashi.*


*The means followed by different letters in the same column, for each variable, are significantly different from each other (p < 0,05), NS: not significant, \*\*: highly significant, \*\*\*: very highly significant, QC: Quantities consumed; A: period 1; B: period 2; C: period 3 and D: period 4. Source [36].*

#### **Table 10.**

*Average quantities consumed and palatability index of fodder consumed by goats.*

improvement of goats and to solve the problems linked to nutritional deficiencies, especially in the dry season. Another opportunity is that some of these forage species have shown good adaptability on soils contaminated with heavy metals characteristic of the HMK region [16, 20, 36].

### **5.3 Selection and crossbreeding**

Studies of indigenous goat crossbreeds have taken place and have shown encouraging results for improved growth and average daily gain. These studies show that crossbreeding has improved the growth rate and average daily gain of hybrids between the indigenous goat and the South African Boer breed [37] (**Tables 13** and **14**).


*Means followed by different letters in the row are different ai level p < 0.05.*

*DM: dry matter, OM: organic matter, CP: crude protein, ÁDF: insoluble fiber in acid detergent, NDF: insoluble fiber in neutral detergent, E: ether extract, UFL: net energy for lactation, PDIN: protein digested in the small intestine when rumen-fermentable nitrogen is limiting, PDIE: protein digested in the small intestine when rumen-fermentable energy is limiting S&M: standard error of the mean.*

*Source: [36].*

#### **Table 11.**

*Chemical composition (g/kg) of legume forage.*

#### **Figure 7.**

*Comparison between energy and nitrogen, requirement and intake of experimental diets consumed by local goats in Lubumbashi. BesUFL: Requirement net energy for lactatio, ApUFL: Intake net energy for lactation, BesPDI: Requirement protein digested in the small intestine when rumen-fermentable nitrogen is limiting, ApPDI: Intake protein digested in the small intestine when rumen-fermentable nitrogen is limiting. (Source: Ref. [34]).*

*Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98941*


*TDM: ton dry matter, CP: crude protein, NDF: neutral detergent fiber, ADF: acid detergent fiber, ADL: acid detergent lignin, CE: crude energy.*

*Source [21].*

#### **Table 12.**

*Productivity and chemical composition of forage species cultivated in Lubumbashi.*


#### **Table 13.**

*Average weights (kg) of kids in the pre-weaning and post-weaning period of the genetic groups and the genetic group-sex interaction. Means followed by different letters; a, b, c, d and e; in the column are different at level p < 0.05.*

#### **5.4 Veterinary care and prophylaxis**

Studies of the remedies used for the care of goats in this region show that the majority of goat breeders use local plants to care for their animals (**Table 15**). And that for the majority of breeders, this knowledge of herbal remedies is acquired by family transmission; only one of these breeders has enriched his knowledge by


*F1 = Hybrid; F = femelles; M = males.*

*Source [37].*

#### **Table 14.**

*Averages of daily gain (ADG) of different genetic groups. Means followed by different letters; a, b, c and d; in the column are different at level p<0.05.*

studying botany. Almost a quarter of breeders report having acquired this knowledge esoterically by dreaming, or by communicating with a deceased relative, or even by inspiration. Only one breeder reports acquisition by trial and error [31].

### **5.5 Reproduction**

Like all other ruminants in the tropics, the goat reproduces at any time in the DRC, which makes it economically profitable to have births during all periods of the year. More births are observed in the dry season than in the rainy season [38]. This situation would be due to the fact that the births which arrive in the dry season result from the gestations of the rainy season which is characterized by an abundance of fodder and that the dry season where there is a lack of fodder is characterized by fewer gestations and therefore, fewer births in the rainy season. The mean age of farrowing is 15 months and therefore corresponds to an average age of pregnant matings of around 10 months [30]. While the age of pregnant females ranged from 7 to 108 months [38].

### **6. Perspectives and recommendations**

In view of the constraints and opportunities related to goat breeding in the Katanga Mining Hinterland, it is necessary to list the perspectives and recommendations to overcome the difficulties of breeding and the goat sector in the area.

#### **6.1 Role of politico-administrative authorities and the state**

In view of the foregoing, goat breeders are abandoned by the authorities and decision-makers of the Congolese State at all levels. Political leaders should get involved in the organization and supervision of breeders in general, and those in the goat sector in particular, by prohibiting the straying of animals. They should help agro-pastoralists by granting breeding areas chosen according to the quality of pastures and according to safety to help them do their best work in serenity. These pastures must be community-based taking into account the remoteness of the mining and mineral processing areas and also far from urban areas. The breeders should be organized in cooperatives or associations. Each organization must be


#### *Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98941*

**Table 15.**

*Latin name, vernacular in Swahili and parts of plants identified as constituents of remedies administered to goats, symptoms treated, methods of preparation of herbal remedies, method of administration and dosage. Frequency of use of the remedy is also specified by the number of families out of the 50 questioned.* organized so as to have its own pastures, its own technicians and its organization of the market. This would serve to conduct the feeding well, the improvement and management grazing, prophylaxis, veterinary care, reproduction, selection, other zootechnical operations and the marketing of animals.

#### **6.2 Breeding practice and selection of goats**

Poor husbandry practice contributes negatively to the economic profitability of goat rearing in the KCB. Straying like breeding exposes animals to loss, theft, disease, nutritional deficiency and increased rate of inbreeding. It also results in an irrecoverable loss of dejection following straying. In order to compensate for the nutritional deficiency linked to the scarcity of fodder, especially in the dry season, and the low nutritional value of fodder, it is important to resort to the enrichment of pastures with grasses and fodder legumes which have made proof of good growth, good productivity, good palatability and good nutritional value. It should also be noted the valuation of excessive vegetation during the active period as hay for use in cold and dry season where there is a lack of vegetation. Providing decision-makers and breeders with a map of uncontaminated pastures would help guide a good use of the available fodder resources in the region,

The use of a lick block and/or multi-nutritional block, especially in the dry season, could make it possible to compensate for the deficiency in minerals, energy and protein.

The quantification, the study of the nutritional value and the methanogenic potential in combination of the goat droppings of the crop residues of the main crops in the region could also make it possible to increase the productivity per unit of agricultural area and the well-being of households agricultural.

To avoid losses, theft, straying, nutritional deficiencies and allow the welfare of animals, agro-pastoralists must be obliged to build goat barns that meet standards. Good housing for animals would also protect them against diseases and bad weather linked to climatic hazards such as showers, winds, dust and ectoparasites. This practice would also allow the collection of droppings, to be used as organic manure or for methanogenesis, wasted when the animals are straying.

#### **6.3 Promotion of local herbal medicine**

The promotion of local medicinal plants is a major asset in the prophylaxis and the fight against common diseases such as parasitoses, bacterial infections and others. This would allow breeders to save the costs associated with the purchase of conventional veterinary drug. A systematic inventory and studies on chemical compounds, biology, cultivation attempts and then the popularization of medicinal plants would be an asset for their conservation and their use for veterinary care and prophylaxis in the region.

#### **6.4 Diversification of goat breeding speculations**

The introduction of the goat milk sector which is a stable activity, not depending on the season, providing daily milk, would allow the diversification of sustainable activities and permanent family recipes. This activity would be made possible after studies on livestock purebred goats or crosses of specialized exotic breeds with the indigenous goat. Among these breeds there are some that have proven themselves in sub-Saharan Africa such as Saanen, Nubian, Alpine, Topinambour and others.

*Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98941*

### **7. Conclusion**

The goat is the second highest species in the DRC and it is its meat that is consumed the most by ruminants. Too little attention is paid to its breeding; which remains a secondary activity for several peasant families. The goat industry is characterized here by a very low level of inputs in subsistence farms which are made up exclusively of small family farms. The lack of support for its breeding is an obstacle to the development of this sector, which provides meat and financial resources for peasant households. For the Katanga copper belt region, the majority of goats are imported from Zambia, which constitutes a big shortfall for the country and for the local farmers.

The goat sector receives almost no sustainable financial support from the government, unlike the crop production sector. A synergy between researchers, breeders and the political-administrative authorities on improving the goat sector would be a breath of fresh air for the poor farmers and this will save a few masses of currency which are exported for the purchase of meat abroad.

## **Author details**

Innocent M. Tshibangu Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, Department of Zootechnics, Service of Nutrition, Animal Improvement and Agropastorallism, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of The Congo

\*Address all correspondence to: innocent.tshibangu@gmail.com

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **References**

[1] Analyse approfondie de la sécurité alimentaire et de la vulnérabilité (CFSVA) en RD Congo, Word Food Program. 2014

[2] AGENCE ECOFIN. CLASSEMENT 2018 DES PAYS AFRICAINS PAR INDICE DE DÉVELOPPEMENT HUMAIN (PNUD). 2018

[3] Chambre de commerce belgocongolaise-luxembourgeoise (CCBCL). 2018

[4] Wazatech*.* Démarrer une entreprise d'élevage de chèvres en RD Congo. 2018

[5] Ndonda. L'incidence des importations et aides alimentaires sur l'agriculture congolaise. université de kinshasa, mémoire inédit 2009.

[6] Zambia Development Agency (ZDA). Congo DR a strategic market for Zambia. promoting economic growth and development. 2018

[7] Kalenga Kalamo H, Moula N et Kashala Kapalwola J C. Activités agricoles familiales dans la ville de Lubumbashi (R.D.CONGO). Poster, 2012

[8] Brunneau JC. Enjeux fonciers à risques au congo (RDC): contexte théorique et pratiques déviantes. (*land stakes at risks in the congo-drc: theoretical context and deviant practices*). Bulletin de l'association des géographes français. Terres et Tensions en Afrique. 2012, pp. 474-485

[9] Van Langendonck S, Muchez P, Dewaele S, Kalubi AK, Cailteux J. Petrographic and mineralogical study of the sediment-hosted Cu-Co ore deposit at Kambove West in the central part of the Katanga Copperbelt (DRC). 2013;**16**:1-2

[10] Donato Kaya Muyumba, Amandine Liénard, Grégory Mahy, Michel Ngongo Luhembwe, Gilles Colinet. Caractérisation des systèmes solsplantes dans les collines de l'arc cuprifère du Katanga (synthèse bibliographique). Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2015, 19(2), 204-214

[11] Cordaid. L'exploitation miniere au cœur des zones rurales: quel développement pour les communautés locales ? Rapport décembre 2015. 50 pages

[12] Van Soest P.J., Robertson J.B. & Lewis B.A., 1991. Methods for dietary fibre, neutral detergent fibre and non-starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J. Dairy Sci., 74, 3583-3597

[13] Matsler A.L. & Siebenmorgen T.J., 2005. Evaluation of operating conditions for surface lipid extraction from rice using a soxtec system. Cereal Chem., 82(3), 282- 286

[14] Alsac, N., 2007. Analysis of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni,Pb, Zn et Hg) in soils by ICP-MS. Ann. Toxicol. Anal. 19, 37 41

[15] Sebei, A., Chaabani, F., Ouerfelli, M. K., 2005. Impacts of mining wastes on the soil and plants in the Boujaber area (NW Tunisia): Chemical fractionation of heavy metals in soils. Geo. Eco. Trop. 29, 37-50

[16] Tshibangu M. I., V. I. Nsahlai, M. H. Kiatoko and J. L. Hornick. Heavy Metals Concentration in Adenodolichos rhomboideus (O. Hoffm.) Harms. Forage Growing on Mining Tailings in South East of Democratic Republic of Congo: Influence of Washing, pH and Soil Concentrations. Int.J.Curr.Res. Biosci.Plantbiol. 2014.1(5): 16-27

[17] Code minier. Loi n° 007/2002 du 11 juillet 2002 portant code minier. Journal Officiel n°spécial du 15 juilet 2002

*Goat Breeding in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB): Constraints, Opportunities and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98941*

[18] Mobinzo Kapay Soley. Métaux lourds dans les fèces, viande et abats comestibles des ccaprins élevés à Lubumbashi: cartographie, concentrations et évaluation des risques sur la santé humaine. Thèse d'agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur en Médecine Vétérinaire. Inédit, 2016. 177 pages

[19] Célestin Lubaba Nkulu Banza, Tim S.Nawrot, Vincent Haufroid, Sophie Decrée, Thierry De Putter, Erik Smolders, Benjamin Ilunga Kabyla, Oscar Numbi Luboya, Augustin Ndala Ilunga, Alain Mwanza Mutombo, Benoit Nemery. High human exposure to cobalt and other metals in Katanga, a mining area of the Democratic Republic of Congo. 2009. Environmental Resea rch, 109, 6, P 745-752

[20] Michel Mpundu Mubemba, Yannick Useni Sikuzani, Luciens Nyembo Kimuni, Gilles Colinet. Effets d'amendements carbonatés et organiques sur la culture de deux légumes sur sol contaminé à Lubumbashi (RD Congo). Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2014 18(3), 367- 375

[21] Mbuyi Kabimba Yvon. Identification des meilleures ressources fourragères de la chèvre adaptées aux Hinterlands de la ville de Lubumbashi. Thèse de doctorat (PhD), inédit. Université de Lubumbashi. Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire de l'Université de Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, R.D.Congo. 2011. 180p

[22] Michel Mpundu Mubemba Mulambi. Contaminations des sols en Eléments Traces Métalliques à Lubumbashi (Katanga/RDCongo): Evaluation des risques de contamination de la chaîne alimentaire et choix de solutions de remédiation. Thèse de doctorat (PhD), inédit. Université de Lubumbashi. Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques. Université de Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, R.D.Congo. 2010, 453p

[23] FAO/WHO. Joint fao/who Food standards programme. Codex committee on contaminants in foods fifth session the hague, the netherlands, 21 - 25 march 2011

[24] Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code - Standard 1.4.1 - Contaminants and Natural Toxicants (2009)

[25] Etat de ressources génétiques animales en RD Congo, 2005. FAO

[26] Kilemba MB. Typologie des ménages ruraux impliqués dans la production animale et caractéristiques des systèmes d'élevage dans la zone minière du Sud Katanga en RD Congo (2020). Mémoire de DEA. Inédit. Département de zootehnie, Faculté des sciences Agronomiques, Univversité de Lubumbashi. 94 pages

[27] H K Kalenga, S Vandeput, N Antoine-Moussiaux, N Moula, J-C K Kashala, F Farnir et P Leroy. Goat breeding in Lubumbashi (DRC): 1. Principal Component Analysis of linear measurements of local population. LRRD 27 (12) 2015

[28] H K Kalenga, S Vandenput, N Antoine-Moussiaux, J C K Kashala, N Moula, F Farnir et P Leroy. Goat breeding in Lubumbashi (DRC): 2. Local kids pre and post weaning growth analysis. LRRD 27 (12) 2015

[29] Ngona Idi Abdallah. Performances et facteurs d'influence de la reproduction de l'espèce caprine en milieu tropical. Thèse d'agrégation, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Lubumbashi. 2008, 165 pp

[30] Mayeriya K, Ngona IA, Mbiya L, Khang'Maté AB. Détermination de la puberté et de l'âge à la première misebas des chevrettes en élevage familial à Lubumbashi, République Démocratique du Congo. J. Appl. Biosci. 2017. 109: 10673-10679

[31] V.E. Okombe, C.S. Pongombo, P. Duez, S. Vandenput. Remèdes vétérinaires traditionnels utilisés dans les élevages de chèvres à Lubumbashi et proche périphérie, RD Congo. Phytothérapie, 2014, 12:234-241

[32] V.E. Okombe. Evaluation de l'effet antihelminthique de la poudre d'écorce de racine de Vitex thomasii De Wild (Verbenaceae)sur Haemonchus contortus chez la chèvre. (PhD) Thèse d'agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur en Médecine Vétérinaire. Inédit, 2011. 242 pages

[33] Trésor-International. Le secteur minier en République Démocratique du Congo. Direction générale du Trésor (2020). Ambassade de France en RD Congo, Service Economique

[34] Tshibangu M I, Kiatoko M H and Hornick J L. Effect of complementation of *Setaria palidefusca* and *Imperata cylindrica* with *Adenodolichos rhomboideus*, *Stylosanthes guianensis* or *Leucaena leucocephala* on growth of local goats at Lubumbashi. *Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 27, Article #56. 2015*

[35] Tshibangu Muamba Innocent, Verla Nsahlai Ignatius, Honoré Kiatoko Mangeye & Jean-Luc Hornick. Nutritive value of *Adenodolichos rhomboideus* leaves compared with *Leucaena leucocephala* and *Stylosanthes guianensis* forages in indigenous goats in Lubumbashi (DR Congo)

[36] Tshibangu MI., MF. Kampemba, KC. Kashala, MH. Kiatoko et JL Hornick. Composition chimique et indice de palatabilité des feuilles de *Adenodolichos rhomboideus, Leucaena leucocephala* et *Stylosanthes guianensis* chez la chèvre locale à Lubumbashi**.** Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci., 2014. 8(3): 937-945

[37] H K Kalenga, S Vandenput, N Antoine-Moussiaux, J C K Kashala, N Moula, F Farnir et P Leroy. Goat

breeding in Lubumbashi (DRC): 3. Hybrid kids growth analysis F1: Boer x local breed. LRRD 27 (12) 2015

[38] Mutombo N, Ngona IA, Mbiya L, Khang'Maté AB. La rentabilité du caprin au travers du taux de gestation observé dans l'élevage familial périurbain de Lubumbashi, République Démocratique du Congo. J. Appl. Biosci. 2016. 105: 10096 –10102

Section 3
