**7.1 Preventive measures and agronomic control**

Preventive and agronomic measures against TLM [36, 37] may include the following:


#### **7.2 Semiochemically based control**

The female sex pheromone can be used in several ways for the management of TLM. These include the following:

1.Monitoring and surveillance. Pheromone-baited sticky traps can be used to monitor all stage of tomato production and across the production chain in nurseries, farms, greenhouses, and packaging and processing facilities [36]. Monitoring of TLM is performed by trapping males and/or by sampling eggs and larvae on infested tomato plants. The latter is however, tedious and difficult to perform over large areas. On the other hand, economic threshold based on male capture is not reliable because trapping process may be affected by

**85**

Tuta absoluta *(Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): An Invasive Insect Pest Threatening…*

2.Male annihilation by mass trapping of adults with pheromone traps (delta traps), which are usually efficient against newly introduced pest when population density is low. For mass trapping, it is recommended to use 20–40 traps/ha. A threshold of 3–4 moths per trap per week need to be reached before the

many factors such as population density of the moth, trap designs, and type of pheromone used. Light traps and water traps can also be used to capture both

3.Mating disruption by saturating the atmosphere with sex pheromone, which alters ability of males to locate and find females. This technique can be effectively applied in confined environment such as protected tomato in greenhouses. However, the performance of the technique was poor [17].

Salas Gervassio et al. [38] critically reviewed the natural enemies' complex in tomato agroecosystem. They determined the natural enemies that are suitable for augmentative and conservative strategies in South America and for classical biocontrol agents elsewhere in the world where *T. absoluta* has arrived. The authors reported that more than 50 species and morphospecies of Hymenoptera were associated with *T. absoluta*; however, only about 23 of them could be confirmed as parasitizing the moth. Augmentative biocontrol for *T. absoluta* is commercially available in South America using the parasitoid *Trichogramma pretiosum*, particularly in Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru [38]. The use of endogenous natural enemies for biocontrol of TPW is one of the key points of conservative strategies [39]. The *Macrolophus basicornis* (Stal) and *M. pygmaeus* (Hemiptera: Miridae) are potential biocontrol agents against (egg predators) TLM. The nymphal stage of the former can consume an average of 331 eggs per day, while the adult can

The parasitoids *Necremnus tutae* and *N. cosmopterix* (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)

The predator *Nesidiocoris tenuis* (Hemiptera: Miridae) can be used for the management of other tomato pests including the whiteflies, thrips, leafminers, and aphids [43]. This predator has shown great potential in controlling TPW in Asia [23], Turkey [44], and India [45]. This predator is commercially produced and

Omnivorous mirids had been used against TLM after its arrival in Europe through augmentative and inoculative release in the field and plant nurseries. They are sometimes supplied by conservation strategies using banker plants [1]. The mirid predators *Dicyphus bolivari* Lindberg and *D. errans* (Wolff) Hemiptera:

The generalist egg parasitoid, *Trichogramma achaeae*, is a potential agent for biological control of *T. absoluta*. This worldwide-distributed parasitoid is also attracted by volatiles produced by tomato plants whether uninfested or infested as well as by the sex pheromone of the moth [47]. *Trichogramma evanescens* (Westwood) was also used against TLM in Turkey [44]. The egg parasitoid, *Trichogramma brassicae*, is a potential biocontrol agent of TPW [48]. Hemipteran predators such as anthocorids, geocorids, mirids, nabids, and pentatomids have been identified to be biological agents against *Tuta absoluta* [49]. Since larvae of *Tuta absoluta* are endophagous, cryptically living and feeding inside mines or tunnels in tomato leaves and fruit,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93390*

beginning of mass trapping [36].

feed upon as many as 100 eggs per day [40, 41].

are potential biocontrol agents against TLM [42].

Miridae are potential biocontrol agents against TPW [46].

sexes.

**7.3 Biological control**

released against TPW.

Tuta absoluta *(Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): An Invasive Insect Pest Threatening… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93390*

many factors such as population density of the moth, trap designs, and type of pheromone used. Light traps and water traps can also be used to capture both sexes.


#### **7.3 Biological control**

*Invasive Species - Introduction Pathways, Economic Impact, and Possible Management Options*

based on integrated pest management is recommended.

1.Preventive measures and agronomic control

5.Chemical control by using selective insecticides

3.Exclusion of greenhouses with moth-proof sealing

4.Use pest-free planting material (transplants)

plant resistance through bottom-up effects

8.Soil cultivation or covering with plastic mulch

6.Breeding transgenic resistant cultivars

**7.2 Semiochemically based control**

TLM. These include the following:

5.Screening of existing resistant tomato cultivars

**7.1 Preventive measures and agronomic control**

2.Semiochemically based control using female sex pheromone

include the following:

3.Biological control

following:

4.Biotechnological control

*Datura*, and *Nicotiana*

The post-invasion management of *T. absoluta* is to try to eradicate the pest at an early stage of invasion if possible, otherwise a sustainable containment strategy

In native and invaded areas in the world, current IPM components against TLM

Preventive and agronomic measures against TLM [36, 37] may include the

1.Destruction of previous crop remains to prevent the carryover of the pest

2.Removal of alternative hosts, particularly weeds from the genera *Solanum*,

7.Manipulation of soil trait and application of biofertilizers to enhance tomato

The female sex pheromone can be used in several ways for the management of

1.Monitoring and surveillance. Pheromone-baited sticky traps can be used to monitor all stage of tomato production and across the production chain in nurseries, farms, greenhouses, and packaging and processing facilities [36]. Monitoring of TLM is performed by trapping males and/or by sampling eggs and larvae on infested tomato plants. The latter is however, tedious and difficult to perform over large areas. On the other hand, economic threshold based on male capture is not reliable because trapping process may be affected by

**84**

Salas Gervassio et al. [38] critically reviewed the natural enemies' complex in tomato agroecosystem. They determined the natural enemies that are suitable for augmentative and conservative strategies in South America and for classical biocontrol agents elsewhere in the world where *T. absoluta* has arrived. The authors reported that more than 50 species and morphospecies of Hymenoptera were associated with *T. absoluta*; however, only about 23 of them could be confirmed as parasitizing the moth. Augmentative biocontrol for *T. absoluta* is commercially available in South America using the parasitoid *Trichogramma pretiosum*, particularly in Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru [38]. The use of endogenous natural enemies for biocontrol of TPW is one of the key points of conservative strategies [39]. The *Macrolophus basicornis* (Stal) and *M. pygmaeus* (Hemiptera: Miridae) are potential biocontrol agents against (egg predators) TLM. The nymphal stage of the former can consume an average of 331 eggs per day, while the adult can feed upon as many as 100 eggs per day [40, 41].

The parasitoids *Necremnus tutae* and *N. cosmopterix* (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) are potential biocontrol agents against TLM [42].

The predator *Nesidiocoris tenuis* (Hemiptera: Miridae) can be used for the management of other tomato pests including the whiteflies, thrips, leafminers, and aphids [43]. This predator has shown great potential in controlling TPW in Asia [23], Turkey [44], and India [45]. This predator is commercially produced and released against TPW.

Omnivorous mirids had been used against TLM after its arrival in Europe through augmentative and inoculative release in the field and plant nurseries. They are sometimes supplied by conservation strategies using banker plants [1]. The mirid predators *Dicyphus bolivari* Lindberg and *D. errans* (Wolff) Hemiptera: Miridae are potential biocontrol agents against TPW [46].

The generalist egg parasitoid, *Trichogramma achaeae*, is a potential agent for biological control of *T. absoluta*. This worldwide-distributed parasitoid is also attracted by volatiles produced by tomato plants whether uninfested or infested as well as by the sex pheromone of the moth [47]. *Trichogramma evanescens* (Westwood) was also used against TLM in Turkey [44]. The egg parasitoid, *Trichogramma brassicae*, is a potential biocontrol agent of TPW [48]. Hemipteran predators such as anthocorids, geocorids, mirids, nabids, and pentatomids have been identified to be biological agents against *Tuta absoluta* [49]. Since larvae of *Tuta absoluta* are endophagous, cryptically living and feeding inside mines or tunnels in tomato leaves and fruit,

respectively, their predation and parasitism by the natural enemies seem to be difficult. Nevertheless, numerous natural enemies can still be used in the management of this notorious pest. The eggs seem to be more vulnerable to predations and parasitism because they are exposed on the surface of tomato growing points. However, the efficacy of natural enemies in suppressing *T. absoluta* populations may be altered by environmental abiotic factors through bottom-up effects triggered by agronomic practices such as irrigation and fertilization. Moreover, plant constitutive and/or induced resistance traits against *T. absoluta* are another source of bottom-up effects, which may interact with irrigation and fertilization and jointly affect the performance and population density of *T. absoluta*, and counterpart natural enemies and their interactions [37]. In addition to the arthropod biocontrol agents, microbial biocontrol agents such as entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) of the genera *Steinernema* and *Heterohabditis* have potential to kill larvae of TLM when they are outside their mines.
