**7. Management**

*Invasive Species - Introduction Pathways, Economic Impact, and Possible Management Options*

**6. Invasive potential and global distribution**

by three basic components:

**Figure 5.**

According to Begon et al. [25], any species distribution is limited and governed

1.The ability of the species to reach a potential site (introduction pathway)

*Tunnels in ripe tomato fruits excavated by the larvae of Tuta absoluta (photos: Antonio Biondi).*

2.Capacity to develop in specific environmental conditions (establishment)

TLM is a highly invasive insect pest of tomato crop [1, 6]. The moth was first reported in Europe (Eastern Spain) in 2006 [19]. The introduction in Spain is believed to be from a single population in Chile [26]. Three years later, it was

reported in Turkey, the fourth largest producer of tomato in the world, in 2009 [27]. It spread then across Europe and North African countries [6, 28] and Asian countries [23]. According to Seebens et al. [29], most of the invasion occurred during the last 40 years due to increased globalization and trading among continents. The possible introduction pathways for *T. absoluta* include tomato fruits, packing materials of tomato, eggplant and pepper, and planting material [30]. Santana et al. [31] studied the global geographic distribution of TLM using a combination of spatial distribution models as well as the current distribution of the pest. They showed that the suitable areas for *T. absoluta* include North and Central Americas, Africa, Europe, Asia, and Oceania at present time and in the future. Additionally, their model showed that large tomato-producing countries such as China, USA, and Mexico, where the moth

3.The ability to compete with other species occupying the same habitat

**82**

Because of its high invasiveness and economic significance, management of *T. absoluta* could be carried out at local, regional, and international levels. The management can be divided into pre-invasion and post-invasion measures. The former are mainly preventive including strict quarantine measures, inspection of tomato consignments, and treatment, when necessary, with proper fumigants before shipping. Endorsement, by countries, of *T. absoluta* as pest of a high risk in quarantine list is essential. *T. absoluta* population management in invaded countries could significantly lower the invasion risk to neighboring non-invaded ones [23, 35]. Establishment of regional network to connect research entomologists, policy-makers, and major stakeholders from all invaded as well as threatened countries [23]. Such network and platforms are supposed to coordinate joint research activities and validation of newly developed management technologies before being applied in the field.

The post-invasion management of *T. absoluta* is to try to eradicate the pest at an early stage of invasion if possible, otherwise a sustainable containment strategy based on integrated pest management is recommended.

In native and invaded areas in the world, current IPM components against TLM include the following:

