**6. Invasive potential and global distribution**

According to Begon et al. [25], any species distribution is limited and governed by three basic components:


TLM is a highly invasive insect pest of tomato crop [1, 6]. The moth was first reported in Europe (Eastern Spain) in 2006 [19]. The introduction in Spain is believed to be from a single population in Chile [26]. Three years later, it was reported in Turkey, the fourth largest producer of tomato in the world, in 2009 [27]. It spread then across Europe and North African countries [6, 28] and Asian countries [23]. According to Seebens et al. [29], most of the invasion occurred during the last 40 years due to increased globalization and trading among continents. The possible introduction pathways for *T. absoluta* include tomato fruits, packing materials of tomato, eggplant and pepper, and planting material [30]. Santana et al. [31] studied the global geographic distribution of TLM using a combination of spatial distribution models as well as the current distribution of the pest. They showed that the suitable areas for *T. absoluta* include North and Central Americas, Africa, Europe, Asia, and Oceania at present time and in the future. Additionally, their model showed that large tomato-producing countries such as China, USA, and Mexico, where the moth

**83**

Tuta absoluta *(Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): An Invasive Insect Pest Threatening…*

is not present, stand a high risk of being invaded by *T. absoluta*. Damme et al. [32] and Han et al. [23] listed important reasons explaining the vast and wide spread of

1.The strong intrinsic invasiveness with high reproductive potential of the moth

2.The dispersal capacity and ability of TLM to adapt to the newly invaded areas. The adults can fly actively for several kilometers, which allows for short dis-

3.The multivoltine reproductive cycle coupled with high overwintering capacity

5.Ability of the moth to develop on relatively large number solanaceous and non-

The abovementioned reasons are pertaining to the biological traits of the pest. However, there are several reasons connecting human activities and measurements adopted by countries to curb the introduction, establishment, and spread of the pest that also contributed to the vast spread of *T. absoluta* [1, 4, 23, 34]. These

4.Rapid increase in the size of international trade and transportation of goods

6.Lack of joint efforts among affected countries in prevention and containment

5.Accidental transport of adults and other life cycle stages in consignments

Because of its high invasiveness and economic significance, management of *T. absoluta* could be carried out at local, regional, and international levels. The management can be divided into pre-invasion and post-invasion measures. The former are mainly preventive including strict quarantine measures, inspection of tomato consignments, and treatment, when necessary, with proper fumigants before shipping. Endorsement, by countries, of *T. absoluta* as pest of a high risk in quarantine list is essential. *T. absoluta* population management in invaded countries could significantly lower the invasion risk to neighboring non-invaded ones [23, 35]. Establishment of regional network to connect research entomologists, policy-makers, and major stakeholders from all invaded as well as threatened countries [23]. Such network and platforms are supposed to coordinate joint research activities and validation of newly developed management technologies before being applied in the field.

*T. absoluta* around the globe. These reasons include the following:

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93390*

4.The strong heat tolerance in open fields

1.Weak and ineffective quarantine measures

2.Poor surveillance and phytosanitary measures

3.Bulk trade of untreated fresh tomato products

through containers and vehicles

solanaceous alternative hosts

tance spread [33].

in greenhouses

reasons are as follows:

of the pest

**7. Management**

Tuta absoluta *(Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): An Invasive Insect Pest Threatening… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93390*

is not present, stand a high risk of being invaded by *T. absoluta*. Damme et al. [32] and Han et al. [23] listed important reasons explaining the vast and wide spread of *T. absoluta* around the globe. These reasons include the following:


The abovementioned reasons are pertaining to the biological traits of the pest. However, there are several reasons connecting human activities and measurements adopted by countries to curb the introduction, establishment, and spread of the pest that also contributed to the vast spread of *T. absoluta* [1, 4, 23, 34]. These reasons are as follows:

