**5. Current RPW management programmes**

In areas where the pest does not exist but under the potential risk of infestation occurring, it is essential to emphasize on quarantine, monitoring/surveillance and capacity building.

A new infestation report calls for immediate removal and destruction (eradication) of the RPW infested palm right at the sight/farm where the infestation is detected. Subsequently, a surveillance programme based on a regular inspection to detect infestation and monitor trapping to capture emerging adults needs in the demarcated area to ensure effective control, containment and eradication of the pest. Chouibani [11] in the FAO guidelines proposed to identify the infested zone where the presence of RPW is confirmed and also a buffer zone extending at least 10 km beyond the boundary of the infested zone. A strict vigil is to be maintained on the movement of palms and plant nurseries within the demarcated area. The demarcated area will be declared free from RPW if, during three consecutive years, RPW has not been detected [11].

Geographic information system (GIS) provides a very valuable tool in monitoring, predicting, managing and fighting the spread of pests and diseases, and

**9**

*Red Palm Weevil* Rhynchophorus ferrugineus *(Coleoptera: Curculionidae): Global Invasion…*

• Maintain a field map of each operational area indicating the basic data (number of palms, year of planting, number of traps, number of infested palms, palms

• Register the GPS co-ordinates of all the palms in a geographical data base if possible. The more important fields to be included are: date, area, height and state (not infested, infested and palms removed with GPS co-ordinates). It is also recommended to register the coordinates of the already removed palm trees.

• Data on the geo-reference localization of the palms, the RPW-IPM components and their evolution over time using GIS to elaborate maps and analysis need to

• FAO has proposed a real-time database and a web portal for the management of RPW at the local, national and Near East and North Africa (NENA) region. Furthermore, a mobile app for android and iOS smartphones to record georeferenced data at the field location on a standard form needs to be developed. FAO has made initiatives in this regard both at the regional (NENA) and global

In any area-wide IPM programmes, the means (resources) to control the pest can be correlated with the intensity of the pest. Ferry et al. [36] visualized three scenarios to exist in the current RPW-IPM strategy depending on the resources available to control the RPW, considering that the organization and techniques are

1.The means are superior to the needs: here the resources are adequate and the

2.The means remain more or less equal to the needs: here there is a prolonged effort to control the pest over several years with little or no success and the pest is always ahead with the IPM strategy trying to catch up. Such a scenario is not

3.The means are inferior to the needs: here the pest is not controlled and pro-

It has been seen is several countries that providing adequate man power and material is a major challenge in all area-wide RPW control programmes. It is essential to provide adequate resources right at the beginning of the first record of this pest so that RPW can be efficiently controlled and eradicated when the pest is

liferates rapidly. The control means are inadequate.

GIS-based techniques are increasingly used to enhance and support decisionmaking capabilities in RPW management [30–33]. This tool offers opportunities for cost-effective and efficient targeting of control interventions. In monitoring, GIS can be used to determine the spatial extent of a pest, to predict the projected spread, to provide input for risk assessment models. The first and essential step for efficient use of GIS techniques at a larger scale is a protocol for data collection. This will help to have a grip of the situation and is essential to periodically validate the RPW control programme, where data on infestation reports and trap captures are important. Fajardo et al. [33] proposed the following with regard to the use of GIS

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93391*

in area-wide RPW management programmes:

removed, palms treated, etc.).

be developed.

levels [34, 35].

optimum and similar for the three scenarios:

pest is controlled/eradicated.

sustainable in the long run.

confined to a few farms/small area.

*Red Palm Weevil* Rhynchophorus ferrugineus *(Coleoptera: Curculionidae): Global Invasion… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93391*

GIS-based techniques are increasingly used to enhance and support decisionmaking capabilities in RPW management [30–33]. This tool offers opportunities for cost-effective and efficient targeting of control interventions. In monitoring, GIS can be used to determine the spatial extent of a pest, to predict the projected spread, to provide input for risk assessment models. The first and essential step for efficient use of GIS techniques at a larger scale is a protocol for data collection. This will help to have a grip of the situation and is essential to periodically validate the RPW control programme, where data on infestation reports and trap captures are important. Fajardo et al. [33] proposed the following with regard to the use of GIS in area-wide RPW management programmes:


In any area-wide IPM programmes, the means (resources) to control the pest can be correlated with the intensity of the pest. Ferry et al. [36] visualized three scenarios to exist in the current RPW-IPM strategy depending on the resources available to control the RPW, considering that the organization and techniques are optimum and similar for the three scenarios:


It has been seen is several countries that providing adequate man power and material is a major challenge in all area-wide RPW control programmes. It is essential to provide adequate resources right at the beginning of the first record of this pest so that RPW can be efficiently controlled and eradicated when the pest is confined to a few farms/small area.

*Invasive Species - Introduction Pathways, Economic Impact, and Possible Management Options*

Visual symptoms of damage on palms are used for early detection of RPW infestation. Thus, it is of paramount importance for field inspectors and palm growers to understand these symptoms (**Figures 4** and **5**). On Canary Island palm (*Phoenix canariensis*), infestation and damage occur in the crown. The larvae tunnel in the developing leaves (fronds) and severe infestation may lead to palm mortality. Early symptoms include the presence of holes in the fronds, which look chewed and broken. Wilting and drying of developed fronds and absence of new emerging fronds cause asymmetrical growth of the crown that later collapse. As is the case with date palm, different stages of the weevil can be seen at the crown particularly

*Ejection of chewed-up fibers from the crown of an infested young date palm (left). Smashed internal palm* 

In areas where the pest does not exist but under the potential risk of infestation occurring, it is essential to emphasize on quarantine, monitoring/surveillance and

A new infestation report calls for immediate removal and destruction (eradication)

of the RPW infested palm right at the sight/farm where the infestation is detected. Subsequently, a surveillance programme based on a regular inspection to detect infestation and monitor trapping to capture emerging adults needs in the demarcated area to ensure effective control, containment and eradication of the pest. Chouibani [11] in the FAO guidelines proposed to identify the infested zone where the presence of RPW is confirmed and also a buffer zone extending at least 10 km beyond the boundary of the infested zone. A strict vigil is to be maintained on the movement of palms and plant nurseries within the demarcated area. The demarcated area will be declared free from RPW if, during three consecutive years, RPW has not been detected [11]. Geographic information system (GIS) provides a very valuable tool in monitoring, predicting, managing and fighting the spread of pests and diseases, and

when infestation is more severe [29].

capacity building.

**Figure 5.**

**5. Current RPW management programmes**

*tissue due to feeding of grubs (Photo: Hamadttu A. F. El-Shafie).*

**8**

#### **Figure 6.**

*RPW-IPM strategy implemented (Updated from http://www.fao.org/3/a-ms665e.pdf).*

**Figure 6** depicts the components of the current RPW-IPM strategy at four levels. At level-1, the strategy realizes the control components at the operational level on a daily basis in the field. The area-wide management of RPW needs careful planning and timely intervention of the control techniques, able supervision and periodic performance analysis of the RPW-IPM strategy, besides the desired technical, human, intuitional, organizational and coordination capacities for effective planning, delivery, monitoring and management of RPW in the field.

At *level-1* of the strategy, the RPW-IPM components connected with the dayto-day operations in the field are highlighted [37].

#### **5.1 Detection of infested palms**

Success of an RPW-IPM programme lies in the early detection of infested palms, and currently, visual inspection of palms is widely adopted to locate infested palms. Here, it is essential to break the cycle of the pest by locating an infested palm before adults emerge. A well-trained person can inspect 200–300 date palms per day depending on the terrain, palm density and field sanitation techniques adopted. In this context, a regular 45-day interval inspection of date palms in the susceptible age group of less than 20 years old is necessary. Vidyasagar [38] and Jaques [29] have detailed the protocols for visual inspection of the date and Canary island palms, respectively, in the FAO guidelines for RPW management. Research is underway in several countries to develop a cost-effective and user-friendly early detection device. Advanced techniques such as detecting chemical signatures, acoustic detection, use of infrared cameras, thermal imaging and satellite imaging/IoT are being researched upon [39–43]. However, farmers have to rely on visual (manual) inspection to detect an RPW infested palm, as these techniques are limited by their cost and the need for installing sophisticated hardware that is not easy to operate and requires specialized staff to operate.

#### **5.2 Pheromone trapping**

Ever since Hallett et al., [44] discovered the male-produced aggregation pheromone (ferrugineol) for RPW, food-baited (natural kairomone) bucket traps have

**11**

programme [54–57].

*Red Palm Weevil* Rhynchophorus ferrugineus *(Coleoptera: Curculionidae): Global Invasion…*

been widely used in monitoring and mass trapping programmes in the field. Over the years, trapping protocols with respect to trap design, trap colour, lures, release rate, food bait, trap servicing (periodic change of food bait), role of co-attractants, etc. have been researched in several countries [29, 45–50]. Pheromone trap captures help optimizing/prioritizing the inspection of palms to detect infestations. Depending on the availability of human resources, palms around the traps with higher weevil captures should be inspected on priority. El-Shafie and Faleiro [51] reported through the controlled olfactometer studies that only a part of the adult population is attracted to the pheromone lure, which calls for the integration of pheromone trapping with other RPW-IPM techniques. There is a tendency of overdependency on pheromone trapping and neglecting other RPW-IPM components, which leads to the build up and proliferation of the pest. Although the four-window black coloured bucket traps are popular, the dome-shaped conical Picusan™ is also

It is of utmost importance to adopt the best trapping protocols with respect to trap design, trap colour, density, servicing (periodic renewal of food bait), trap placement, lure attraction and longevity, etc., for food-baited RPW pheromone traps. Sub-standard trapping protocols would adversely impact the trapping efficiency and consequently limit the success of the control programme [52, 53]. In some countries, the food bait and water are placed in a small container inside the bucket trap. Often this container is insufficient to hold the required amount of the bait or falls inside the bucket, emptying the water resulting in the food becoming dry, which consequently adversely impacts the performance of the trap due to poor bait-lure synergy. It is therefore recommended to place the required amount of the food bait (150–200 g of dates) directly in the water (1 L) inside the bucket trap. Of utmost importance is the fortnightly servicing (replacement of the food bait and water) in the trap. An economic rationale would demand that easily available locally sourced food baits with good attraction to be used as bait in the trap. Consequently, green coconut petiole pieces would do well in the coconut growing countries of South and South East Asia, low-grade dates in the Middle East and North Africa and palm tissue/petiole pieces in the Mediterranean region where the Canary Island palm is popular. Pheromone lures are known to last for 2–3 months in the field. Adding a small amount (1 g) of non-repellent insecticide granules (carbofuran/ lanate) to the water in the trap could be useful in preventing the escape of adult weevils that enter the trap. However, in several countries where thousands of traps are in the field, the addition of insecticide in the trap is not practiced in view of the toxic side effects to the environment and potential harm to the staff who service the traps. Pheromone lures with both high attraction and field longevity should be selected. Do not discard old lures in the field or carry old lures to the residences of staff working in the field. These are to be brought back to the operations unit and incarnated or buried deep in the ground. Co-attractants (synthetic kairomones) such as ethyl acetate/ethyl alcohol are known to enhance captures in RPW pheromone traps, but could also significantly increase the cost of an area-wide control

As regards trap density, in surveillance programmes, set traps along the motorable roads @1 trap for every km. Depending on the pest intensity in mass trapping programmes, 1–4 traps/ha can be adopted [58]. Usually 1 trap/ha is deployed and if more traps are to be set in the field, use service-less trapping options (Attract and Kill; Dry trap-Electrap™) when trap density has to be enhanced beyond 1 trap/ha. Set traps preferably on the ground under the shade with around half of the bucket trap inserted into the soil. Do not place traps directly on young palms. Numbering/geo-referencing of every trap in the field is indispensable for periodic review of the situation in the field and mobilizing resources around traps with high

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93391*

used in several European countries.

*Red Palm Weevil* Rhynchophorus ferrugineus *(Coleoptera: Curculionidae): Global Invasion… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93391*

been widely used in monitoring and mass trapping programmes in the field. Over the years, trapping protocols with respect to trap design, trap colour, lures, release rate, food bait, trap servicing (periodic change of food bait), role of co-attractants, etc. have been researched in several countries [29, 45–50]. Pheromone trap captures help optimizing/prioritizing the inspection of palms to detect infestations. Depending on the availability of human resources, palms around the traps with higher weevil captures should be inspected on priority. El-Shafie and Faleiro [51] reported through the controlled olfactometer studies that only a part of the adult population is attracted to the pheromone lure, which calls for the integration of pheromone trapping with other RPW-IPM techniques. There is a tendency of overdependency on pheromone trapping and neglecting other RPW-IPM components, which leads to the build up and proliferation of the pest. Although the four-window black coloured bucket traps are popular, the dome-shaped conical Picusan™ is also used in several European countries.

It is of utmost importance to adopt the best trapping protocols with respect to trap design, trap colour, density, servicing (periodic renewal of food bait), trap placement, lure attraction and longevity, etc., for food-baited RPW pheromone traps. Sub-standard trapping protocols would adversely impact the trapping efficiency and consequently limit the success of the control programme [52, 53]. In some countries, the food bait and water are placed in a small container inside the bucket trap. Often this container is insufficient to hold the required amount of the bait or falls inside the bucket, emptying the water resulting in the food becoming dry, which consequently adversely impacts the performance of the trap due to poor bait-lure synergy. It is therefore recommended to place the required amount of the food bait (150–200 g of dates) directly in the water (1 L) inside the bucket trap. Of utmost importance is the fortnightly servicing (replacement of the food bait and water) in the trap. An economic rationale would demand that easily available locally sourced food baits with good attraction to be used as bait in the trap. Consequently, green coconut petiole pieces would do well in the coconut growing countries of South and South East Asia, low-grade dates in the Middle East and North Africa and palm tissue/petiole pieces in the Mediterranean region where the Canary Island palm is popular. Pheromone lures are known to last for 2–3 months in the field. Adding a small amount (1 g) of non-repellent insecticide granules (carbofuran/ lanate) to the water in the trap could be useful in preventing the escape of adult weevils that enter the trap. However, in several countries where thousands of traps are in the field, the addition of insecticide in the trap is not practiced in view of the toxic side effects to the environment and potential harm to the staff who service the traps. Pheromone lures with both high attraction and field longevity should be selected. Do not discard old lures in the field or carry old lures to the residences of staff working in the field. These are to be brought back to the operations unit and incarnated or buried deep in the ground. Co-attractants (synthetic kairomones) such as ethyl acetate/ethyl alcohol are known to enhance captures in RPW pheromone traps, but could also significantly increase the cost of an area-wide control programme [54–57].

As regards trap density, in surveillance programmes, set traps along the motorable roads @1 trap for every km. Depending on the pest intensity in mass trapping programmes, 1–4 traps/ha can be adopted [58]. Usually 1 trap/ha is deployed and if more traps are to be set in the field, use service-less trapping options (Attract and Kill; Dry trap-Electrap™) when trap density has to be enhanced beyond 1 trap/ha. Set traps preferably on the ground under the shade with around half of the bucket trap inserted into the soil. Do not place traps directly on young palms. Numbering/geo-referencing of every trap in the field is indispensable for periodic review of the situation in the field and mobilizing resources around traps with high

*Invasive Species - Introduction Pathways, Economic Impact, and Possible Management Options*

**Figure 6** depicts the components of the current RPW-IPM strategy at four levels. At level-1, the strategy realizes the control components at the operational level on a daily basis in the field. The area-wide management of RPW needs careful planning and timely intervention of the control techniques, able supervision and periodic performance analysis of the RPW-IPM strategy, besides the desired technical, human, intuitional, organizational and coordination capacities for effective

At *level-1* of the strategy, the RPW-IPM components connected with the day-

Success of an RPW-IPM programme lies in the early detection of infested palms, and currently, visual inspection of palms is widely adopted to locate infested palms. Here, it is essential to break the cycle of the pest by locating an infested palm before adults emerge. A well-trained person can inspect 200–300 date palms per day depending on the terrain, palm density and field sanitation techniques adopted. In this context, a regular 45-day interval inspection of date palms in the susceptible age group of less than 20 years old is necessary. Vidyasagar [38] and Jaques [29] have detailed the protocols for visual inspection of the date and Canary island palms, respectively, in the FAO guidelines for RPW management. Research is underway in several countries to develop a cost-effective and user-friendly early detection device. Advanced techniques such as detecting chemical signatures, acoustic detection, use of infrared cameras, thermal imaging and satellite imaging/IoT are being researched upon [39–43].

However, farmers have to rely on visual (manual) inspection to detect an RPW infested palm, as these techniques are limited by their cost and the need for installing sophisticated hardware that is not easy to operate and requires specialized staff to operate.

Ever since Hallett et al., [44] discovered the male-produced aggregation pheromone (ferrugineol) for RPW, food-baited (natural kairomone) bucket traps have

planning, delivery, monitoring and management of RPW in the field.

*RPW-IPM strategy implemented (Updated from http://www.fao.org/3/a-ms665e.pdf).*

to-day operations in the field are highlighted [37].

**5.1 Detection of infested palms**

**Figure 6.**

**5.2 Pheromone trapping**

**10**

weevil captures. It is important to emphasize that poor bait lure synergy due to sub-standard trapping protocols would end up in the palm smelling better than the trap and attracted weevils getting oriented to the palm instead of entering the trap. This is a very dangerous situation where a poorly maintained trap acts as a catalyst in creating new infestations.

Although the food-baited RPW pheromone trap is most popular, the periodic replacement of the food bait is cumbersome and not sustainable in the long run, especially in area-wide control programmes. In this context, bait and trap free technique of attract and kill has been tested and used to curtail the emerging adult RPW population [59, 60]. Another service-less RPW trapping option that works without the food bait/water is the dry Electrap™ [48]. The cost of incorporating these techniques in an area-wide control programme could be a factor to be considered and needs to be compared with the traditional food-baited pheromone trap before adoption. Large-scale control programmes would stand to benefit if smart traps capable of recording and transmitting weevil capture data on a 24×7 basis are developed. In this context, Potamitis et al. [61] and Aldhryhim and Al-Ayedh [62] have developed and tested smart traps for RPW, but these need advancement for large-scale deployment in the field. An ideal RPW pheromone trap would be the one that does not need servicing and automatically transmits weevil capture data on a 24×7 basis to the operations control unit.
