**4. Conclusion**

Given the invasive ability, evolutionary adaptability to changing conditions, virulence, and fecundity of RWA, it remains a threat to global wheat production and wheat cultivation. RWA remain present in all the wheat production areas of South Africa and these populations are becoming more virulent as indicated by the spread of the recently recorded biotype, RWASA5, in the Eastern Free State. Management practices in different regions of South Africa may cause increased virulence in RWA populations. Based on these observations testing of field populations to understand if insecticide resistance is evolving in RWA populations in the Western Cape is warranted. It is important that future management practices focus on sustainability instead of the indiscriminate use of insecticides globally to control RWA to date. Increasing diversity in fields through undersowing, reduced tillage, intercropping and incorporation of cover crops will be an effective start to sustainable management practices. Vegetation strips have favorable microclimate for survival of generalist predators, and alternative prey and resources during winter, resulting in higher densities of generalist predators in cereal fields [40, 41]. This together with minimal use of insecticides, only when necessary, will increase the insects providing ecosystem services and predators, parasitoids and pathogens that will keep RWA populations and economical damage low. Management approaches against cereal aphid invasions differ depending on aphid ecology, specific system influences, and local management practices [42]. Any practice based on aphid population monitoring that facilitates threshold-based insecticide use will be effective across agroecosystems, with area-wide management systems being most appropriate to large-scale cereal production systems.
