**7. Attempts at development and commercializing hybrid rice in Africa**

Egypt is the only African country that has successfully developed local rice hybrids in commercial scale. Hybrid rice research in Egypt started around 1982 and intensified since 1995 with the launching of a mission-oriented project through a cooperation between Rice Research Program of Egypt and International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Since then, hybrid rice varieties have been developed and released to help Egyptian farmers improve productivity and increase production [23, 24]. In conjunction with Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), several African countries started introducing and evaluating hybrid rice mostly from Asia. AfricaRice started a hybrid rice breeding program to developed hybrid varieties for the sub-Saharan Africa region starting from the year 2000 [15]. For a start, the AfricaRice program tried to build on hybrids developed by the Green Super Rice project jointly coordinated by the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), AfricaRice and IRRI. Hybrids from the project were evaluated for yield and general adaptability in the rainfed and irrigated ecologies of eight African countries (Liberia, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania and Uganda) [15]. Although promising hybrids out-yielded the best inbred checks, they were susceptible to the major pest and diseases in the region [15, 25]. This necessitated the development of AfricaRice's in-house hybrids program with the following objectives: (i) develop new parental lines from local varieties; (ii) determine adaptability of some CMS lines in Africa; and (iii) establish a hybrid rice seed production system in some African countries [15]. About 50 high-yielding hybrid rice lines were developed and evaluated in several African countries by the AfricaRice program [25]. Notable among them is the aromatic hybrid rice variety (AR051H) released in 2017 by the Senegalese Institute of Agricultural Research under the name ISRIZ 09. AfricaRice

**53**

*Hybrid Rice in Africa: Progress, Prospects, and Challenges*

(AHyRA). The key objectives for AHyRA initiative are to:

able use of hybrid rice in Africa.

and CORAF through donor support projects have been showcasing and promoting the adoption of hybrid rice technology in some Sub-Saharan African countries. Initial studies on local hybrid rice seed production in some West African countries indicate no technical hindrance since a seed yield of about 1–2 t/ha could be

Aside the AfricaRice's program, the African Agricultural Technology Foundation

1.Promote collaboration and business integration between stakeholders of rice

2.Create a consolidated advocacy for an enabling environment for the sustain-

4.Generate a robust database for parental lines and hybrid rice for the use of stakeholders, and private seed companies, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Other National Agricultural Research systems (NARs) in collaboration with multi-national and local private seed companies also initiate their own in-country hybrid rice development and commercialization endeavor. For instance, NARS in Ghana in collaboration with international and local private seed companies (WIENCO, ADVANTA and SEED CO.) have conducted studies into farmer preferred traits and potential for adoption of hybrid rice [27] in Ghana, evaluated introduced rice hybrids for yield, rection to disease and grain quality attributes [28]. A study has also been conducted to identify CMS maintainers and restorers for local hybrid rice development [29]. Although these efforts have led to the release of two hybrid rice varieties with 15–20% yield advantage over the best inbred check, promotion and commercialization is still low. Plans for in-country hybrid rice seed production has also not been materialized and seeds of these hybrid are still imported. Mali in collaboration with IRRI initiated its own hybrid rice development program in early 2011 [15]. A summary of countries involved in hybrid rice research and development and their status and collaborators is presented in **Table 1**. Examples of some released hybrid rice varieties on the African continent is presented in **Table 2**.

5.Strengthening the capacity of partners on the hybrid rice technologies.

value chains to develop, produce and market hybrid rice seeds.

3.Conduct joint adaptability testing of available hybrid rice varieties

(AATF) is working with partners to develop new indigenous rice hybrids that can increase rice yields and improve productivity for farmers in the Eastern and Southern Africa. Unlike AfricaRice's program which uses the CMS (three-line) system, the AATF project dubbed "breeding by design" uses the thermosensitive (two-line) system [26]. The partnership intends to develop hybrid rice germplasm that is adapted to African conditions using the 2-line hybrid rice system. Under the partnership, an information technology tool with interpolated weather surfaces to predict temperature regimes and manage 2-line hybrid rice production risk is being established. The project as well intends to train a network of researchers and seed production specialists interested in 2-line hybrid rice. The broad objective of the AATF partnership is to develop and expand 2-line hybrid rice technology in selected African countries and ensure that through private companies and public institutions in Africa, this technology reaches farmers and increases their rice yields and income. As support for hybrid rice on the African continent increases, the AATF and its partners including IRRI have formed the Alliance for Hybrid Rice in Africa

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93801*

obtained in many of these countries [15].

*Hybrid Rice in Africa: Progress, Prospects, and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93801*

*Recent Advances in Rice Research*

be introgressed into other parents.

*Indica*-Compatible *Japonica* Lines (ICJLs). These lines have a great promise of overcoming the intersubspecific hybrid sterility and exploiting the high heterosis between them. There is also a super hybrid rice breeding project in China trying to

exploit intersubspecific heterosis in combination with ideal plant type [17].

Various natural and artificial methods are employed to increase outcrossing rate in hybrid rice seed production. Among the artificial ones are flag leaf clipping, gibberellin application and supplementary pollination [14]. Besides, there are several traits that naturally contribute to hybrid rice seed production efficiency. These include days to heading, pollen load, pollen longevity, and morphological traits of floret such as size of stigma and style, stigma exertion, stigmatic receptivity and spikelet opening angle. Stigma exertion rate is emphasized as a key factor for efficient hybrid rice seed production [14]. The extent to which the stigma is exerted in the female parent (male sterile line) increases the chances of outcrossing thereby increasing hybrid seed set. Stigma exertion is a genetic trait and not all male sterile lines possess high expression of it. It is therefore possible to enhance the trait through specific breeding efforts using appropriate donors. Both qualitative and quantitative modes of inheritance have been reported for stigma exertion. Besides several quantitative trait loci (QTL) controlling stigma exertion have been mapped to different rice chromosomes [22] with molecular markers and can easily

**7. Attempts at development and commercializing hybrid rice in Africa**

Egypt is the only African country that has successfully developed local rice hybrids in commercial scale. Hybrid rice research in Egypt started around 1982 and intensified since 1995 with the launching of a mission-oriented project through a cooperation between Rice Research Program of Egypt and International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Since then, hybrid rice varieties have been developed and released to help Egyptian farmers improve productivity and increase production [23, 24]. In conjunction with Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), several African countries started introducing and evaluating hybrid rice mostly from Asia. AfricaRice started a hybrid rice breeding program to developed hybrid varieties for the sub-Saharan Africa region starting from the year 2000 [15]. For a start, the AfricaRice program tried to build on hybrids developed by the Green Super Rice project jointly coordinated by the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), AfricaRice and IRRI. Hybrids from the project were evaluated for yield and general adaptability in the rainfed and irrigated ecologies of eight African countries (Liberia, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania and Uganda) [15]. Although promising hybrids out-yielded the best inbred checks, they were susceptible to the major pest and diseases in the region [15, 25]. This necessitated the development of AfricaRice's in-house hybrids program with the following objectives: (i) develop new parental lines from local varieties; (ii) determine adaptability of some CMS lines in Africa; and (iii) establish a hybrid rice seed production system in some African countries [15]. About 50 high-yielding hybrid rice lines were developed and evaluated in several African countries by the AfricaRice program [25]. Notable among them is the aromatic hybrid rice variety (AR051H) released in 2017 by the Senegalese Institute of Agricultural Research under the name ISRIZ 09. AfricaRice

**6. Enhancing outcrossing in hybrid rice seed production**

**52**

and CORAF through donor support projects have been showcasing and promoting the adoption of hybrid rice technology in some Sub-Saharan African countries. Initial studies on local hybrid rice seed production in some West African countries indicate no technical hindrance since a seed yield of about 1–2 t/ha could be obtained in many of these countries [15].

Aside the AfricaRice's program, the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF) is working with partners to develop new indigenous rice hybrids that can increase rice yields and improve productivity for farmers in the Eastern and Southern Africa. Unlike AfricaRice's program which uses the CMS (three-line) system, the AATF project dubbed "breeding by design" uses the thermosensitive (two-line) system [26]. The partnership intends to develop hybrid rice germplasm that is adapted to African conditions using the 2-line hybrid rice system. Under the partnership, an information technology tool with interpolated weather surfaces to predict temperature regimes and manage 2-line hybrid rice production risk is being established. The project as well intends to train a network of researchers and seed production specialists interested in 2-line hybrid rice. The broad objective of the AATF partnership is to develop and expand 2-line hybrid rice technology in selected African countries and ensure that through private companies and public institutions in Africa, this technology reaches farmers and increases their rice yields and income. As support for hybrid rice on the African continent increases, the AATF and its partners including IRRI have formed the Alliance for Hybrid Rice in Africa (AHyRA). The key objectives for AHyRA initiative are to:


Other National Agricultural Research systems (NARs) in collaboration with multi-national and local private seed companies also initiate their own in-country hybrid rice development and commercialization endeavor. For instance, NARS in Ghana in collaboration with international and local private seed companies (WIENCO, ADVANTA and SEED CO.) have conducted studies into farmer preferred traits and potential for adoption of hybrid rice [27] in Ghana, evaluated introduced rice hybrids for yield, rection to disease and grain quality attributes [28]. A study has also been conducted to identify CMS maintainers and restorers for local hybrid rice development [29]. Although these efforts have led to the release of two hybrid rice varieties with 15–20% yield advantage over the best inbred check, promotion and commercialization is still low. Plans for in-country hybrid rice seed production has also not been materialized and seeds of these hybrid are still imported. Mali in collaboration with IRRI initiated its own hybrid rice development program in early 2011 [15]. A summary of countries involved in hybrid rice research and development and their status and collaborators is presented in **Table 1**. Examples of some released hybrid rice varieties on the African continent is presented in **Table 2**.


#### **Table 1.**

*African countries involved in hybrid rice research and development and their status.*


**Table 2.**

*Examples of released hybrid rice varieties on African continent.*

#### **8. Prospects of hybrid rice in Africa**

Hybrid rice has the potential to help increase rice production and productivity as well as reducing rice imports in Africa. The main tenet of hybrid rice technology is to employ the phenomenon of heterosis to out yield the available inbred semi-dwarf varieties. A yield advantage range of 15–20% over available inbred checks reported in other parts of the world has also been recorded in Africa [15, 24, 25, 28]. Scaling up and promoting adopting of these hybrids, will contribute to food security in general on the African continent. It will also enable majority of the populace afford to buy their staple food at reasonable prices thereby helping to maintain political stability. Improving rice productivity on the African continent has relied heavily on increasing land area which is unsustainable. Hybrid rice technology has the

**55**

*Hybrid Rice in Africa: Progress, Prospects, and Challenges*

ability to help save land required for rice production and put into other productive uses. The technology also could encourage private sector involvement in the rice seed research and development. One challenge for multi-nationals and other local private seed companies engaged on the African continent has been the unavailability of a functional plant variety protection (intellectual property) systems to protect their new varieties. Since the hybrid system provides some sort of biological intellectual property through the control hybrid parents, seed companies could operate effectively to recoup their investment. This in turn will assure farmers access to quality rice seed which normally is a challenge to improve rice productivity on the African continent. Hybrid rice cultivation requires fresh F1 seed for every cropping season. This will require the development of a functional hybrid seed production, processing and marketing infrastructure in the form of seed enterprises (public, private or NGOs). This has the potential to create additional rural employment opportunities for the rural folk mostly youth and women. Introduced hybrids were found to exhibit substantial yield advantage under both rainfed and irrigated lowland ecologies [25]. These two ecologies form a large portion of the available area for rice cultivation. Thus, hybrids varieties could be promoted widely among rice production regions of Africa. There seems to be an emerging interest by donor and international agencies working toward achieving rice self-sufficiency on the African continent to position hybrid rice as a technology that can contribute to a food secured Africa. Promotion of locally adapted high yielding varieties developed by AficaRice currently enjoys some donor support through technologies for African agricultural transformation (TAAT) rice compact and the West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development (CORAF). This involves working toward the right policies and infrastructural requirements to make this technol-

ogy thrive and such a concerted effort is bound to chalk some success.

limitation to the realizable field heterosis by hybrid varieties.

Sub-Saharan Africa is among the few places globally where rice yields are still low with average yield of about 2.2 t/ha. This is largely due to the use of less productive cultivation technologies and inputs particularly fertilize [31]. Although hybrid

Like other continents, Africa will have to overcome the major constraints to large scale adoption of hybrid rice. These include high cost of seeds, poor grain quality issues, pest and diseases susceptibility, human capacity for hybrid rice development and the difficulty of identifying higher heterosis (> 25%) at the field level [30]. Most African rice farmers have built a tradition of using self -saved seeds. This tradition, maybe, was to adapt to the unavailability of adequate reliable seed companies to ensure timely supply of quality rice seeds. Most rice farmers still use traditional varieties. For the few that use improved varieties, it is through the informal system. The business of rice seed production is at the budding stage and will have to be developed before hybrid varieties could have a place. Most African governments still ensures that their farmers get the benefits of improved seeds through the subsidy. The major challenge for hybrid rice includes whether African rice farmers will be willing to buy hybrid seeds for every cropping season and to do so at a higher price. The hybrid rice technology itself could also act as a catalyst to creating a sustainable rice seed business by providing varieties with high yield advantage which can attract farmers to patronize improved rice varieties. That means the realizable yield advantage of hybrids on the field should be high enough. Although initial studies suggest that farmers anticipate above 30% yield advantage over existing best inbred to guarantee adopting a variety that requires seasonal seed purchase [27], there is a technical

**9. Challenges of hybrid rice adoption**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93801*

#### *Hybrid Rice in Africa: Progress, Prospects, and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93801*

*Recent Advances in Rice Research*

**54**

**Table 2.**

**Table 1.**

**8. Prospects of hybrid rice in Africa**

*Examples of released hybrid rice varieties on African continent.*

**Hybrid Released** 

*Rice Center; FAO, Food and Agricultural Organization.*

**country**

*African countries involved in hybrid rice research and development and their status.*

Hybrid rice has the potential to help increase rice production and productivity as well as reducing rice imports in Africa. The main tenet of hybrid rice technology is to employ the phenomenon of heterosis to out yield the available inbred semi-dwarf varieties. A yield advantage range of 15–20% over available inbred checks reported in other parts of the world has also been recorded in Africa [15, 24, 25, 28]. Scaling up and promoting adopting of these hybrids, will contribute to food security in general on the African continent. It will also enable majority of the populace afford to buy their staple food at reasonable prices thereby helping to maintain political stability. Improving rice productivity on the African continent has relied heavily on increasing land area which is unsustainable. Hybrid rice technology has the

**Institution**

**Country Status Collaborating institutions/**

Egypt Grow locally developed hybrid rice varieties Rice Research and Training

Mozambique Evaluation of introduced hybrids AfricaRice hybrid rice

Nigeria Evaluation of introduced hybrids AfricaRice hybrid rice

Senegal Evaluation of introduced hybrids AfricaRice hybrid rice

Uganda Evaluation of introduced hybrids AfricaRice hybrid rice

Kenya Evaluation of introduced/developed hybrids AATF hybrid rice project *IRRI, International Rice Research Institute; AATF, African Agricultural Technology Transfer; AfricaRice, Africa* 

Tanzania Evaluation of introduced hybrids AfricaRice/AATF hybrid rice

Ghana Identification of farmer preferred traits, evaluation

Mali Evaluation of introduced hybrids, identification of CMS maintainers and restores

maintainers and restorers,

of introduced hybrids, identification of CMS

**projects**

projects

Centre, IRRI, FAO

Advanta, Seed Co, Wienco-Ghana

breeding program

breeding program

breeding program

breeding programs

breeding program

IRRI/AfricaRice hybrid rice

AR051H (ISRIZ 09) Senegal Senegalese Institute of Agricultural Research PAC 801 Ghana CSIR-Savanna Agricultural Research Institute

Arize 6444 Gold Ghana CSIR-Crops Research Institute EHR1 (SK2034) Egypt Rice Research and Training Centre EHRI2 (SK2046) Egypt Rice Research and Training Centre EHR3 (SK2151H) Egypt Rice Research and Training Centre ability to help save land required for rice production and put into other productive uses. The technology also could encourage private sector involvement in the rice seed research and development. One challenge for multi-nationals and other local private seed companies engaged on the African continent has been the unavailability of a functional plant variety protection (intellectual property) systems to protect their new varieties. Since the hybrid system provides some sort of biological intellectual property through the control hybrid parents, seed companies could operate effectively to recoup their investment. This in turn will assure farmers access to quality rice seed which normally is a challenge to improve rice productivity on the African continent. Hybrid rice cultivation requires fresh F1 seed for every cropping season. This will require the development of a functional hybrid seed production, processing and marketing infrastructure in the form of seed enterprises (public, private or NGOs). This has the potential to create additional rural employment opportunities for the rural folk mostly youth and women. Introduced hybrids were found to exhibit substantial yield advantage under both rainfed and irrigated lowland ecologies [25]. These two ecologies form a large portion of the available area for rice cultivation. Thus, hybrids varieties could be promoted widely among rice production regions of Africa. There seems to be an emerging interest by donor and international agencies working toward achieving rice self-sufficiency on the African continent to position hybrid rice as a technology that can contribute to a food secured Africa. Promotion of locally adapted high yielding varieties developed by AficaRice currently enjoys some donor support through technologies for African agricultural transformation (TAAT) rice compact and the West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development (CORAF). This involves working toward the right policies and infrastructural requirements to make this technology thrive and such a concerted effort is bound to chalk some success.
