**3. Methodology**

The study was carried-out in South-East agricultural zone of Nigeria. The zone is made up of five states, namely, Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. It has an estimated land mass of 32,610 km<sup>2</sup> and a population of 22,583,076 [18, 19]. The area lies between longitude 2o 61<sup>1</sup> and 6<sup>0</sup> 321 East and latitudes 6o 741 and 8o 15<sup>1</sup> North of Equator with the mean annual temperature ranges from 21.6 to 32.4°C while the annual rainfall ranges from 720 to 1440 mm in the rainforest region [22]. South-East Nigeria has two distinct ecological zones – the tropical rainforest to the South and derived guinea savanna to the North [23]. South-East Nigeria has fertile and well-drained soil and a good proportion of the population are essentially farmers. The sample for the study was drawn from rice farmers in the study area.

#### **3.1 Sampling technique**

A multi-stage random sampling procedure was adopted in the selection of respondents for the study. Secondly, three Local Government Areas (LGAs) were purposively selected from each of selected States giving a total of nine (9) local government areas for the study. Firstly three (3) States was randomly selected from the five (5) geopolitical zone of South-East, Zone of Nigeria. Secondly, three Local Government Areas (LGAs) was purposively selected from each of selected States giving a total of nine (9) local government areas for the study. Thirdly, three (3) communities were purposively selected from each of the nine (9) selected LGAs

*Does the Incidence of COVID-19 Pandemic Affect Rice Yield? Lessons from Southeast Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93744*

based on the concentration of rice farmers to give a total of twenty-seven (27) communities.

Finally, stratified random sampling techniques was used to select 14 crop rice farmers from each of the 27 selected communities to give a total sample size of 504 respondents for the study. The list of farmers in the communities, which forms the sample frame, was obtained from the zonal extension agents of each of the State Agricultural Development Programme in the selected States.

#### **3.2 Data collection and data analysis**

Nigeria has an estimated land mass of 32,610 km<sup>2</sup> and a population of 22,583,076 persons [18, 19]. On average, the poverty level in South East is about 43.00% which means that about 43.00% of South East citizens are classified as very poor [20]. Also it is estimated that the number of people living below the poverty line in developing countries of which Nigeria is included will rise by 29 million [21]. Therefore, this demonstrates how vulnerable farmers in the States and Nigeria in general are to

i. describing the socio-economic characteristics of the rice farmers;

ii. developing and describing the conceptual framework linking the effect of

iii. determining the awareness of COVID-19 pandemic among rice farmers;

v. identifying the COVID-19 pandemic precautionary measures farmers are

vi. ascertaining the perceived effect of COVID-19 pandemic on rice yield and

vii. identifying the barriers in mitigating COVID-19 pandemic in rice farming.

The study was carried-out in South-East agricultural zone of Nigeria. The zone is made up of five states, namely, Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. It has an estimated land mass of 32,610 km<sup>2</sup> and a population of 22,583,076 [18, 19]. The area

Equator with the mean annual temperature ranges from 21.6 to 32.4°C while the annual rainfall ranges from 720 to 1440 mm in the rainforest region [22]. South-East Nigeria has two distinct ecological zones – the tropical rainforest to the South and derived guinea savanna to the North [23]. South-East Nigeria has fertile and well-drained soil and a good proportion of the population are essentially farmers.

A multi-stage random sampling procedure was adopted in the selection of respondents for the study. Secondly, three Local Government Areas (LGAs) were purposively selected from each of selected States giving a total of nine (9) local government areas for the study. Firstly three (3) States was randomly selected from the five (5) geopolitical zone of South-East, Zone of Nigeria. Secondly, three Local Government Areas (LGAs) was purposively selected from each of selected States giving a total of nine (9) local government areas for the study. Thirdly, three (3) communities were purposively selected from each of the nine (9) selected LGAs

The sample for the study was drawn from rice farmers in the study area.

321 East and latitudes 6o

741 and 8o

15<sup>1</sup> North of

iv. identifying farmers sources of information on COVID-19 pandemic;

COVID-19 pandemic (**Figures 1** and **2**).

*Recent Advances in Rice Research*

**2. Specific objectives of the study**

practicing;

**3. Methodology**

lies between longitude 2o

**3.1 Sampling technique**

**186**

The study was logically and specifically guided by

COVID-19 pandemic in rice farming;

61<sup>1</sup> and 6<sup>0</sup>

Primary data was used for the study. Primary data was collected through the use of structured questionnaire and it was supplemented with interview schedule in places where the respondents could neither read nor write. The author developed and used a COVID-19 risk and effectiveness questionnaire to elicit data from the respondents. The questionnaire was contained both open and closed ended form of questions. Similarly, the questionnaire was properly subjected to content validity with the help of the research supervisors before administrating it to the respondents. The questionnaire was divided into five sections. Section one covered the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers. Section two dealt identifying the awareness to COVID-19 and sources of information on COVID-19 pandemic; Section three focused on determining COVID-19 pandemic precautionary measures use among farmers; section four measure the perceived effect of COVID-19 pandemic on rice yield and while section five identified the constraints in mitigating COVID-19 pandemic in rice farming. The survey was conducted at the onset of discovering of the index case of COVID-19 in Nigeria (27 February 2020) that is, from March to July 2020 with the help of two-hundred (200) enumerators i.e. forty (40) for each State.

This study used descriptive statistical tools in analyzing the data. Descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution, percentages, mean, flow charts and 4-point likert scale type was used to analyze the data so as to realize objectives. The 4-point likert scale type was given as follows; 4 = Very High effectiveness; 3 = Highly effective; 2 = Moderately effective and 1 = Not effective.

$$\mathbf{4} + \mathbf{3} + \mathbf{2} + \mathbf{1} = \mathbf{10}/\mathbf{4} \tag{1}$$

$$= 2.50 \text{ cut-off point} \tag{2}$$

#### **4. Conceptual framework for the effect of COVID-19 in rice farming**

The conceptual framework that guided this study was developed by the authors based on literature review and field work is presented in **Figure 4**, it provides a clear links between independent or explanatory variables and dependent variables as well as summarizes the mechanisms through which COVID-19 pandemic affects rice farmers livelihood, farm resources, labor, rice production, health status, access to market, food security. To examine the effects of COVID-19 on rice farming, the author developed a concept to link the important variables as shown in **Figure 4**. Microeconomic explanation of individual and household poverty revolves around the understanding that an individual's labor (health and energy), human capital (education and skills), and physical and social assets (such as land and access to a social network) determine the individual's ability to generate income both today and in the future [24–26].

From **Figure 3**, Illness results in morbidity and sometimes mortality. These reduce labor availability through absenteeism or death of agricultural producers/ worker. Through morbidity the quantity and quality of labor to the household is also affected because the sick may abstain completely or partially from work during the period of illness. Additionally, from **Figure 4**, labor availability is also indirectly affected when labor of productive members of the household is diverted from the farm to caring for the sick. When sick persons die, the knowledge that they acquired through learning and experience is no longer available for others to use and considerable rice agricultural knowledge is lost. However, it must be pointed out that although chronic illness (COVID-19) results in a net decrease in household labor (the ill and the caretaker), the death of a chronically ill person who had a fulltime caretaker can result in increased household labor when the caretaker returns to

*Does the Incidence of COVID-19 Pandemic Affect Rice Yield? Lessons from Southeast Nigeria*

the workforce. This is true as production, adaptation to climate change and

Moving forward, from **Figure 3**, the cost of healthcare for sick persons from COVID-19, and its protocols and of funerals drive many households into debt, and they resort to using their savings and remittances they receive or even sell household and farm assets to defray the costs. For instance, due to costs of treatment, cost of COVID-19 protocol and other expenses as well as lower incomes from loss of labor, COVID-19 affected households usually draw on assets from the farm. After the onset of COVID-19, savings and financial assets are usually the first to be depleted. Then, non-productive assets, such as furniture, cooking utensils and clothes follow. Ultimately, households may have to sell off productive assets such as

The outcomes of these effects include reduction of farm sizes, cultivation of lessintensive improved rice varieties, reduction in the variety of rice field planted, and the increase in climate change impact and greenhouse gases emission. The study of [14, 28] found that rice field is a significant anthropogenic source of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), two important greenhouse gases (GHGs). These outcomes affect livelihoods in terms of reduction in rice farm outputs and income, a decline in income from

**Table 1** revealed that majority (58.53%) fell within the age range of 41–50 years.

The mean age was 45.00 years. This shows that farmers in the area are vibrant, young and still within the active age. Rice farming is so strenuous. The implication is that younger farmers are more likely to practice more and modern farming method in reducing the effect of COVID-19 faster than the older ones. Young farmers are more likely to know about new strategies to avert COVID-19 effect with the willingness to bear risk. **Table 1** also reveals that majority (61.30%) of the farmers were males. The finding implies that both sexes are involved in rice farming but male are more in number in the area. This is true as male farmers has been

Entries in **Table 1** also show that greater proportion (57.73%) had secondary school education. The mean educational level is 12 years which is equivalent to secondary school education. The finding implies that approximately 96.83% of the farmers had formal education which is expected to increase their level of understanding on the effect of COVID-19 in rice farms and various strategies to practice

wage labor, rice yield, market access, off-farm activities, and food insecurity.

mitigation GHGs emissions in rice field are costly [14, 16, 27].

equipment, draught animals, and land.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93744*

**5. Results and discussion**

in thwarting these new threats.

**189**

**5.1 Socio-economic characteristics of rice farmers**

found to be more relatively efficient that women farmers [29].

**Figure 3.** *Map of Nigeria showing the Study Area [14].*

#### *Does the Incidence of COVID-19 Pandemic Affect Rice Yield? Lessons from Southeast Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93744*

From **Figure 3**, Illness results in morbidity and sometimes mortality. These reduce labor availability through absenteeism or death of agricultural producers/ worker. Through morbidity the quantity and quality of labor to the household is also affected because the sick may abstain completely or partially from work during the period of illness. Additionally, from **Figure 4**, labor availability is also indirectly affected when labor of productive members of the household is diverted from the farm to caring for the sick. When sick persons die, the knowledge that they acquired through learning and experience is no longer available for others to use and considerable rice agricultural knowledge is lost. However, it must be pointed out that although chronic illness (COVID-19) results in a net decrease in household labor (the ill and the caretaker), the death of a chronically ill person who had a fulltime caretaker can result in increased household labor when the caretaker returns to the workforce. This is true as production, adaptation to climate change and mitigation GHGs emissions in rice field are costly [14, 16, 27].

Moving forward, from **Figure 3**, the cost of healthcare for sick persons from COVID-19, and its protocols and of funerals drive many households into debt, and they resort to using their savings and remittances they receive or even sell household and farm assets to defray the costs. For instance, due to costs of treatment, cost of COVID-19 protocol and other expenses as well as lower incomes from loss of labor, COVID-19 affected households usually draw on assets from the farm. After the onset of COVID-19, savings and financial assets are usually the first to be depleted. Then, non-productive assets, such as furniture, cooking utensils and clothes follow. Ultimately, households may have to sell off productive assets such as equipment, draught animals, and land.

The outcomes of these effects include reduction of farm sizes, cultivation of lessintensive improved rice varieties, reduction in the variety of rice field planted, and the increase in climate change impact and greenhouse gases emission. The study of [14, 28] found that rice field is a significant anthropogenic source of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), two important greenhouse gases (GHGs). These outcomes affect livelihoods in terms of reduction in rice farm outputs and income, a decline in income from wage labor, rice yield, market access, off-farm activities, and food insecurity.

#### **5. Results and discussion**

#### **5.1 Socio-economic characteristics of rice farmers**

**Table 1** revealed that majority (58.53%) fell within the age range of 41–50 years. The mean age was 45.00 years. This shows that farmers in the area are vibrant, young and still within the active age. Rice farming is so strenuous. The implication is that younger farmers are more likely to practice more and modern farming method in reducing the effect of COVID-19 faster than the older ones. Young farmers are more likely to know about new strategies to avert COVID-19 effect with the willingness to bear risk. **Table 1** also reveals that majority (61.30%) of the farmers were males. The finding implies that both sexes are involved in rice farming but male are more in number in the area. This is true as male farmers has been found to be more relatively efficient that women farmers [29].

Entries in **Table 1** also show that greater proportion (57.73%) had secondary school education. The mean educational level is 12 years which is equivalent to secondary school education. The finding implies that approximately 96.83% of the farmers had formal education which is expected to increase their level of understanding on the effect of COVID-19 in rice farms and various strategies to practice in thwarting these new threats.

**Figure 4.**

**188**

**Figure 3.**

*Map of Nigeria showing the Study Area [14].*

*Recent Advances in Rice Research*

*Conceptual framework for the effect of COVID-19 in rice farming (Researcher's own construct, 2020).*
