**5. Policy implications**

*Recent Advances in Rice Research*

*applied/applied chemical fertilizer).*

*2. The data contains 486 observations with a missing value.*

**238**

**4.6 Farm institutions**

*Notes:* 

*Notes:* 

**Table 5.**

**Table 6.**

*member).*

*farmer group.*

Farm institutions consist of two variables: agricultural extension services and farmer groups. The farmer group plays a crucial role in Indonesian rice farming. The government used farmer groups to deliver various programs related to rice farming, such as the distribution of subsidized fertilizer, seed, agricultural machinery, and program related to the improvement of farming practices. Thus, participation in farmer group improves farmer ability to adapt to climate change and decreases their perceived impact of climate change. Unfortunately, only 52.2% of Indonesian farmers registered in the farmer group. It suggests that there is still a large proportion of

*2. The value in brackets indicates the within-group percentage (have no access/have access and non-member/*

*3. The data contains 39 observations with a missing value for Extension services and 486 missing values for the* 

*The distribution of farmers based on access to extension services and farmer group membership.*

**Region Extension services Farmer group**

*The distribution of Indonesian rice farmers based on the cropping system and chemical fertilizer application.*

**Region Cropping system Chemical Fertilizer**

Sumatera 881 (26.2) 22,584 (27.1) 2633 (35) 20,832 (26.3) Java 880 (26.2) 32,306 (38.7) 225 (3) 32,961 (41.5) Kalimantan 829 (24.7) 8833 (10.6) 2947 (39.2) 6715 (8.5) Sulawesi 183 (5.4) 10,413 (12.5) 820 (10.9) 9776 (12.3) Bali and Nusa Tenggara 551 (16.4) 8225 (9.9) 805 (10.7) 7971 (10) Maluku and Papua 39 (1.2) 1120 (1.3) 84 (1.1) 1075 (1.4) **Indonesia 3363 (3.9) 83,481 (96.1) 7514 (8.6) 79,330 (91.4)**

**Multiculture Monoculture Not applied Applied**

Sumatera 18,748 (28.8) 4717 (21.8) 11,299 (27.2) 12,166 (26.8) Java 24,022 (36.9) 9164 (42.3) 17,794 (42.9) 15,392 (34) Kalimantan 7331 (11.3) 2331 (10.8) 4465 (10.8) 5197 (11.5) Sulawesi 7442 (11.4) 3154 (14.5) 4176 (10.1) 6420 (14.2) Bali and Nusa Tenggara 6937 (10.6) 1839 (8.5) 3703 (8.9) 5073 (11.2) Maluku and Papua 684 (1) 475 (2.2) 84 (0.2) 1075 (2.4) **Indonesia 65,614 (75.2) 21,680 (24.8) 41,521 (47.8) 45,323 (52.2)**

**Have access Non-member Member**

**Have no access**

*1. The value in brackets indicates the within-group percentage (multi-culture/monoculture and not* 

*1. The region classification is similar to those presented in Table 5.*

Agricultural extension service is the second farm institution. Agricultural extension plays a crucial in the dissemination of agricultural technology, farming practices,

farmers with no access to farmer groups and their subsequent facility.

The results of this study indicate that several factors influence the impact of climate change on farmers. Female farmers are more able to adapt to climate change than male farmers. Socialization theory suggests that women are sensitive to respond to change. Thus, female farmers have relevant characters for implementing climate change adaptation and mitigation than male farmers. Therefore, increasing the participation of women farmers in climate change adaptation activities and making adaptation decisions is a crucial factor in increasing farmers' resilience to climate change. Besides, focusing on the region with a high number of vulnerable farmers is crucial to improve the effectiveness of the policy. **Figure 5** shows the distribution of farmers with characteristics of those who perceived a high climate change impact.

The level of education and access to extension reduce the negative impacts of climate change. The information provided by extension agencies can encourage farmers to adapt to face the risks of climate change. Studies on farmers in Mali and Senegal [48] and West Africa [49] show that information is a crucial factor for determining the type of adaptation and increasing farmers' resilience to the risks of climate change. Therefore, it is essential to increase the ability to provide information to minimize the impact of climate change. Strengthening information on climate change can be done in two ways, namely increasing the reach of extension agencies, as well as increasing the role of individual extension workers or extension carried out from farmer to farmer.

The government can strengthen the role of individual farmer extension agents by selecting key farmers or farmers with high levels of education and knowledge. Conduct intensive training for these farmers, and provide supporting programs through these farmers. This strategy is feasible to implement, considering that rice farmers with a high level of education are at the age of 20–40 years.

Land ownership has a positive effect on minimizing the risk of climate change impacts. This study shows that farmers with owned land types have a greater incentive to adapt than farmers with production sharing or rental models. The implementation of climate change policies based on land ownership types can be focused on farmers with weak ownership status. So that farmers with a land lease and sharecropping status will apply adaptation strategies. This strategy is crucial to be implemented, considering that 30% of rice farmers in Indonesia are classified as lease and sharecropping farmers. If these farmers do not adapt to climate change, rice production will decline substantially and threaten food security in Indonesia.

**Figure 5.**

*The distribution of farmers with a high perceived-impact of climate change (A) low education farmers, (B) male farmers, (C) lease/sharecropping farmers, (D) farmers with no irrigation, (E) multiculture farmers, (F) farmers not applied fertilizer, (G) non-member in farmer group, and (H) No access to extension services (the color indicate the farmer density, the darker the color, the higher the density) (source: Authors work).*
