**3. Climate change and biodiversity**

*Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development*

Western: October–

December and

February–May

**222**

**Zone** 5. Southern

Southern: a broad ridge from

N. Morogoro to N. Lake Nyasa, covering

and western

highlands

part of Iringa, Mbeya

Southwestern: Ufipa plateau in

Sumbawanga

Western: along the shore of Lake

Tanganyika in Kigoma and Kagera

6. Nothern

Northern: Foot of Mt. Kilimanjaro and

highlands

Mt. Meru

Eastern rift valley to Eyasi

Granite Mts. Uluguru in Morogoro, Pare

Mts. in Kilimanjaro and Usambara Mts. in

Tanga, Tarime highlands in Mara

K—Kilomberao (Morogoro)

R—Rufuji (Coast)

U—Usangu (Mbeya)

W—Wami (Morogoro)

*Source: URT [7].*

**Table 1.**

*Agroecological zones of Tanzania.*

7. Alluvial

plains

**Sub-zones**

**Soil and topography**

Southern: undulating plains to dissected hills

and mountains. Moderately fertile clay soils with

volcanic soils in Mbeya

Southwestern: undulating plateau above rift valleys

and sand soils of low fertility

Western: North-south ridges separated by swampy

Western:

Western: bimodal,

1000–2000 mm

100–1800 m

valleys, loam and clay soils of low fertility in hills,

with alluvium and ponded clays in the valleys

Northern: volcanic uplands, volcanic soils from lavas

Northern:

Northern: bimodal, varies

Northern:

November–January

and March–June

Granitic Mts.:

October–December

and March–June

K—November–

April

R—December–

April

widely between 1000 and

2000 mm

1000–2500 m

Granitic Mts.:

Granitic Mts.: bimodal

and very reliable

1000–2000 m

K—Unimodal, very

reliable, 900–1300 mm

R—Unimodal,

often inadequate

800–1200 mm

U—Unimodal,

U—December–

March

W—December–

March

500–800 mm

W—Unimodal,

600–1800 mm

1000–2000 m

and ash. Deep fertile loams. Soils in dry areas prone

Granite steep mountain side to highland plateaux.

Soils are deep, arable, and moderately fertile on

upper slopes, shallow and stony on steep slopes

K—cental clay plain with alluvial fans east and west

R-wide mangrove swamp delta, alluvial soils, sandy

upstream, loamy down steam in floodplain

U—seasonally flooded clay soils in north, alluvial

W—moderately alkaline black soils in east, alluvial

fans with well-drained black loam in west

fans in south

to water erosion

**Altitude** Southern:

1200–1500 m

Southwestern:

Southern: unimodal,

Southwestern:

November–April

1400–2300 m

reliable, and

800–1000 mm

**Rainfall (mm/yr)**

Southern: unimodal,

reliable, and local rain

shadows, 800–1400 mm

**G/season**

Northern:

December–April

It is obvious that the impact of climate change will continue to affect the biodiversity in most developing countries [22]. These effects are more pronounced and significant in vulnerable agro-biodiversity. IPCC 2014 reports that Tanzania is among the 13 countries in the world which are affected and most vulnerable to the impact of climate change [23]. This is evidenced by the reality seen on the ground. In this sense, climate change has impacted crop production, forest ecology, fishery industry, and livestock just to mention a few [4, 20–22].

Furthermore, climate change has affected crop genetics, the functioning of the soil microbial (due to drought), landscape, and the entire livelihood systems of 75% of the Tanzanian population (i.e., farmers). Basing on our discussion, the people and biodiversity found in low/marginal areas are more stressed than those in high potential zones. The livelihood options of the poor people in the marginal areas are too limited as they entirely depend on the environment [5].

Currently, the environment is stressed and has failed to support the people, thus the people are further subjected into distress. Prospectively, climate change will affect the ecosystem services and agricultural biodiversity, and the magnitude of the impacts will differ according to biophysical characteristics of the particular area [13].

#### **3.1 Climate change impact on crop production**

The increase in temperature and decrease in rainfall (including the shift of rainfall pattern) have significant impact to crop production in most developing countries [1–5]. In most areas of the country, there is significant correlation between the trend of crop production and that of rainfall [3–5]. In the years with poor yields, there have been incidences of low rainfall.

Agricultural systems are affected by drought and erratic rainfall, and therefore, the condition cannot support crop production. Specifically, crop failure has been more pronounced in the semiarid (i.e., Dodoma, Singida, Tabora, Manyara, and Shinyanga regions) due to prolonged drought and poor soil replenishment [2, 13]. Therefore, semiarid is among the marginal areas with excessive drought, crop failure, and food insecurity [3, 24]. As adaptation measure, farmers are advised to use drought-resistant crops and diverse crop varieties which are tolerant to drought [7, 14].

For example, SARO 5 rice varieties have been adopted in some rice-producing areas (such as Kilombero and parts of Kilosa districts) that face frequent droughts. Agronomic practices done in most marginal areas provide insights on how to optimize climate resilience in these areas. The dominant agricultural systems in these areas are monoculture, shifting cultivation, and extensive livestock rearing just to mention a few [21]. These practices have significant impacts to soil and its ingredients [21, 22, 24, 25].

However, there are limited soil management practices that are sustainably done in these areas [3]. Comparatively, the high potential zones experience little impacts than their counterparts. According to IPCC 2014, Tanzania will experience diverse impacts of climate change in the agriculture sector [23]. It is predicted that rainfall will increase in bimodal rainfall pattern (high potential zone) and decrease in unimodal rainfall pattern (low potential zone), therefore affecting the already stressed areas (low potential zone). In the high potential zone, especially in Eastern Arc Mountain and alluvial plain just to mention few, the natural replenishment of soil fertility through litter and/or organic matter decomposition is high because the microbial processes such as mycorrhizae can adequately perform their functions [26, 27]. Subsequently, carbon sequestration seems to be more significant in these areas [28, 29]. Therefore, these areas become potential for crop production and other livelihood patterns as they support diverse production systems.

#### **3.2 Climate change impact on the soil**

Climate is among the significant factors in the formation of the soil. Specifically, temperature, rainfall, and atmospheric carbon have specific function in the decomposition of litter and other plant biomass to organic matter [30]. The concentration of atmospheric CO2 increases the growth rate and water-use efficiency of crops and natural vegetation [5]. Subsequently, the increased microbial activity in the soil always leads to the increase in the rates of plant nutrient release (e.g., C, K, Mg, and trace nutrients just to mention a few) from weathering of soil minerals. Similarly, the mycorrhizal activity leads to better phosphate uptake [31].

Subsequently, the increase in soil temperature creates a favorable condition for microbial activity. In turn, this increases the rate of organic matter and litter decomposition for forming soil fertility. Among the soil nutrients formed in this process are soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, and soil Olsen-P [27, 30, 31]. These nutrients are significant for plant uptake for growth and increased production. These processes are more pronounced in the high potential zone than in the low potential zone [5–7].

Therefore, high potential zones can produce more crop yields than low potential zones and therefore, the peoples' livelihoods in these areas are potentially better [3–8]. For instance, in the northern highland of Tanzania, granite soil is dominant, and this soil is useful for plant growth and improvement of agricultural systems in those areas. Therefore, these two zones have distinct characteristics and they offer diverse livelihood options [15].

#### **3.3 Effects of rainfall on the landscape**

The increase and decrease in rainfall have diverse impacts to different landscapes. This brings insight that different landscapes may have different ways to adapt to climate change impacts [7–9]. Geographically, highland areas have different biophysical characteristics from lowland areas. It is noted that landscape determines the flow of water runoff and infiltration [6]. It is expected that in plain areas with well-drained soil, there will be loss of soil nutrient through infiltration, while in steep slope with compact soil, nutrient will get lost through water runoff [5–10].

This scenario is expected to be significant in bimodal rainfall where rainfall is expected to increase [6]. In Mvomero and Kilosa districts of Morogoro region, there have been frequent occurrences of floods due to heavy rains [5]. This hazard is propagated by the characteristics of the landscape, that is, highland and lowland. Similarly, landslides and mudflow have been occurring and are significantly expected to occur in these areas [5].

**225**

these crops.

challenges.

*Climate Change Implications to High and Low Potential Zones of Tanzania*

Besides, drought is expected to be pronounced in areas with unimodal rainfall pattern [6]. And this will pose effects depending on the landscape of the area. In this aspect, steep slope will experience poor soil formation and thus the area is not favorable for agriculture. Lowland areas may experience less impacts of drought than highland areas [5]. And this brings insights that agricultural potentials may

Basing on the potentiality of the area (high and low potential zones), lowland areas often receive nutrients and water from highland areas through runoff and therefore improve the agricultural systems of the locality [1–3]. Highland and steep slope areas might be vulnerable to environmental stress, thus providing less potentials in agricultural systems unless there are other sources of resources, that is, water and soil fertility [6–10]. To control this, some farmers and institutions have been practicing some farming systems that are ecologically significant to adapt to climate change and impacts related to environmental stresses [1–6]. Preferably, conservation agriculture has been opted as a possible absorber of these stresses and shocks. The "Matengo" farming systems in Ruvuma region and the "Ngitiri" pasture farming in Shinyanga, just to mention a few, are some good examples of the men-

The increase in temperature at both global and local levels is predicted to impact a wide range of biodiversity, including the extinction of some animals and plant species [7]. The predicted increase in temperature by 1.5–2.5°C will increase the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide and eventually affect the ecosystem functions, biotic species, ecological interactions, and water supply. IPCC 2014 predicts that by 2100, the threshold of resilience of most ecosystems is going to be

Agricultural systems (animal and crop production) are most concerned in this case. Temperature will increase incidences of drought, flooding, wildfire, ocean acidification, eutrophication (especially in Lake Victoria), and pollution just to mention a few. As a response to this, farmers engage in land-use changes and

Besides, ecosystem services, particularly sources, will be severely affected. However, the magnitude of these impacts will differ depending on the level of vulnerability, that is, high and low potential zones [10]. There will be relief to some agroecological zones (with high potentials) and severe impacts to low potential zones [12–16]. This will also be based on the ecological gradient and landscape of the area. Losses of biodiversity (agroecological systems) will automatically affect food security and socioeconomic challenges caused by ecological

Livestock rearing, on the other hand, will experience similar impacts. Some genetic breeds which are vulnerable to climate change impacts will be substituted by drought-resistant breeds. In most drought areas of Tanzania, drought-resistant animals have been replacing the vulnerable ones. Camels (i.e., though few) have

Basing on the actual and potential impacts of climate change on resources, some adaptation strategies and mechanisms have been adopted to reduce the magnitude of the impacts [3]. Similarly, landscapes have been determining the best use of the land [3–8]. Previously, highland areas (southern highland of Tanzania) have been used for tea and coffee plantations. However, due to the changing climate, these areas have become warmer than before and therefore are not conducive for

been adopted instead of goat, sheep, and cow just to mention a few.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93384*

differ between the two areas.

tioned conservation agriculture [5–9].

reduced and narrowed naturally [23].

**3.4 Climate change impact on agricultural systems**

overexploitation of resources to meet their needs [6].

#### *Climate Change Implications to High and Low Potential Zones of Tanzania DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93384*

*Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development*

**3.2 Climate change impact on the soil**

diverse livelihood options [15].

water runoff [5–10].

**3.3 Effects of rainfall on the landscape**

expected to occur in these areas [5].

However, there are limited soil management practices that are sustainably done in these areas [3]. Comparatively, the high potential zones experience little impacts than their counterparts. According to IPCC 2014, Tanzania will experience diverse impacts of climate change in the agriculture sector [23]. It is predicted that rainfall will increase in bimodal rainfall pattern (high potential zone) and decrease in unimodal rainfall pattern (low potential zone), therefore affecting the already stressed areas (low potential zone). In the high potential zone, especially in Eastern Arc Mountain and alluvial plain just to mention few, the natural replenishment of soil fertility through litter and/or organic matter decomposition is high because the microbial processes such as mycorrhizae can adequately perform their functions [26, 27]. Subsequently, carbon sequestration seems to be more significant in these areas [28, 29]. Therefore, these areas become potential for crop production and

other livelihood patterns as they support diverse production systems.

the mycorrhizal activity leads to better phosphate uptake [31].

Climate is among the significant factors in the formation of the soil. Specifically, temperature, rainfall, and atmospheric carbon have specific function in the decomposition of litter and other plant biomass to organic matter [30]. The concentration of atmospheric CO2 increases the growth rate and water-use efficiency of crops and natural vegetation [5]. Subsequently, the increased microbial activity in the soil always leads to the increase in the rates of plant nutrient release (e.g., C, K, Mg, and trace nutrients just to mention a few) from weathering of soil minerals. Similarly,

Subsequently, the increase in soil temperature creates a favorable condition for microbial activity. In turn, this increases the rate of organic matter and litter decomposition for forming soil fertility. Among the soil nutrients formed in this process are soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, and soil Olsen-P [27, 30, 31]. These nutrients are significant for plant uptake for growth and increased production. These processes are more pronounced in the high potential zone than in the low potential zone [5–7]. Therefore, high potential zones can produce more crop yields than low potential zones and therefore, the peoples' livelihoods in these areas are potentially better [3–8]. For instance, in the northern highland of Tanzania, granite soil is dominant, and this soil is useful for plant growth and improvement of agricultural systems in those areas. Therefore, these two zones have distinct characteristics and they offer

The increase and decrease in rainfall have diverse impacts to different landscapes. This brings insight that different landscapes may have different ways to adapt to climate change impacts [7–9]. Geographically, highland areas have different biophysical characteristics from lowland areas. It is noted that landscape determines the flow of water runoff and infiltration [6]. It is expected that in plain areas with well-drained soil, there will be loss of soil nutrient through infiltration, while in steep slope with compact soil, nutrient will get lost through

This scenario is expected to be significant in bimodal rainfall where rainfall is expected to increase [6]. In Mvomero and Kilosa districts of Morogoro region, there have been frequent occurrences of floods due to heavy rains [5]. This hazard is propagated by the characteristics of the landscape, that is, highland and lowland. Similarly, landslides and mudflow have been occurring and are significantly

**224**

Besides, drought is expected to be pronounced in areas with unimodal rainfall pattern [6]. And this will pose effects depending on the landscape of the area. In this aspect, steep slope will experience poor soil formation and thus the area is not favorable for agriculture. Lowland areas may experience less impacts of drought than highland areas [5]. And this brings insights that agricultural potentials may differ between the two areas.

Basing on the potentiality of the area (high and low potential zones), lowland areas often receive nutrients and water from highland areas through runoff and therefore improve the agricultural systems of the locality [1–3]. Highland and steep slope areas might be vulnerable to environmental stress, thus providing less potentials in agricultural systems unless there are other sources of resources, that is, water and soil fertility [6–10]. To control this, some farmers and institutions have been practicing some farming systems that are ecologically significant to adapt to climate change and impacts related to environmental stresses [1–6]. Preferably, conservation agriculture has been opted as a possible absorber of these stresses and shocks. The "Matengo" farming systems in Ruvuma region and the "Ngitiri" pasture farming in Shinyanga, just to mention a few, are some good examples of the mentioned conservation agriculture [5–9].

### **3.4 Climate change impact on agricultural systems**

The increase in temperature at both global and local levels is predicted to impact a wide range of biodiversity, including the extinction of some animals and plant species [7]. The predicted increase in temperature by 1.5–2.5°C will increase the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide and eventually affect the ecosystem functions, biotic species, ecological interactions, and water supply. IPCC 2014 predicts that by 2100, the threshold of resilience of most ecosystems is going to be reduced and narrowed naturally [23].

Agricultural systems (animal and crop production) are most concerned in this case. Temperature will increase incidences of drought, flooding, wildfire, ocean acidification, eutrophication (especially in Lake Victoria), and pollution just to mention a few. As a response to this, farmers engage in land-use changes and overexploitation of resources to meet their needs [6].

Besides, ecosystem services, particularly sources, will be severely affected. However, the magnitude of these impacts will differ depending on the level of vulnerability, that is, high and low potential zones [10]. There will be relief to some agroecological zones (with high potentials) and severe impacts to low potential zones [12–16]. This will also be based on the ecological gradient and landscape of the area. Losses of biodiversity (agroecological systems) will automatically affect food security and socioeconomic challenges caused by ecological challenges.

Livestock rearing, on the other hand, will experience similar impacts. Some genetic breeds which are vulnerable to climate change impacts will be substituted by drought-resistant breeds. In most drought areas of Tanzania, drought-resistant animals have been replacing the vulnerable ones. Camels (i.e., though few) have been adopted instead of goat, sheep, and cow just to mention a few.

Basing on the actual and potential impacts of climate change on resources, some adaptation strategies and mechanisms have been adopted to reduce the magnitude of the impacts [3]. Similarly, landscapes have been determining the best use of the land [3–8]. Previously, highland areas (southern highland of Tanzania) have been used for tea and coffee plantations. However, due to the changing climate, these areas have become warmer than before and therefore are not conducive for these crops.

Instead, maize, beans, and other moderate crops have been grown in these areas as paradigm shift [3–6]. And thus, coffee, tea, and pyrethrum have been grown in small scale or are totally redundant due to change of weather.

## **4. Agricultural biodiversity for climate change adaptation**

Adaptive capacity to climate change impacts is varied over space and time. People have diverse capacity to adapt to climate change impacts [15–20]. Some are vulnerable, while others are resilient and they can recover soon from the impacts. Similarly, the thresholds of adaptive capacity is subject among other things to resource entitlements, that is, human asset, financial asset, physical asset, and technological asset just to mention a few [21, 22, 24].

Tanzania has identified a wide range of adaptation strategies through National Adaptation Program for Action [6]. The identified adaptations were based on location (ecological gradients), resource endowments, livelihood options, financial assets, and agroecological zone just to mention a few.

Altitude and climate were among the other significant factors in this chapter. The main aim of the program was to identify and recommend proper adaptation strategies that would reduce the vulnerability and increase the resilience of the farmers. Meanwhile, the program comes up with the wide range of adaptation option based on the aforementioned factors [24–26].

The recommended adaptation strategies include the growing of drought-resistant crops such as cassava (*Manihot esculenta* C.), sesame (*Sesamum indicum* L.), sweet potatoes (*Ipomea Batatas* L.), and pigeon peas (*Cajanus cajan* L.). Further, crop diversification was another adaptation strategy. This involved the growth of different types of crops (both food and cash crops) in order to avoid total loss.

Modern farming techniques, changing cropping calendar, and involvement of nonfarming activities were other adaptation strategies. All these are done to curb food security in the country [5–8]. Subsequently, the program report shows that there is spatial and temporal variation of onset and cessation of rain and dry seasons [15–18]. The trend of rainfall and dry season during 1980–2010 shows that it is not statistically significant different (P > 0.05). Thus, erratic rainfall and rain patterns are significant in determining climate impacts.

Similarly, agricultural and research institutes are responsible to review on the current changes and current recommended adaptation strategies. Policies, plans, frameworks, and projects related to agriculture and environment are keen to accommodate adaptation strategies in their action and implementation for sustainable development of both agriculture and environment. Likewise, enhancing ecosystem services (management and payment of ecosystem services) is a suitable approach of strengthening the adaptation strategies [5–8].

Both abiotic and biotic factors need to be well accommodated in the planning in order to reduce the magnitudes of climate change impacts [26–29]. Abiotic factors may range from heat, salinity, floods, and drought to mention a few, while biotic factors are all aspects of living organisms found in the environment [6–8]. For more explanation, see the subsections below which describe specific adaptation approaches.

#### **4.1 Animal genetic resource**

About 30% of the Tanzanian land is under arid and semiarid climates, of which its main activities are extensive livestock keeping and some mixed farming [6, 13]. Therefore, livestock is among the major livelihoods and is a tool of increasing resilience

**227**

pastoralists.

**4.2 Crop genetic resources**

*Climate Change Implications to High and Low Potential Zones of Tanzania*

breeds/or and species due to differences of the level of tolerance.

and potential destination of most pastoral societies [6–10].

those which are less resistant to drought due to that factor.

solution to accommodate a wide threshold of crop species.

have a wide chance to survive than in low potential zones [15].

**4.3 Adaptation in agricultural systems**

from the stress caused by climate change [21]. However, the impacts of climate change have subjected livestock into stress and will continue affecting it. This is more pro-

This situation dries water sources and affects grasses in the pasture and range land required for animal grazing [26–29]. In turn, the situation affects most animals, and most of them die due to shortage of pasture and water. From 2008 to date, thousands of animals have died in Manyara (i.e., Kiteto District), Arusha, Shinyanga, Dodoma, and Singida regions due to drought [13–18]. In this stance, evidences show that cows have been more vulnerable than goats and sheep. Similarly, the increase in temperature stresses the already affected areas and catalyzes the outbreak of disease and pests which affect the animals [5–10]. As a result, a number of animals have been dying due to diseases and pest [6–8]. The effects have been more severe to some types of animal

Some measures have been taken by the government and local people to adjust to stress. The government has been advocating intensive livestock keeping for the purpose of increasing quality and quantity of the product and reducing overgrazing on the already stressed areas [6, 13]. Pastoralists have been shifting from the stressed environment (low potential zone) to areas with pasture and water (high potential zone). The Usangu valley in Mbeya region (high potential zone) has been the actual

These pastoralists are after water and pasture for feeding their herds. Therefore, planners and policy makers need to integrate this challenge in order to rescue environmental degradation by pastoral societies as well as to reduce the disturbances to

It is obvious that crop production can be the most affected sector by stresses and shocks of climate change [5–8]. Increased incidences of drought have reduced crop yield massively. A number of studies show that crop production has been significantly affected by climate change impacts [3–5]. Crop species that need more moisture are more vulnerable than those which need little. Hybrid maize is among

Therefore, a number of crop species have been lost because they can no longer tolerate to the present climate change impacts. As adaptation strategies, resistant crops such as SARO 5 rice species have been adopted to reduce the vulnerability of rice crop [7–10]. Otherwise, irrigation agriculture has been recommended as a

In Kilombero, Mtibwa, Usangu, and Ruvu Basin, rice production has been growing due to irrigation. However, only 2% of the Tanzanian land potential for irrigation agriculture has been harnessed. Therefore, the vulnerability of crop species varies depending on where it is grown. In high potential zones, the crop breed may

Agriculture provides full livelihoods to more than 75% of the Tanzanians and most of them are living in rural areas [5–8]. Therefore, it is very important to make sure that adaptation strategies and coping mechanisms to the impacts of climate change are taken into full consideration [1–4]. Different agroecological zones may have diverse adaptation measures depending on the climate, soil, financial asset, and human asset just to mention a few. It is obvious that low potential areas are the most fragile ecosystems and when mismanaged even the little potentials may get lost [5–8].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93384*

nounced in most central regions of Tanzania.

#### *Climate Change Implications to High and Low Potential Zones of Tanzania DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93384*

from the stress caused by climate change [21]. However, the impacts of climate change have subjected livestock into stress and will continue affecting it. This is more pronounced in most central regions of Tanzania.

This situation dries water sources and affects grasses in the pasture and range land required for animal grazing [26–29]. In turn, the situation affects most animals, and most of them die due to shortage of pasture and water. From 2008 to date, thousands of animals have died in Manyara (i.e., Kiteto District), Arusha, Shinyanga, Dodoma, and Singida regions due to drought [13–18]. In this stance, evidences show that cows have been more vulnerable than goats and sheep. Similarly, the increase in temperature stresses the already affected areas and catalyzes the outbreak of disease and pests which affect the animals [5–10]. As a result, a number of animals have been dying due to diseases and pest [6–8]. The effects have been more severe to some types of animal breeds/or and species due to differences of the level of tolerance.

Some measures have been taken by the government and local people to adjust to stress. The government has been advocating intensive livestock keeping for the purpose of increasing quality and quantity of the product and reducing overgrazing on the already stressed areas [6, 13]. Pastoralists have been shifting from the stressed environment (low potential zone) to areas with pasture and water (high potential zone). The Usangu valley in Mbeya region (high potential zone) has been the actual and potential destination of most pastoral societies [6–10].

These pastoralists are after water and pasture for feeding their herds. Therefore, planners and policy makers need to integrate this challenge in order to rescue environmental degradation by pastoral societies as well as to reduce the disturbances to pastoralists.

#### **4.2 Crop genetic resources**

*Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development*

small scale or are totally redundant due to change of weather.

technological asset just to mention a few [21, 22, 24].

assets, and agroecological zone just to mention a few.

option based on the aforementioned factors [24–26].

patterns are significant in determining climate impacts.

approach of strengthening the adaptation strategies [5–8].

**4. Agricultural biodiversity for climate change adaptation**

Instead, maize, beans, and other moderate crops have been grown in these areas as paradigm shift [3–6]. And thus, coffee, tea, and pyrethrum have been grown in

Adaptive capacity to climate change impacts is varied over space and time. People have diverse capacity to adapt to climate change impacts [15–20]. Some are vulnerable, while others are resilient and they can recover soon from the impacts. Similarly, the thresholds of adaptive capacity is subject among other things to resource entitlements, that is, human asset, financial asset, physical asset, and

Tanzania has identified a wide range of adaptation strategies through National

Altitude and climate were among the other significant factors in this chapter. The main aim of the program was to identify and recommend proper adaptation strategies that would reduce the vulnerability and increase the resilience of the farmers. Meanwhile, the program comes up with the wide range of adaptation

The recommended adaptation strategies include the growing of drought-resistant crops such as cassava (*Manihot esculenta* C.), sesame (*Sesamum indicum* L.), sweet potatoes (*Ipomea Batatas* L.), and pigeon peas (*Cajanus cajan* L.). Further, crop diversification was another adaptation strategy. This involved the growth of differ-

Modern farming techniques, changing cropping calendar, and involvement of nonfarming activities were other adaptation strategies. All these are done to curb food security in the country [5–8]. Subsequently, the program report shows that there is spatial and temporal variation of onset and cessation of rain and dry seasons [15–18]. The trend of rainfall and dry season during 1980–2010 shows that it is not statistically significant different (P > 0.05). Thus, erratic rainfall and rain

Similarly, agricultural and research institutes are responsible to review on the current changes and current recommended adaptation strategies. Policies, plans, frameworks, and projects related to agriculture and environment are keen to accommodate adaptation strategies in their action and implementation for sustainable development of both agriculture and environment. Likewise, enhancing ecosystem services (management and payment of ecosystem services) is a suitable

Both abiotic and biotic factors need to be well accommodated in the planning in order to reduce the magnitudes of climate change impacts [26–29]. Abiotic factors may range from heat, salinity, floods, and drought to mention a few, while biotic factors are all aspects of living organisms found in the environment [6–8]. For more explanation, see the subsections below which describe specific adaptation

About 30% of the Tanzanian land is under arid and semiarid climates, of which its main activities are extensive livestock keeping and some mixed farming [6, 13]. Therefore, livestock is among the major livelihoods and is a tool of increasing resilience

Adaptation Program for Action [6]. The identified adaptations were based on location (ecological gradients), resource endowments, livelihood options, financial

ent types of crops (both food and cash crops) in order to avoid total loss.

**226**

approaches.

**4.1 Animal genetic resource**

It is obvious that crop production can be the most affected sector by stresses and shocks of climate change [5–8]. Increased incidences of drought have reduced crop yield massively. A number of studies show that crop production has been significantly affected by climate change impacts [3–5]. Crop species that need more moisture are more vulnerable than those which need little. Hybrid maize is among those which are less resistant to drought due to that factor.

Therefore, a number of crop species have been lost because they can no longer tolerate to the present climate change impacts. As adaptation strategies, resistant crops such as SARO 5 rice species have been adopted to reduce the vulnerability of rice crop [7–10]. Otherwise, irrigation agriculture has been recommended as a solution to accommodate a wide threshold of crop species.

In Kilombero, Mtibwa, Usangu, and Ruvu Basin, rice production has been growing due to irrigation. However, only 2% of the Tanzanian land potential for irrigation agriculture has been harnessed. Therefore, the vulnerability of crop species varies depending on where it is grown. In high potential zones, the crop breed may have a wide chance to survive than in low potential zones [15].

#### **4.3 Adaptation in agricultural systems**

Agriculture provides full livelihoods to more than 75% of the Tanzanians and most of them are living in rural areas [5–8]. Therefore, it is very important to make sure that adaptation strategies and coping mechanisms to the impacts of climate change are taken into full consideration [1–4]. Different agroecological zones may have diverse adaptation measures depending on the climate, soil, financial asset, and human asset just to mention a few. It is obvious that low potential areas are the most fragile ecosystems and when mismanaged even the little potentials may get lost [5–8].

Therefore, a wide range of adaptation measures are considered in various areas of the country [5–10]. Some of the general adaptation measures taken across the country includes shifting cultivation (to more potential areas), adopting droughtresistant crops like cassava (*Manihot esculenta* C.), sesame (*Sesamum indicum* L.), and sweet potatoes (*Ipomea Batatas* L.), rice (*Oryza sativa L*.), banana (*Musa* Spp.), and maize (*Zea mays* L.) should be incorporated in irrigation agriculture to reduce their vulnerability and increase yields [31–33].

Another adaptation related to agricultural system is the change of agronomic practices [5–12]. In this aspect, the adaptation of conservation agricultural practices such as agroforestry, better crop rotation, mixed farming, and intercropping [15–20] will help to improve organic soil fertility, preferably soil carbon. This will increase crop yields and carbon sequestration of greenhouse gases. This goes together with the adoption of modern farming techniques, particularly irrigation [21, 22, 24–26]. Tanzania has done very little in irrigation agriculture because it has harnessed only 2% of the total irrigable land.

Therefore, there is a need to work on it and increase the land under irrigation in order to curb all aspects of food insecurity in the country and increase the export of agricultural products. Similarly, early planting is adopted to curb the variation of onset and cessation of both rainy and dry seasons [26–29]. Erratic rainfall and the shift of onset has been a key problem in most areas in the country [15–18]. Despite the prediction that rainfall will increase in areas with bimodal rainfall pattern, these areas suffer the same problem of paradigm shift of the growing season.

In has been noted that most of the bimodal rainfall pattern have been experiencing unimodal rainfall with a great shift [4–8]. Meanwhile, experience from the field shows that the amount of rainfall has been changing in a roughly regular pattern. There have been roughly rotating patterns, that a year with low rainfall is followed by the year with high rainfall and vice versa [15–20]. Therefore, further adaptation strategies are needed to be accommodated as climate continues to change. We need to incorporate strong adaptation measures in the policy in order to curb food insecurity in the country.

Nonfarming practices can also help to strengthen the resilience of the people [26–29]. Diversified sectors such as commercial enterprises and employment just to mention a few, can help to reduce the dependence on the already stressed agroecosystems [30–33]. Therefore, diversification will enable the replenishment of the soil resources tenable for crop production.

#### **4.4 Changes in agricultural practice**

Traditional agriculture has been in practice even before the Tanzanian independence [5–8]. Indigenous knowledge has been limited to solve complex challenges posed by climate change. It is obvious that the number of people has been increasing every year and the demand of food has been accruing too [8–11]. Sustainable agriculture is currently advocated in order to get duo benefits (environmental conservation and increased crop yields) at the same time [1–6]. It is a great challenge for the country with about 44 million hectares of fertile land; less than 24% of this resource is harnessed while the country experiences usual food shortage [6–8].

The adoption of modern farming methods especially irrigation agriculture can increase crop yield to curb food insecurity. Agroforestry system is less adopted in the country, compared to its needs. The Eastern Arc Mountain in Tanzania has the potential for agroforestry but it is least harnessed [27].

**229**

*Climate Change Implications to High and Low Potential Zones of Tanzania*

resource users, therefore posing no or little benefit to users [3–8].

possess. Overall, poor people have little options than the rich people.

In addition, Tanzania has a number of hydroecological zones such as the Ruaha, Rufiji, Ruvu, Wami, Ruvuma, Usangu, Pangani, Kilombero, and Malagarasi valleys just to mention a few [6–10]. These areas have potential for irrigation agriculture, but the actual situation reveals that there is underutilization and mismanagement of these resources [6]. Instead, these valleys have been sources of conflicts between

Therefore, good agricultural practices need to be adopted to increase crop yields in various areas. It has been obvious that traditional, rain-fed agriculture is a major production technique to the people [27–30]. Rain-fed agriculture has been vulnerable to the impact of climate change since the 1980s to date [31–33]. The adoption of sustainable agriculture countrywide can help to reduce the vulnerability and

Tanzanian agroecological zones (i.e., high and low potential zones) experience the impacts of climate change differently. Semiarid areas experience the impacts of climate change more severely than the alluvial plains. This happens because the former is a low potential zone while the latter is a high potential zone. The vulnerability of the people also depends on the resource entitlements and assets they

The two categories are differentiated by financial assets. It has been obvious that the poor always live in the low potential zone where they get more challenges and therefore they need a quick rescue; otherwise, their livelihood options are limited. Similarly, they can seek livelihood options by inserting more stress to the already affected environments. They move from the stressed areas to other areas where they

This study recommends that farmers with weak adaptive capacity should be carefully and immediately attended to; otherwise, their livelihood options can further destroy the environment. The increase in awareness to local farmers in searching for sustainable livelihood options would be more secure to the environment. Similarly, relevant policies should clearly include practical adaptations of the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93384*

calibrate a quick recovery of the affected areas.

**5. Conclusion**

end up degrading too.

vulnerable societies.

**Conflict of interest**

The author declares no conflict of interest.

#### *Climate Change Implications to High and Low Potential Zones of Tanzania DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93384*

In addition, Tanzania has a number of hydroecological zones such as the Ruaha, Rufiji, Ruvu, Wami, Ruvuma, Usangu, Pangani, Kilombero, and Malagarasi valleys just to mention a few [6–10]. These areas have potential for irrigation agriculture, but the actual situation reveals that there is underutilization and mismanagement of these resources [6]. Instead, these valleys have been sources of conflicts between resource users, therefore posing no or little benefit to users [3–8].

Therefore, good agricultural practices need to be adopted to increase crop yields in various areas. It has been obvious that traditional, rain-fed agriculture is a major production technique to the people [27–30]. Rain-fed agriculture has been vulnerable to the impact of climate change since the 1980s to date [31–33]. The adoption of sustainable agriculture countrywide can help to reduce the vulnerability and calibrate a quick recovery of the affected areas.
