*5.1.1 Problems related to cities*

As shown in the upper central part of **Figure 4**, producing the design guidelines starts with identifying environmental, social, and economic problems related to

#### **Figure 4.**

*Process of producing and revising the sustainable urban design guidelines.*


**5.2 Sustainable urban design guidelines**

Risk of biodiversity loss

*How to Design Sustainable Structures*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95012*

Risk of natural disasters

*Concept diagram for considering sustainable urban design.*

Gradient of the topography

Development allowable areas

**Table 5.**

**Figure 5.**

**Element Variable Desired value Remarks**

Lower risk of biodiversity loss

Lower risk of natural disasters

Flat or gentlysloping topography

*Sustainable urban design guidelines (1) development allowable areas [essentials].*

(3) principles of designing city components.

*5.2.1 Development allowable areas*

meet their desired values.

**289**

In the third stage, the requirements for sustainable urban design are converted into the "element-variable-desired value" framework of the design guidelines. When designing the whole city, people involved must consider the extent of land development areas, the placement of city components, and city components' design principles. The requirements in **Table 4** also extend over these three spheres. Therefore, as shown in **Figure 4**, we have divided the third stage into three steps: (1) development allowable areas, (2) spatial relationships among city components,

• Examples of natural disasters: flood damage, landslides, drought damage, and

forest fires.

The first step focuses on the relationship between land development and natural features. As demonstrated in **Figure 5**, a municipal territory can be divided into development restrictive areas and development allowable areas. "Development

**Table 5** shows the essentials of the first part of the sustainable urban design guidelines. At first, we have identified "development allowable areas" as the element. Next, we have determined its three variables: (1) risk of biodiversity loss, (2) risk of natural disasters, (3) gradient of the topography. When defining "development allowable areas," it is necessary to select areas where all these three variables

allowable areas" are areas where land development can be permitted.

#### **Table 4.**

*Main global/general problems related to cities and requirements for sustainable urban design.*

cities. While observing trends in understanding city-related problems, system designers search for the problems that should be identified. In this section, only typical global/general problems have been extracted and demonstrated in **Table 4**.

#### *5.1.2 Requirements for sustainable urban design*

In the second stage, based on the selected problems related to cities, system designers identify the requirements for sustainable urban design. Identified requirements for sustainable urban design are demonstrated in the second column of **Table 4**. For example, "damage caused by natural disasters" and "harmful influences caused by climate change" require "exclusion of natural disaster danger areas from development areas" and "measures for disaster damage prevention and reduction."

#### **Figure 5.**

*Concept diagram for considering sustainable urban design.*


**Table 5.**

*Sustainable urban design guidelines (1) development allowable areas [essentials].*

## **5.2 Sustainable urban design guidelines**

In the third stage, the requirements for sustainable urban design are converted into the "element-variable-desired value" framework of the design guidelines. When designing the whole city, people involved must consider the extent of land development areas, the placement of city components, and city components' design principles. The requirements in **Table 4** also extend over these three spheres. Therefore, as shown in **Figure 4**, we have divided the third stage into three steps: (1) development allowable areas, (2) spatial relationships among city components, (3) principles of designing city components.

#### *5.2.1 Development allowable areas*

The first step focuses on the relationship between land development and natural features. As demonstrated in **Figure 5**, a municipal territory can be divided into development restrictive areas and development allowable areas. "Development allowable areas" are areas where land development can be permitted.

**Table 5** shows the essentials of the first part of the sustainable urban design guidelines. At first, we have identified "development allowable areas" as the element. Next, we have determined its three variables: (1) risk of biodiversity loss, (2) risk of natural disasters, (3) gradient of the topography. When defining "development allowable areas," it is necessary to select areas where all these three variables meet their desired values.

cities. While observing trends in understanding city-related problems, system designers search for the problems that should be identified. In this section, only typical global/general problems have been extracted and demonstrated in **Table 4**.

*Main global/general problems related to cities and requirements for sustainable urban design.*

In the second stage, based on the selected problems related to cities, system designers identify the requirements for sustainable urban design. Identified requirements for sustainable urban design are demonstrated in the second column of **Table 4**. For example, "damage caused by natural disasters" and "harmful influences caused by climate change" require "exclusion of natural disaster danger areas from development areas" and "measures for disaster damage prevention and reduction."

*5.1.2 Requirements for sustainable urban design*

**Environmental, social, and economic problems related to cities (Main global/general problems)**

*Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development*

• Damage caused by natural disasters • Harmful influences caused by

• Depletion of natural resources

• Environmental pollution

• Traffic congestion • Automobile pollution

• Sluggish economy • Less social cohesion

• Increase of medical and nursing care expenses due to aging population

• Crimes

**Table 4.**

**288**

• Global warming and climate change • Energy saving

• Urban heat island • Increase in green spaces

• Lack of physical activity • Inducement to walking and biking

• Urban sprawl

climate change

• Waste

• Environmental destruction • Biodiversity loss

**Requirements for sustainable urban**

• Exclusion of natural disaster danger areas

• Measures for disaster damage prevention

• Reduction in waste heat from buildings,

• Extension of the lifespan of constructions

• Shifts from automobile to mass transit,

• Use of resource-saving or wasteprevention materials • Proper waste management

• Recreational facilities and places

• Consideration for increasing economic

• Consideration for encouraging social

• Increase in people's "eyes on the street"

• Accessible and universal design • Health

• Prevention of urban sprawl • Environmental protection • Biodiversity conservation

• Use of renewable energy • Conservation of green spaces

from development areas

or reduction

vehicles, etc.

and products

walking and biking

• Safe streets

vitality

interaction

**Stability conditions**

• Enviropreservation

• Enviropreservation • Sustainable resources

• Safety • Health

• Enviropreservation • Health

• Enviropreservation • Sustainable resources

• Enviropreservation • Sustainable resources • Health

• Health • Safety

• Safety • Mutual help • Selfrealization

• Safety

**design**


#### **Table 6.**

*Sustainable urban design guidelines (2) spatial relationships among city components [extracts].*

The first variable, "risk of biodiversity loss," is mainly related to two requirements shown in **Table 4**, namely "environmental protection" and "biodiversity conservation." Considering these two requirements and their related stability condition, namely "environmental preservation," we have determined its desired value as a "lower risk of biodiversity loss." This means that areas with a higher risk of biodiversity loss, such as Key Biodiversity Areas, must be excluded from development allowable areas. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Key Biodiversity Areas are sites contributing significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity [19].

Meanwhile, the third variable, "gradient of the topography," is associated with two requirements in **Table 4,** "environmental protection" and "accessible and universal design." Considering these requirements and their related stability conditions, namely "environmental preservation," "health," and "safety," we have determined its desired value as "flat or gently-sloping topography." When steep slopes are disturbed by removing vegetation and developing the hillside or mountainside, significant environmental issues can arise. Potential consequences can include soil erosion, landslides, an increase in downstream runoff, and flooding [20–22]. Moreover, slopes become steeper, the provision of infrastructure and accessible design becomes more difficult and expensive [21]. Accordingly, areas with steep slopes should be excluded from development allowable areas.

Priority to locally produced materials and used materials

Renewable energy

**Element Variable Desired value Remarks**

lane, roadway

Roadway space Considerations for the passage of

Passage Pedestrians, bicycles, vehicles for the residents

High

*Sustainable urban design guidelines (3) principles of designing city components (extracts).*

Sidewalk, planting zone, bike

Accessible and universal design

public transport (tram/bus)

Priority to service uses

Net zero energy building • High energy efficiency

Not high • Hight for several-floor

Net zero energy building • High energy efficiency

Low • Hight for a-few-floor

• Priority to pedestrians

• Use of renewable energy

> buildings at the maximum

• Use of renewable energy

buildings

Main streets Main divisions of

*How to Design Sustainable Structures*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95012*

Larger buildings Energy usage of the building

Residential streets

Smaller buildings

Public open spaces (parks, etc.)

Manufacturing factories

Energy production plants

**Table 7.**

**291**

the street surface

Height limits for construction

Energy usage of the

Height limits for construction

Green coverage

Raw materials used for manufacturing

Type of energy resources

Uses of the building's streetlevel floor

building

ratio

Design of spaces for pedestrians

The second step, spatial relationships among city components, focuses on the placement of land development sites and facilities. Land development sites need to be situated in development allowable areas. As shown in **Figure 5**, land development sites can be divided into three major zones: (1) residence and service zone,

*5.2.2 Spatial relationships among city components*

The second variable, "risk of natural disasters," is connected with another requirement in **Table 4**, "exclusion of natural disaster danger areas from development areas." Considering this requirement and its related stability conditions, "safety" and "health," we have specified its desired value as a "lower risk of natural disasters." Examples of natural disasters are flood damage, landslides, drought damage, and forest fires. When estimating natural disaster risks, system designers should also consider future risks caused by climate change, in addition to current risks.

*How to Design Sustainable Structures DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95012*


#### **Table 7.**

The first variable, "risk of biodiversity loss," is mainly related to two requirements shown in **Table 4**, namely "environmental protection" and "biodiversity conservation." Considering these two requirements and their related stability condition, namely "environmental preservation," we have determined its desired value as a "lower risk of biodiversity loss." This means that areas with a higher risk of biodiversity loss, such as Key Biodiversity Areas, must be excluded from development allowable areas. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Key Biodiversity Areas are sites contributing significantly to the

**Element Variable Desired value Remarks**

Facilities for people's use and related facilities

1.Within walking distance of an interurban railway

station

2.Within short walking distance of a local transport (tram/bus) line's station

essential facilities

• Examples of facilities for people's use: housing, buildings for various services, streets, and parks.

• At least one of the two desired values must be

• Examples of essential facilities: interurban railway stations, and large-scale public facilities.

• Examples of the facilities for large-scale production: manufacturing factories, and power plants.

• Walking distance should be set at 1000 m or less. • Short walking distance should be set at 500 m or

satisfied.

less.

Facilities placed in the residence and service

Extent of the residence and service zone from a station of passenger transport

Main streets Layout Well-connection to

Access to main streets Convenient

Relation with streets On main streets, in

Relation with streets Connected to main

Relation with streets Connected to

Relation with passenger

Facilities placed in the factory and plant zones

transport

principle

streets

stations

facilities

*Sustainable urban design guidelines (2) spatial relationships among city components [extracts].*

residential streets

In close vicinity to passenger transport

Facilities for large-scale production and related

zones

*Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development*

Residence and service zones

Residential streets

Routes of local public transport (tram/bus)

Lots for larger buildings

Lots for smaller buildings

Factory and plant

Lots for frequently used facilities

zones

**Table 6.**

**290**

The second variable, "risk of natural disasters," is connected with another requirement in **Table 4**, "exclusion of natural disaster danger areas from development areas." Considering this requirement and its related stability conditions, "safety" and "health," we have specified its desired value as a "lower risk of natural disasters." Examples of natural disasters are flood damage, landslides, drought damage, and forest fires. When estimating natural disaster risks, system designers should also consider future risks caused by climate change, in addition to current risks.

global persistence of biodiversity [19].

*Sustainable urban design guidelines (3) principles of designing city components (extracts).*

Meanwhile, the third variable, "gradient of the topography," is associated with two requirements in **Table 4,** "environmental protection" and "accessible and universal design." Considering these requirements and their related stability conditions, namely "environmental preservation," "health," and "safety," we have determined its desired value as "flat or gently-sloping topography." When steep slopes are disturbed by removing vegetation and developing the hillside or mountainside, significant environmental issues can arise. Potential consequences can include soil erosion, landslides, an increase in downstream runoff, and flooding [20–22]. Moreover, slopes become steeper, the provision of infrastructure and accessible design becomes more difficult and expensive [21]. Accordingly, areas with steep slopes should be excluded from development allowable areas.

#### *5.2.2 Spatial relationships among city components*

The second step, spatial relationships among city components, focuses on the placement of land development sites and facilities. Land development sites need to be situated in development allowable areas. As shown in **Figure 5**, land development sites can be divided into three major zones: (1) residence and service zone,

(2) factory and plant zone, (3) primary industrial zone. The "residence and service zone" contains facilities for people's use, such as housing, buildings for various services, streets, and parks. The "factory and plant zone" contains facilities for large-scale industrial production, such as manufacturing factories and power plants. The "primary industrial zone" includes farmlands and planted forests. In addition, the "factory and plant zone" and "residence and service zone" are closely connected to the "secondary industry" and "tertiary industry," respectively. Meanwhile, facilities for interurban and local transport are also significant as city components. Accordingly, we have added typical transport routes to **Figure 5**, dividing them into passenger transport and freight transport.

Regarding the third variable, "uses of the building's street-level floor," we have identified its desired value as "priority to service uses." If the street-level floor of residential buildings facing main streets is allocated for service uses, such as shops, pedestrian traffic can increase. Lively pedestrian traffic helps economic vitalization,

This chapter illustrated the system-control-based methodology for sustainable structure design, with the examples of housing and urban design. Section 2 showed the "control system for promoting sustainable structure design." The third section demonstrated the "process of producing and revising sustainable structure design guidelines." The fourth section included the extracts of the sustainable housing design guidelines produced and revised in Japan. Lastly, Section 5 outlined a way of producing sustainable urban design guidelines. Unlike the design of city components, such as houses, the design of the whole city needs extensive spatial planning. Accordingly, the final stage of producing sustainable urban design guidelines consists of the three steps: (1) development allowable areas, (2) spatial relationships

As already shown in our previous studies, this methodology has the following four characteristics: (1) visualization of the whole picture for promoting sustainable design, (2) user-friendliness, (3) comprehensiveness, (4) adaptability to different and changing situations [26]. The first characteristic originates in the schematization of the control system (**Figure 1**) and the process of producing and revising the design guidelines (**Figure 3**). Besides, this chapter has included two new diagrams, namely **Figure 4** and **Figure 5**, which are expected to help understand the whole

The second feature, "user-friendliness," originates from the "element-variabledesired value" framework in the sustainable design guidelines. Elements in the design guidelines are equivalent to actual parts of structures. Therefore, the system users can smoothly design the structures by comparing the actual structure or drawings with the design guidelines. Meanwhile, the third feature, "comprehensiveness," means that this methodology can deal with various environmental, social,

The fourth characteristic, "adaptability to different and changing situations," originates in the process of producing and revising the design guidelines. As demonstrated in **Tables 1** and **2**, local/particular problems in a country or region can be included in producing and revising the design guidelines. As a result, the produced and revised guidelines naturally become adaptable to that country's or region's situation. Meanwhile, Section 3.2 and Section 4.2 have shown the process of revising the design guidelines and its concrete instance, respectively. These study results include theoretical and practical ways to adapt the guidelines to changing situations

Our main future work is further research on sustainable urban design. First, we must complete the sustainable urban design guidelines for practical use. After that, it is also necessary to revise the design guidelines by following the revision process

shown in **Figure 4**. Through such future work, we are aiming to refine this

and economic issues. This feature results from the model of sustainability (**Figure 2**), which has been incorporated in the control system for promoting

among city components, (3) principles of designing city components.

social interaction, and crime prevention [23–25].

*How to Design Sustainable Structures*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95012*

picture for promoting sustainable urban design.

sustainable structure design (**Figure 1**).

methodology for designing sustainable structures.

over time.

**293**

**6. Conclusion**

Bearing standard cities in mind, we have specified important spatial relationships among city components. Extracts of such relationships are shown in **Table 6**. Choosing one element, that is, "residence and service zone," the rest of this section explains a key variable and its desired value. First, we have identified "extent of the residence and service zone from a station of passenger transport" as the key variable. Next, we have determined its two desired values: (1) within walking distance of an interurban railway station, (2) within short walking distance of a local transport (tram/bus) line's station. At least one of the two desired values need to be met.

Satisfying the above desired value contributes to meeting many of the requirements shown in **Table 4**. First, limiting the residence and service zones within walking distances of public transportation stations leads to environmental protection by preventing urban sprawl. It also promotes the shift from automobile to mass transit systems, walking, and biking, which reduces traffic congestion, pollution, and CO2 emissions. Meanwhile, an increase in walking and biking leads to better health. Furthermore, lively pedestrian traffic contributes to increasing economic vitality and social interaction, as well as preventing crimes through an increase in people's "eyes on the street" [23–25].

#### *5.2.3 Principles of designing city components*

The third step shows the principles of designing city components. In this step, first, main city component types are identified as elements. Next, items that strongly influence urban sustainability are determined as variables. Part of such elements and variables are demonstrated in **Table 7**.

Choosing one element from this table, that is, "larger buildings," the rest of this section comments on the selected three variables and their desired values. Meeting these desired values helps to fill various requirements for sustainable urban design.

Concerning the first variable, "energy usage of the building," we have identified its desired value as "net-zero energy building." Achieving this desired value requires buildings' high-level energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy. In addition, installing equipment for using renewable energy, such as solar panels, is a measure for disaster damage reduction, since such equipment can provide emergency electricity.

Meanwhile, we have determined the desired value of "height limits for construction" to be "not high," more specific "height for several-floor buildings at the maximum." There are many disadvantages in constructing tall buildings, including skyscrapers. The taller the buildings become, the more difficult they achieve netzero energy buildings. Installing solar panels on the roof is a common way to use renewable energy at building sites; however, high-rise buildings inevitably increase the ratio of total floor area to the roof area. Besides, high-rise buildings often block surrounding buildings from the sun and make it difficult to use renewable energy. Furthermore, controlling buildings' height uniform with neighbors also contributes to better landscapes.

Regarding the third variable, "uses of the building's street-level floor," we have identified its desired value as "priority to service uses." If the street-level floor of residential buildings facing main streets is allocated for service uses, such as shops, pedestrian traffic can increase. Lively pedestrian traffic helps economic vitalization, social interaction, and crime prevention [23–25].
