**Table 5.** *Monthly variation and overall pollution tolerance index (PTI) of the sampled rivers.*

**219**

**Figure 5.**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 3.**

**Figure 4.**

*Biodiversity and Environmental Integrity of Some Rivers in Derived Savannah Belt…*

*The spatial and seasonal variation in pollution tolerance index (PTI) of the Etuno river.*

*The spatial and seasonal variation in pollution tolerance index (PTI) of the Orlie river.*

*The spatial and seasonal variation in pollution tolerance index (PTI) of the Edion river.*

*The spatial and seasonal variation in pollution tolerance index (PTI) of the Omodo river.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93394*

*Biodiversity and Environmental Integrity of Some Rivers in Derived Savannah Belt… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93394*

**Figure 2.** *The spatial and seasonal variation in pollution tolerance index (PTI) of the Etuno river.*

**Figure 3.**

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

**218**

**River** Etuno

Orlie Edion Omodo

**Table 5.**

1

7 *Monthly variation and overall pollution tolerance index (PTI) of the sampled rivers.*

8

3

8

5

7

5

4

11

11

Moderate

3

4

6

7

6

5

6

6

3

6

12

Moderate

10

1

1

3

7

4

—

5

8

7

16

Moderate

10

4

6

8

2

—

—

—

—

—

14

Moderate

**Mar**

**Apr**

**May**

**Jun**

**Jul**

**Aug**

**Sept**

**Oct**

**Nov**

**Dec**

**Overall**

**Health status**

*The spatial and seasonal variation in pollution tolerance index (PTI) of the Orlie river.*

**Figure 4.**

*The spatial and seasonal variation in pollution tolerance index (PTI) of the Edion river.*

**Figure 5.** *The spatial and seasonal variation in pollution tolerance index (PTI) of the Omodo river.*

River as the various PTI groups were completely absent, a situation that could not be explained. Though, surface run offs and inundation do greatly affect and destabilise the colonisation patterns of substrates by macrofauna, this was not the case as rainfall had diminished in those months. However, the water quality status were generally moderate, an indication that the water bodies had not been seriously compromised.

#### **6. Conclusion**

The presence of a species is more valuable than its absence in aquatic ecosystems. Therefore, factors limiting diversity of macrofauna should be discouraged around water bodies. It is important that the different sources of pollutants, ranging from industrial through municipal to domestic activities be controlled during siting in the Edo-North with particular reference to the small factories located on the banks of Etuno River as contaminants are eroded and transported downstream with ease.

#### **Acknowledgements**

Thanks to Mr. Festus Arijode for all the assistance he rendered during the field work. We are thankful to the then management of the National Centre for Energy and Environment (NCEE), Energy Commission of Nigeria, University of Benin, for funding the study from which this paper has been drafted.

#### **Author details**

Abdul-Rahman Dirisu\* and John Ovie Olomukoro Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: dedonrahman10@yahoo.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**221**

2020]

Nigeria

*Biodiversity and Environmental Integrity of Some Rivers in Derived Savannah Belt…*

of watershed landuse and riparian characteristics on biological indicators of stream water quality in southeastern Brazil. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2016;**216**:333-339. DOI:

10.1016/j.agee.2015.10.016

[9] Olomukoro JO, Egborge ABM. Hydrobological studies on Warri River, Nigeria: Part I. the composition, distribution and diversity of macrobenthic fauna. Biosciences. 2003;**15**(4):279-294

[10] Olomukoro JO, Dirisu AR. Biodiversity and Pollution Tolerance Index of selected Rivers in Derived Savannah Belt in Edo-North, Nigeria. In: Proceedings of the 4th Annual Biodiversity Conference of Nigerian Tropical Biology Association/Designing Research Capacity among African Environmental Scientist. Lagos:

University of Lagos; 3rd-4th September,

[11] Izaak Walton League of American. Creek Connections Aquatic Life Module: Aquatic Macroinvertebrate Sampling;

[12] Hynes HBN. The ecology of stream insects. Annual Review of Entomology.

[14] Olomukoro JO. Macrobenthic fauna of Warri; River [Ph.D. thesis]. Nigeria: University of Benin; 1996. p. 244

Invertebrates of the Mambilla Plateau, Nigeria. New Zealand: Canterbury Educational Printing Services, University of Canterbury; 2013. p. 86

[13] Paterson CG, Fernando CH. Benthic fauna colonization of a new reservoir with particular reference to the Chironomidae. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada.

[15] Umar DM, Harding JS, Winterbourn HM. Freshwater

2013. pp. 54-59

1970;**15**:25-42

1970;**27**:213-232

1994

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93394*

[1] Ekiye E, Lou Z. Water quality monitoring in Nigeria: Case study of Nigeria's industrial cities. Journal of American Science. 2010;**6**(4):22-28

[2] Dirisu AR, Olomukoro JO. Investigation of water quality of two rivers in Agbede wetlands in southern

Nigeria. Global NEST Journal.

[3] Kebede G, Mushi D, Linke RB, Dereje O, Lakew A, Hayes DS, et al. Macroinvertebrate indices versus microbial fecal pollution characteristics for water quality monitoring reveals contrasting results for an Ethiopian river. Ecological Indicators. 2019;**108**:105733. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105733

[4] Adelegan JA. The History of Environmental Policy and Pollution of Water Sources in Nigeria (1960-2004): The Way Forward; 2004. Available from: http://www.nigerianlawguru. com/articles/environmental%20 law/THE%20HISTORY%20OF%20 ENVIRONMENTAL%20POLICY%20 AND%20POLLUTION%20OF%20 WATER%20SOURCES%20IN%20 NIGERIA.pdf. [Accessed: 13 August

[5] Water Aid Nigeria. 2007. Available from: Wateraid.org/international/

[6] Lear G, Dopheide A, Ancion P, Lewis GD. A comparison of bacterial, ciliate and macroinvertebrate indicators of stream ecological health. Aquatic Ecology. 2011;**45**(4):517-527. DOI: 10.1007/s10452-011-9372-x

[7] Odiete WO. Environmental Physiology of Animals and Pollution. Lagos, Nigeria: Diversified Resources;

[8] Tanaka MO, de Souza ALT,

Moschini LE, de Oliveira AK. Influence

1999. pp. 220-246

2015;**17**(3):451-462

**References**

*Biodiversity and Environmental Integrity of Some Rivers in Derived Savannah Belt… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93394*

#### **References**

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

compromised.

**6. Conclusion**

**Acknowledgements**

**220**

**Author details**

Abdul-Rahman Dirisu\* and John Ovie Olomukoro

\*Address all correspondence to: dedonrahman10@yahoo.com

funding the study from which this paper has been drafted.

University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria

provided the original work is properly cited.

Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

River as the various PTI groups were completely absent, a situation that could not be explained. Though, surface run offs and inundation do greatly affect and destabilise the colonisation patterns of substrates by macrofauna, this was not the case as rainfall had diminished in those months. However, the water quality status were generally moderate, an indication that the water bodies had not been seriously

The presence of a species is more valuable than its absence in aquatic ecosystems. Therefore, factors limiting diversity of macrofauna should be discouraged around water bodies. It is important that the different sources of pollutants, ranging from industrial through municipal to domestic activities be controlled during siting in the Edo-North with particular reference to the small factories located on the banks of Etuno River as contaminants are eroded and transported downstream with ease.

Thanks to Mr. Festus Arijode for all the assistance he rendered during the field work. We are thankful to the then management of the National Centre for Energy and Environment (NCEE), Energy Commission of Nigeria, University of Benin, for [1] Ekiye E, Lou Z. Water quality monitoring in Nigeria: Case study of Nigeria's industrial cities. Journal of American Science. 2010;**6**(4):22-28

[2] Dirisu AR, Olomukoro JO. Investigation of water quality of two rivers in Agbede wetlands in southern Nigeria. Global NEST Journal. 2015;**17**(3):451-462

[3] Kebede G, Mushi D, Linke RB, Dereje O, Lakew A, Hayes DS, et al. Macroinvertebrate indices versus microbial fecal pollution characteristics for water quality monitoring reveals contrasting results for an Ethiopian river. Ecological Indicators. 2019;**108**:105733. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105733

[4] Adelegan JA. The History of Environmental Policy and Pollution of Water Sources in Nigeria (1960-2004): The Way Forward; 2004. Available from: http://www.nigerianlawguru. com/articles/environmental%20 law/THE%20HISTORY%20OF%20 ENVIRONMENTAL%20POLICY%20 AND%20POLLUTION%20OF%20 WATER%20SOURCES%20IN%20 NIGERIA.pdf. [Accessed: 13 August 2020]

[5] Water Aid Nigeria. 2007. Available from: Wateraid.org/international/ Nigeria

[6] Lear G, Dopheide A, Ancion P, Lewis GD. A comparison of bacterial, ciliate and macroinvertebrate indicators of stream ecological health. Aquatic Ecology. 2011;**45**(4):517-527. DOI: 10.1007/s10452-011-9372-x

[7] Odiete WO. Environmental Physiology of Animals and Pollution. Lagos, Nigeria: Diversified Resources; 1999. pp. 220-246

[8] Tanaka MO, de Souza ALT, Moschini LE, de Oliveira AK. Influence of watershed landuse and riparian characteristics on biological indicators of stream water quality in southeastern Brazil. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2016;**216**:333-339. DOI: 10.1016/j.agee.2015.10.016

[9] Olomukoro JO, Egborge ABM. Hydrobological studies on Warri River, Nigeria: Part I. the composition, distribution and diversity of macrobenthic fauna. Biosciences. 2003;**15**(4):279-294

[10] Olomukoro JO, Dirisu AR. Biodiversity and Pollution Tolerance Index of selected Rivers in Derived Savannah Belt in Edo-North, Nigeria. In: Proceedings of the 4th Annual Biodiversity Conference of Nigerian Tropical Biology Association/Designing Research Capacity among African Environmental Scientist. Lagos: University of Lagos; 3rd-4th September, 2013. pp. 54-59

[11] Izaak Walton League of American. Creek Connections Aquatic Life Module: Aquatic Macroinvertebrate Sampling; 1994

[12] Hynes HBN. The ecology of stream insects. Annual Review of Entomology. 1970;**15**:25-42

[13] Paterson CG, Fernando CH. Benthic fauna colonization of a new reservoir with particular reference to the Chironomidae. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 1970;**27**:213-232

[14] Olomukoro JO. Macrobenthic fauna of Warri; River [Ph.D. thesis]. Nigeria: University of Benin; 1996. p. 244

[15] Umar DM, Harding JS, Winterbourn HM. Freshwater Invertebrates of the Mambilla Plateau, Nigeria. New Zealand: Canterbury Educational Printing Services, University of Canterbury; 2013. p. 86

[16] Hammer Ø, Harper DAT, Ryan PD. PAST: Paleontological statistics software package for education and data analysis. Palaeontologia Electronica. 2001;**4**(1):9. Available from: http:// palaeo-electronica.org/2001\_1/past/ issue1\_01.htm

[17] Klemm DJ, Philip AL, Florence F., Lazoreckak JM. Macroinvertebrate field and laboratory method for evaluating the biological integrity of surface waters. USEPA. EPA/600/4-90.030. XII; 1990. pp. 256

[18] Olomukro JO, Dirisu AR. Macroinvertebrate community and pollution tolerance index in Edion and Omodo rivers in derived Savannah Wetlands in Southern Nigeria. Jordan Journal of Biological Sciences. 2014;**7**:19-24

[19] Shimba MJ, Jonah FE. Macroinvertebrates as bioindicators of water quality in the Mkondoa River, Tanzania, in an agricultural area. African Journal of Aquatic Science. 2016;**41**:1-9. DOI: 10.2989/16085914.2016.1230536

**223**

**Chapter 13**

Threats

**Abstract**

overexploitation of aquatic resources.

**1. Introduction**

Freshwater Invertebrates of

Southwestern South America:

Diversity, Biogeography, and

*Claudio Valdovinos Zarges, Pablo Fierro and Viviana Olmos*

This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge of invertebrates of rivers, lakes, and wetlands in western South America, from southern Peru to the Strait of Magellan in southern Chile. A characterization of the diverse groups of insects, mollusk crustaceans, and other smaller groups is presented, and a biogeographic analysis of them is made with emphasis on their main forcing factors, ecology, and threats in the Anthropocene. This fauna presents Gondwanic characteristics, with clear North–South latitudinal patterns, covering from the Desert of Atacama in the North, one of the most arid deserts of the world, to the rainy and cold regions of the southern end of South America. The central zone of this territory includes one of the global biodiversity "hot spots," which currently presents serious threats associated with changes in habitat, introduction of invasive species, climate change, and

**Keywords:** freshwater, invertebrates, South America, biodiversity, conservation

Invertebrates represent the majority of the world's animal species, comprising a total of 32 phyla, of which 15 are present in freshwater [1]. These organisms all lack a vertebral column, are generally small in size, and present very diverse morphologies. Some have soft bodies such as worms and planarians, while others have hard bodies such as crustaceans, insects, and mollusks. Freshwater invertebrates offer the opportunity to contemplate the enormous diversity of forms and functions existing in the animal kingdom. It's precisely in this group of organisms where animal life is expressed without limits to particular forms or colors and is specialized to diverse forms of life. In the freshwater ecosystems of southwestern South America, there is a diverse fauna of invertebrates [2]. In this part of the world, around 1000 species of freshwater invertebrates are known. However, many scientists believe that the number of unknown species in this area could significantly increase that number. Knowledge of the diversity of these organisms is still fragmentary, despite the efforts of many researchers, especially over the last two centuries [3]. Some groups of insects, mollusks,

#### **Chapter 13**

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

package for education and data analysis. Palaeontologia Electronica. 2001;**4**(1):9. Available from: http:// palaeo-electronica.org/2001\_1/past/

[18] Olomukro JO, Dirisu AR. Macroinvertebrate community and pollution tolerance index in Edion and Omodo rivers in derived Savannah Wetlands in Southern Nigeria. Jordan Journal of Biological Sciences.

[19] Shimba MJ, Jonah FE.

Macroinvertebrates as bioindicators of water quality in the Mkondoa River, Tanzania, in an agricultural area. African Journal of Aquatic Science. 2016;**41**:1-9. DOI: 10.2989/16085914.2016.1230536

issue1\_01.htm

1990. pp. 256

2014;**7**:19-24

[16] Hammer Ø, Harper DAT, Ryan PD. PAST: Paleontological statistics software

[17] Klemm DJ, Philip AL, Florence F., Lazoreckak JM. Macroinvertebrate field and laboratory method for evaluating the biological integrity of surface waters. USEPA. EPA/600/4-90.030. XII;

**222**
