Water Quality of Inland Waters

**3**

**Chapter 1**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Microplastic Pollution in

*Ana Sofia Soares, Carlos Pinheiro, Uirá Oliveira* 

understanding of the health risks associated with salt consumption.

**Keywords:** contamination, food security, microplastic, Portugal, table salt

terrestrial sources (e.g., rivers and estuaries), (2) several industrial sectors,

Plastics have played a fundamental role in man's daily life since the invention of Bakelite, the first synthetic polymer created by the chemist Leo Baekeland in 1907. Newly synthetic polymers were developed in the following years. These were capable of resisting higher temperatures without degrading, thus allowing the creation of a revolutionary era, within all commercial sectors (mainly industrial, health, and domestic), that shaped the habits of the future generations [1, 2]. The mass production of plastic began in the 1950s and has since evolved exponentially. For instance, in 2017, worldwide plastic production surpassed 348 million tons [3, 4]. Nevertheless, plastics have become persistent pollutants in the most diverse environments (atmospheric air, sources of freshwater, brackish, and saltwater, and soils) mainly due to their industrial characteristics (durability, hydrophobic composition, and plasticity) but also due to their improper handling over the years [1, 2, 5]. There are several ways in which plastic debris can reach the oceans, such as: (1)

Currently, microplastics are dispersed everywhere; from our oceans to our rivers, sediments, organisms, air, and even food resources. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the degree of contamination present in the Portuguese traditional table salts depending on their origin and type of salt. Fourteen samples were selected: seven from *fleur de sel* and seven from coarse salts, corresponding to seven distinct regions of the Portuguese territory. The concentration of microplastics, depending on salts' origin, ranged between 595 and 5090 MPs/kg, in sea salt, and in Rio Maior's well salt it varied from 3325 to 6430 MPs/kg. By salt type, the concentration of microplastics in the *fleur de sel* was 2320–6430 MPs/kg and in the coarse salt was 595–3985 MPs/kg. In the analyzed table salt, the most abundant anthropogenic particles were fibers (64%) and fragments (35%). The most predominant colors were transparent, blue, and black. The concentration of microplastics did not vary significantly (*p* > 0.05) between *fleur de sel* samples within different regions. However, statistically significant differences were found between coarse salt samples from the various regions. The results, gathered from this study, demonstrate the high contamination within artisanal Portuguese table salts, thus, becoming crucial to develop more future research, leading to a better

Portuguese Saltworks

*and Maria Natividade Vieira*

#### **Chapter 1**

## Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks

*Ana Sofia Soares, Carlos Pinheiro, Uirá Oliveira and Maria Natividade Vieira*

#### **Abstract**

Currently, microplastics are dispersed everywhere; from our oceans to our rivers, sediments, organisms, air, and even food resources. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the degree of contamination present in the Portuguese traditional table salts depending on their origin and type of salt. Fourteen samples were selected: seven from *fleur de sel* and seven from coarse salts, corresponding to seven distinct regions of the Portuguese territory. The concentration of microplastics, depending on salts' origin, ranged between 595 and 5090 MPs/kg, in sea salt, and in Rio Maior's well salt it varied from 3325 to 6430 MPs/kg. By salt type, the concentration of microplastics in the *fleur de sel* was 2320–6430 MPs/kg and in the coarse salt was 595–3985 MPs/kg. In the analyzed table salt, the most abundant anthropogenic particles were fibers (64%) and fragments (35%). The most predominant colors were transparent, blue, and black. The concentration of microplastics did not vary significantly (*p* > 0.05) between *fleur de sel* samples within different regions. However, statistically significant differences were found between coarse salt samples from the various regions. The results, gathered from this study, demonstrate the high contamination within artisanal Portuguese table salts, thus, becoming crucial to develop more future research, leading to a better understanding of the health risks associated with salt consumption.

**Keywords:** contamination, food security, microplastic, Portugal, table salt

#### **1. Introduction**

Plastics have played a fundamental role in man's daily life since the invention of Bakelite, the first synthetic polymer created by the chemist Leo Baekeland in 1907. Newly synthetic polymers were developed in the following years. These were capable of resisting higher temperatures without degrading, thus allowing the creation of a revolutionary era, within all commercial sectors (mainly industrial, health, and domestic), that shaped the habits of the future generations [1, 2]. The mass production of plastic began in the 1950s and has since evolved exponentially. For instance, in 2017, worldwide plastic production surpassed 348 million tons [3, 4]. Nevertheless, plastics have become persistent pollutants in the most diverse environments (atmospheric air, sources of freshwater, brackish, and saltwater, and soils) mainly due to their industrial characteristics (durability, hydrophobic composition, and plasticity) but also due to their improper handling over the years [1, 2, 5].

There are several ways in which plastic debris can reach the oceans, such as: (1) terrestrial sources (e.g., rivers and estuaries), (2) several industrial sectors,

(3) treated and untreated urban effluents, (4) and human activities (e.g., fishing) [6]. For example, our oceans receive, annually, a total of 4.8 to 12.7 million tons of plastic, from which 1.15 to 2.41 million tons come directly from freshwater streams [5, 7, 8]. Several studies have been carried out over the last two decades regarding the problem of plastics and their degradation into smaller particles. Since the 1970s, many scientists have suspected the harmful effects of these anthropogenic particles on the environment [9–12]. However, it was not until the 1990s that microplastics were considered and recognized as emerging pollutants. Therefore, scientists have been developing identification methods to better understand this problem's magnitude [13].

Microplastics (MPs) are characterized as plastic materials or fragments of small proportions, with measurements inferior to 5 mm [14]. MPs existing in aquatic environments may originate from primary sources (where they are designed and produced for a specific purpose) or from secondary sources (resulting from the degradation of larger plastic debris) [15]. In the oceans, the most prevalent synthetic polymers are polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) [16]. Today we are often surrounded by the presence of microplastics as they are everywhere; from our oceans, rivers, sediments, living organisms, atmospheric air and even food resources [14, 17]. These synthetic micropolymers have the ability to accumulate in our food chain, thus reaching various types of organisms. Several studies have been conducted in recent years to understand the potential impacts of these anthropogenic compounds on human health [6, 18].

In Portugal, the population is culturally linked to the sea and its resources, thus becoming more exposed to pollution present in the Atlantic Ocean. In recent years, several studies have been published about the accumulation of microplastics on beaches [19–21], estuaries [22, 23] and aquatic organisms [22, 24, 25] in Portugal. Moreover, many of these MPs had high concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides (e.g., DDTs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and other persistent contaminants adsorbed to their surface [20, 26–28]. Additionally, all these chemical compounds are capable of causing problems in various aquatic ecosystems (such as marine, estuarine, lotic and lentic ecological communities). Hence, Yang et al. [14] hypothesized that saltwater-based commercial table salts were possibly contaminated, since oceans are polluted by plastic debris. In their work, the presence of MPs was analyzed in numerous types of Chinese sea salt brands, where it was found 7–681 MPs/kg of sea salt. After this first study was published, six others were able to characterize and identify (with relevant results) the presence of MPs in commercial table salts, with their concentrations varying mostly between sites [3, 5, 8, 29–31].

Considering that sodium (Na+ ) is an essential element for our well-being [3] and the above information, it can be assumed that MP intake may vary depending on the country's gastronomic culture and environmental pollution. For example, WHO suggests a maximum daily intake of 5 g of salt, however, the Portuguese population consumes, on average, 3 g more than the recommended [32]. We can then assume that the Portuguese people are subject to a greater exposure of microplastics via table salt consumption. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the available Portuguese table salts and determine the degree of microplastic contamination, depending on their origin and type of salt.

#### **2. Methods and materials**

#### **2.1. Study area and sample collection**

A total of seven geographically distinct saltworks were previously identified and selected for this study: Aveiro (Av), Figueira da Foz (FF), Rio Maior (RM), Tejo (Tj), Olhão (Ol), Tavira (Tv) and Castro Marim (CM) (**Figure 1**). In each region,

**5**

**Figure 1.**

*Location of Portugal's main saltworks and respective sampling sites.*

*Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

the final results [5, 8, 31].

**2.2. Preventive methods of contamination**

were protected and/or sealed [29].

between February–April 2019 under the same brand.

ing. Therefore, this type of salt is designated as "well salt" [33].

samples of *fleur de sel* and artisanal coarse salt were collected (*nt* = 14), in triplicate,

Depending on their origin, salts can have different designations. In all the selected saltworks, except for RM, both *fleur de sel* and coarse salt are produced through the solar evaporation of brackish and/or marine waters. Thus, salt originated from these solar saltworks is commonly named sea salt. However, in RM's saltworks the salt is produced from the storm- and groundwater that leaches the halite deposits, present in the region, to form a brine. This one is then collected in open solar saltworks and undergoes the same evaporation processes as the remain-

The packages obtained from *fleur de sel* and artisanal coarse salt were sold in plastic bags of 200–250 and 1000–1500 g, respectively. Previous studies have already shown that plastic packaging does not influence the concentration of MPs in

A protocol, based on published studies [5, 14, 29], was developed to prevent microplastic contamination throughout the study. Protective gloves and white coats were implemented when handling any material or reagent, since numerous plastic fibers can be found in our hands and clothing, which can have in its composition synthetic fibers (e.g., polyester, nylon…) [34]. Moreover, all equipment was cleaned with previously filtered deionized water and 70% (v/v) ethanol. Finally, materials

#### *Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

Considering that sodium (Na+

**2. Methods and materials**

**2.1. Study area and sample collection**

(3) treated and untreated urban effluents, (4) and human activities (e.g., fishing) [6]. For example, our oceans receive, annually, a total of 4.8 to 12.7 million tons of plastic, from which 1.15 to 2.41 million tons come directly from freshwater streams [5, 7, 8]. Several studies have been carried out over the last two decades regarding the problem of plastics and their degradation into smaller particles. Since the 1970s, many scientists have suspected the harmful effects of these anthropogenic particles on the environment [9–12]. However, it was not until the 1990s that microplastics were considered and recognized as emerging pollutants. Therefore, scientists have been developing

Microplastics (MPs) are characterized as plastic materials or fragments of small proportions, with measurements inferior to 5 mm [14]. MPs existing in aquatic environments may originate from primary sources (where they are designed and produced for a specific purpose) or from secondary sources (resulting from the degradation of larger plastic debris) [15]. In the oceans, the most prevalent synthetic polymers are polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) [16]. Today we are often surrounded by the presence of microplastics as they are everywhere; from our oceans, rivers, sediments, living organisms, atmospheric air and even food resources [14, 17]. These synthetic micropolymers have the ability to accumulate in our food chain, thus reaching various types of organisms. Several studies have been conducted in recent years to understand the potential impacts of these anthropogenic compounds on human health [6, 18]. In Portugal, the population is culturally linked to the sea and its resources, thus becoming more exposed to pollution present in the Atlantic Ocean. In recent years, several studies have been published about the accumulation of microplastics on beaches [19–21], estuaries [22, 23] and aquatic organisms [22, 24, 25] in Portugal. Moreover, many of these MPs had high concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides (e.g., DDTs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and other persistent contaminants adsorbed to their surface [20, 26–28]. Additionally, all these chemical compounds are capable of causing problems in various aquatic ecosystems (such as marine, estuarine, lotic and lentic ecological communities). Hence, Yang et al. [14] hypothesized that saltwater-based commercial table salts were possibly contaminated, since oceans are polluted by plastic debris. In their work, the presence of MPs was analyzed in numerous types of Chinese sea salt brands, where it was found 7–681 MPs/kg of sea salt. After this first study was published, six others were able to characterize and identify (with relevant results) the presence of MPs in commercial table salts, with their concentrations varying mostly between sites [3, 5, 8, 29–31].

above information, it can be assumed that MP intake may vary depending on the country's gastronomic culture and environmental pollution. For example, WHO suggests a maximum daily intake of 5 g of salt, however, the Portuguese population consumes, on average, 3 g more than the recommended [32]. We can then assume that the Portuguese people are subject to a greater exposure of microplastics via table salt consumption. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the available Portuguese table salts and determine the degree of microplastic contamination, depending on their origin and type of salt.

A total of seven geographically distinct saltworks were previously identified and selected for this study: Aveiro (Av), Figueira da Foz (FF), Rio Maior (RM), Tejo (Tj), Olhão (Ol), Tavira (Tv) and Castro Marim (CM) (**Figure 1**). In each region,

) is an essential element for our well-being [3] and the

identification methods to better understand this problem's magnitude [13].

**4**

samples of *fleur de sel* and artisanal coarse salt were collected (*nt* = 14), in triplicate, between February–April 2019 under the same brand.

Depending on their origin, salts can have different designations. In all the selected saltworks, except for RM, both *fleur de sel* and coarse salt are produced through the solar evaporation of brackish and/or marine waters. Thus, salt originated from these solar saltworks is commonly named sea salt. However, in RM's saltworks the salt is produced from the storm- and groundwater that leaches the halite deposits, present in the region, to form a brine. This one is then collected in open solar saltworks and undergoes the same evaporation processes as the remaining. Therefore, this type of salt is designated as "well salt" [33].

The packages obtained from *fleur de sel* and artisanal coarse salt were sold in plastic bags of 200–250 and 1000–1500 g, respectively. Previous studies have already shown that plastic packaging does not influence the concentration of MPs in the final results [5, 8, 31].

#### **2.2. Preventive methods of contamination**

A protocol, based on published studies [5, 14, 29], was developed to prevent microplastic contamination throughout the study. Protective gloves and white coats were implemented when handling any material or reagent, since numerous plastic fibers can be found in our hands and clothing, which can have in its composition synthetic fibers (e.g., polyester, nylon…) [34]. Moreover, all equipment was cleaned with previously filtered deionized water and 70% (v/v) ethanol. Finally, materials were protected and/or sealed [29].

**Figure 1.** *Location of Portugal's main saltworks and respective sampling sites.*

The deionized water used during the study was previously filtered with the aid of a vacuum pump using a 1 μm porosity cellulose nitrate membrane (Whatman®; CAT: 7190-002), thus, removing possible microplastic contamination. This filtered water was used to clean the equipment and dissolve the tested table salts, thus, preventing any contamination from external sources via microplastics [14].

#### **2.3. Microplastic extraction and identification**

The microplastic extraction from both salt types was performed according to Iñiguez et al. [5], with some modifications. Briefly, 200 g of salt (*fleur de sel* or coarse salt) was homogeneously dissolved in 1 L of previously filtered deionized water. Next, the solution was placed in a centrifuge for 1 h at 1900 rpm in order to isolate the denser (in)organic material from the supernatant [5]. The supernatant was subsequently collected and filtered with the aid of a vacuum pump using a 5 μm porosity cellulose nitrate filter (Whatman®; CAT: 7195-004). According to Branca [35], the plastic particles are expected to be suspended in the supernatant due to density differences. Nevertheless, preliminary tests were performed to assess whether certain microplastics were "trapped", or not, in the precipitate. No microplastics were found in all of the precipitates. After filtration, the membranes were carefully collected, preserved and sealed in Petri dishes and allowed to dry at room temperature. Each Petri dish was previously brushed with petroleum jelly to fix the membrane and avoid, consequently, the plastic microparticles displacement during microscopic or stereoscopic manipulations. All filtrations and hand-manipulations were performed inside a fume chamber, hence, avoiding any kind of atmospheric contamination [29].

The visual identification of microplastics was performed using a stereoscope (Carl Zeiss Stemi DV4 CLS120X) and a camera. A total of 59 membrane filters were recorded since some replicas required more than one membrane due to clogging. The open software ImageJ (v1.80) was used to analyze each collected picture. The classification of microplastics was made according to their shape and color [3] (**Table 1**).


**7**

**Figure 2.**

*Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

A one-way ANOVA, followed by Tukey's HSD multiple comparison test, was performed in order to discover significant statistical differences between the abundance of microplastics of each region, for the same salt type (*fleur de sel* and coarse salt). Homogeneity and normality tests were applied to the data to validate the tests. Additionally, several independent sample *t*-student tests were employed to understand the differences between salt types, in each saltworks region. All analyses were performed with a significance level of 0.05. All statistical tests were performed

In this study, all samples (*nt* = 14) of artisanal *fleur de sel* and coarse salt were contaminated by microplastics. Overall, 23,175 anthropogenic plastic microparticles were analyzed, of which approximately 64% corresponded to fibers, 35% to irregular fragments, and only <1% to films (**Figure 2A**). Indeed, fibers were the

*Percentage of the different shapes of microplastics identified (A) throughout the study and (B) in each saltworks region. Microspheres and Styrofoam microparticles were not found. FS—*Fleur de sel*; CS—Coarse salt.*

**2.4. Data analysis**

**3. Results**

using the SPSS v25 software.

**3.1. Presence of microplastics in Portuguese salt**

**Table 1.** *Microplastics classification according to their shape and color as used in this study (adapted from [3]).*

#### **2.4. Data analysis**

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

contamination [29].

(**Table 1**).

**2.3. Microplastic extraction and identification**

The deionized water used during the study was previously filtered with the aid of a vacuum pump using a 1 μm porosity cellulose nitrate membrane (Whatman®; CAT: 7190-002), thus, removing possible microplastic contamination. This filtered water was used to clean the equipment and dissolve the tested table salts, thus, preventing any contamination from external sources via microplastics [14].

The microplastic extraction from both salt types was performed according to Iñiguez et al. [5], with some modifications. Briefly, 200 g of salt (*fleur de sel* or coarse salt) was homogeneously dissolved in 1 L of previously filtered deionized water. Next, the solution was placed in a centrifuge for 1 h at 1900 rpm in order to isolate the denser (in)organic material from the supernatant [5]. The supernatant was subsequently collected and filtered with the aid of a vacuum pump using a 5 μm porosity cellulose nitrate filter (Whatman®; CAT: 7195-004). According to Branca [35], the plastic particles are expected to be suspended in the supernatant due to density differences. Nevertheless, preliminary tests were performed to assess whether certain microplastics were "trapped", or not, in the precipitate. No microplastics were found in all of the precipitates. After filtration, the membranes were carefully collected, preserved and sealed in Petri dishes and allowed to dry at room temperature. Each Petri dish was previously brushed with petroleum jelly to fix the membrane and avoid, consequently, the plastic microparticles displacement during microscopic or stereoscopic manipulations. All filtrations and hand-manipulations were performed inside a fume chamber, hence, avoiding any kind of atmospheric

The visual identification of microplastics was performed using a stereoscope (Carl Zeiss Stemi DV4 CLS120X) and a camera. A total of 59 membrane filters were recorded since some replicas required more than one membrane due to clogging. The open software ImageJ (v1.80) was used to analyze each collected picture. The classification of microplastics was made according to their shape and color [3]

> • Beige • Black • Blue • Brown • Gray • Green • Multicolor • Orange • Pink • Red • Transparent • Violet • White • Yellow

**Shape Color**

*Microplastics classification according to their shape and color as used in this study (adapted from [3]).*

• Fibers, thin plastics and often cylindrical in shape.

• Microspheres, perfectly round plastic particles.

• Fragments, microplastics with an irregular shape and/or surface.

• Styrofoam, a lightweight polymer with a sponge-like texture.

• Films, thin and flat plastics.

**6**

**Table 1.**

A one-way ANOVA, followed by Tukey's HSD multiple comparison test, was performed in order to discover significant statistical differences between the abundance of microplastics of each region, for the same salt type (*fleur de sel* and coarse salt). Homogeneity and normality tests were applied to the data to validate the tests. Additionally, several independent sample *t*-student tests were employed to understand the differences between salt types, in each saltworks region. All analyses were performed with a significance level of 0.05. All statistical tests were performed using the SPSS v25 software.

### **3. Results**

#### **3.1. Presence of microplastics in Portuguese salt**

In this study, all samples (*nt* = 14) of artisanal *fleur de sel* and coarse salt were contaminated by microplastics. Overall, 23,175 anthropogenic plastic microparticles were analyzed, of which approximately 64% corresponded to fibers, 35% to irregular fragments, and only <1% to films (**Figure 2A**). Indeed, fibers were the

#### **Figure 2.**

*Percentage of the different shapes of microplastics identified (A) throughout the study and (B) in each saltworks region. Microspheres and Styrofoam microparticles were not found. FS—*Fleur de sel*; CS—Coarse salt.*

most predominant type of microplastic (>50%) present in all the studied regions, except in Rio Maior and Olhão (**Figure 2B**). Here, a higher percentage of fragments (51.8 and 56.5%, respectively) was found in coarse salt and *fleur de sel*, respectively. Films were also present in all samples, although in lower percentages (<2.5%) when compared to the other microplastic shapes (**Figure 2B**). No spherical and Styrofoam microparticles were identified in all samples.

The most common colors found were transparent (54.9%), blue (15.3%), and black (14.6%), corresponding to roughly 85% of the analyzed microplastic polymers (**Figure 3A**). Gray and green accounted for about 4.6 and 3.2%, respectively. The remaining 7.5% includes microplastics with the colors designated as yellow, white, beige, brown, orange, pink, red, and violet (**Figure 3A**).

According to **Figure 3B**, transparent was the most predominant color (>40%) throughout all sampled regions. From the remaining colors, blue and black proved to be the most prevalent in all regions when compared to the remaining colors (**Figure 3B**). No multicolored microplastics were found in this study.

Moreover, it was possible to observe a high amount of lesser dense organic matter throughout the membrane filter analysis (e.g., small invertebrates, *Artemia* sp.

#### **Figure 3.**

*Percentage of the different colors of microplastics identified (A) throughout the study and (B) in each saltworks region. "Other" represents the sum between the following colors: beige, brown, orange, pink, red, violet, yellow, and white. No multicolor microplastics were identified. FS—*Fleur de sel*; CS—Coarse salt.*

**9**

**Figure 4.**

*Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

of impurities present in these types of salt.

**3.2.** *Fleur de sel* **vs. coarse salt**

(*p* = 0.170).

cysts, feathers, vegetal organic matter...; **Figure 4**), which demonstrates the degree

**Figure 5** shows the significant differences between the different types of salt (artisanal *fleur de sel* and coarse salt) in each saltworks' region. According to **Figure 5**, significantly higher values (*p* < 0.05) of microplastics in the *fleur de sel* were found in all studied regions, when compared to coarse salt (**Av** – *t*(4) = 2.816, *p* = 0.048; **FF** – *t*(4) = 4.000, *p* = 0.016; **Tj** – *t*(4) = 7.376, *p* = 0.002; **Ol** – *t*(4) = 2.990, *p* = 0.040; **Tv** – *t*(4) = 5.249, *p* = 0.006), except for Rio Maior's (*t*(4) = 1.457, *p* = 0.219) and Castro Marim's (*t*(4) = 2.152, *p* = 0.098) saltworks (see **Table 2** for mean and standard deviation values). Moreover, regarding artisanal coarse salt, statistically significant differences were detected between regions according to the one-way ANOVA (*F*(6.14) = 18.752, *p* = .000). Tukey's *post hoc* test revealed that Rio Maior artisanal coarse salt contains a significantly higher amount of microplastics than the coarse salt from the other regions studied (Av, *p* = 0.012; FF, *p* = 0.000; Tj, *p* = 0.000; Ol, *p* = 0.000; Tv, *p* = 0.000; CM, *p* = 0.001). However, there was no statistically significant differences (*p* > 0.05) between the different *fleur de sel* samples from the various studied saltworks

Additionally, the region who presented the highest quantities of microplastics in artisanal *fleur de sel* and coarse salt was Rio Maior (4830.0 ± 1408.0 and 3611.7 ± 338.4, respectively). The lowest amount of *fleur de sel* and coarse salt was found in the two most southeastern saltworks of Portugal: Castro Marim

*Different types of organic and inorganic particles found in artisanal table salts: (A)* Artemia *sp. cysts, present in most of* fleur de sel *samples; (B) an invertebrates' chitin; (C) insects body; (D, F, I) overview of a membrane filter being analyzed; (E) birds' feather; (G) a mesoplastic, with more than 5 mm; (H) blue* 

*microplastic fragment, identified in most samples across regions.*

(2798.3 ± 595.3) and Tavira (666.7 ± 72.5), respectively (**Table 2**).

cysts, feathers, vegetal organic matter...; **Figure 4**), which demonstrates the degree of impurities present in these types of salt.

#### **3.2.** *Fleur de sel* **vs. coarse salt**

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

microparticles were identified in all samples.

white, beige, brown, orange, pink, red, and violet (**Figure 3A**).

(**Figure 3B**). No multicolored microplastics were found in this study.

most predominant type of microplastic (>50%) present in all the studied regions, except in Rio Maior and Olhão (**Figure 2B**). Here, a higher percentage of fragments (51.8 and 56.5%, respectively) was found in coarse salt and *fleur de sel*, respectively. Films were also present in all samples, although in lower percentages (<2.5%) when compared to the other microplastic shapes (**Figure 2B**). No spherical and Styrofoam

The most common colors found were transparent (54.9%), blue (15.3%), and black (14.6%), corresponding to roughly 85% of the analyzed microplastic polymers (**Figure 3A**). Gray and green accounted for about 4.6 and 3.2%, respectively. The remaining 7.5% includes microplastics with the colors designated as yellow,

According to **Figure 3B**, transparent was the most predominant color (>40%) throughout all sampled regions. From the remaining colors, blue and black proved to be the most prevalent in all regions when compared to the remaining colors

Moreover, it was possible to observe a high amount of lesser dense organic matter throughout the membrane filter analysis (e.g., small invertebrates, *Artemia* sp.

*Percentage of the different colors of microplastics identified (A) throughout the study and (B) in each saltworks region. "Other" represents the sum between the following colors: beige, brown, orange, pink, red, violet, yellow,* 

*and white. No multicolor microplastics were identified. FS—*Fleur de sel*; CS—Coarse salt.*

**8**

**Figure 3.**

**Figure 5** shows the significant differences between the different types of salt (artisanal *fleur de sel* and coarse salt) in each saltworks' region. According to **Figure 5**, significantly higher values (*p* < 0.05) of microplastics in the *fleur de sel* were found in all studied regions, when compared to coarse salt (**Av** – *t*(4) = 2.816, *p* = 0.048; **FF** – *t*(4) = 4.000, *p* = 0.016; **Tj** – *t*(4) = 7.376, *p* = 0.002; **Ol** – *t*(4) = 2.990, *p* = 0.040; **Tv** – *t*(4) = 5.249, *p* = 0.006), except for Rio Maior's (*t*(4) = 1.457, *p* = 0.219) and Castro Marim's (*t*(4) = 2.152, *p* = 0.098) saltworks (see **Table 2** for mean and standard deviation values). Moreover, regarding artisanal coarse salt, statistically significant differences were detected between regions according to the one-way ANOVA (*F*(6.14) = 18.752, *p* = .000). Tukey's *post hoc* test revealed that Rio Maior artisanal coarse salt contains a significantly higher amount of microplastics than the coarse salt from the other regions studied (Av, *p* = 0.012; FF, *p* = 0.000; Tj, *p* = 0.000; Ol, *p* = 0.000; Tv, *p* = 0.000; CM, *p* = 0.001). However, there was no statistically significant differences (*p* > 0.05) between the different *fleur de sel* samples from the various studied saltworks (*p* = 0.170).

Additionally, the region who presented the highest quantities of microplastics in artisanal *fleur de sel* and coarse salt was Rio Maior (4830.0 ± 1408.0 and 3611.7 ± 338.4, respectively). The lowest amount of *fleur de sel* and coarse salt was found in the two most southeastern saltworks of Portugal: Castro Marim (2798.3 ± 595.3) and Tavira (666.7 ± 72.5), respectively (**Table 2**).

#### **Figure 4.**

*Different types of organic and inorganic particles found in artisanal table salts: (A)* Artemia *sp. cysts, present in most of* fleur de sel *samples; (B) an invertebrates' chitin; (C) insects body; (D, F, I) overview of a membrane filter being analyzed; (E) birds' feather; (G) a mesoplastic, with more than 5 mm; (H) blue microplastic fragment, identified in most samples across regions.*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Comparison between the abundance of plastic microparticles present in the artisanal* fleur de sel *(FS) and coarse salt (CS) from the various saltworks selected for this study. Each value represents the mean ± standard deviation. Asterisks represent statistically significant differences between* fleur de sel *and coarse salt according to Student's* t*-test. \*—*p *< 0.05; \*\*—*p *< 0.01. Different letters represent statistically significant differences (*p *< 0.05) between samples of artisanal coarse salt across the various regions studied. There are no statistically significant differences (*p *> 0.05) between the samples of* fleur de sel*.*


**Table 2.**

*Minimum (min) and maximum (max) values of the number of microplastic particles* per *kilogram (kg), and respective mean and standard deviation (SD) for the different types of artisanal table salt (*fleur de sel *and coarse salt) collected in all regions.*

#### **4. Discussion**

The main purpose of this study was to assess the level of anthropogenic contamination via microplastic particles of two types of table salts present in the Portuguese territory. Seven different locations were selected, where both artisanal *fleur de sel* and coarse salt were obtained for analysis, from the same brand.

In Portugal, the vast majority of the salt production starts by capturing seawater, due to tidal changes, into several successive ponds with different widths and heights. Next, it undergoes through various evaporation processes, due to the wind and solar actions, improving the salt crystals' precipitation. The coarse

**11**

**Table 3.**

*Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

was applied.

table salts.

artisanal coarse salt.

550–681 (5)

50–280 (16)

0–10 (17)

16–84 (5)

46.7–806 (11)

22–19,800 (12)

0–13,629 (28)

595–5090 (6)

*W—White; ND—No data.*

salt is then collected, roughly washed, and packaged. On the other hand, *fleur de sel* is only the first surface layer of formed salt produced in saltworks. This type of table salt is collected and immediately packaged without being previously cleaned [36]. Nevertheless, some types of salts may undergo sanitization, as well as a refining process, before packaging [8]. Therefore, to understand the level of contamination existing in the Portuguese saltworks, all the salts acquired for this study were of artisanal origin, i.e., no refinement or industrial treatment

Once samples were analyzed, it was evident the presence of a high MP concentration compared to other studies already carried out in several countries (**Table 3**). These values may be a direct proof of the lack of refinement or treatment processes that undergo in Portuguese saltworks, thus, reflecting the traditional methods still used nowadays. Most studies related to the presence of microplastics in table salt samples either used refined, treated salts and/or salts from which there is no information on their treatment [5, 8, 14, 30, 31]. Hence, it becomes important to study and understand how refining processes influence the abundance of microplastics in

Overall, *fleur de sel* presented always higher contamination values of MPs than those found in coarse salts. These salt "scales" are formed at the crystallizers' surface and, as such, greater air contamination of plastic particles is expected [2]. Also, since it does not undergo any cleaning process up to its packaging, it is expected a higher concentration of MPs, when compared to

Moreover, laboratory errors should be considered while manipulating samples.

**Abundance of MPs** *per* **Kg(nsamples) Predominant References**

— Fr/Fb BLa/G/BLu/W [14]

— Fb BLa/G/ BLu/W [5]

— Fr/Fb/Fl ND [3]

— Fb/Fr BLu/G/R/T [30]

— Fr/Fb W/T/BLa/BLu [8]

Fb/Fr T/BLu/BLa This study

— — Fb/Fr/Fl ND [29]

— — Fr/Fb BLa/T/G/BLu [31]

For instance, MPs were only analyzed using a stereoscope, with most of them measuring less than 500 μm. However, several studies indicate that from this size

**Sea salt Well salt** *Fleur de sel* **Shapes Colors**

2320–6430 (7)

*Fr—Fragments; Fb—Fibers; Fl—Films; BLa—Black; BLu—Blue; G—Green; R—Red; T—Transparent;* 

*Comparison between the concentrations of MPs found in several published articles and the current study.*

7–204 (5)

115–185 (5)

> 0 (5)

113–367 (1)

> 0–148 (9)

3325–6430 (1)

*The microplastic particles are ordered from most to least predominant.*

#### *Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

**10**

**4. Discussion**

*coarse salt) collected in all regions.*

**Table 2.**

**Figure 5.**

The main purpose of this study was to assess the level of anthropogenic contamination via microplastic particles of two types of table salts present in the Portuguese territory. Seven different locations were selected, where both artisanal *fleur de sel*

*Minimum (min) and maximum (max) values of the number of microplastic particles* per *kilogram (kg), and respective mean and standard deviation (SD) for the different types of artisanal table salt (*fleur de sel *and* 

**Microplastic particles** *per* **kilogram (Kg)** *Fleur de sel* **Coarse salt Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD**

Av 3120 5050 4420.0 1126.0 1670 2735 2351.7 591.9 FF 2675 3730 3320.0 565.4 1085 2040 1603.3 482.7 RM 3780 6430 4830.0 1408.0 3985 3900 3611.7 338.4 Tj 3255 3900 3621.7 331.5 1030 1830 1390.0 406.0 Ol 2395 4070 3108.3 864.7 1585 1630 1615.0 21.2 Tv 2510 4235 3310.0 869.3 595 740 666.7 72.5 CM 2320 3465 2798.3 595.3 1700 2270 1978.3 285.2

*Comparison between the abundance of plastic microparticles present in the artisanal* fleur de sel *(FS) and coarse salt (CS) from the various saltworks selected for this study. Each value represents the mean ± standard deviation. Asterisks represent statistically significant differences between* fleur de sel *and coarse salt according to Student's* t*-test. \*—*p *< 0.05; \*\*—*p *< 0.01. Different letters represent statistically significant differences (*p *< 0.05) between samples of artisanal coarse salt across the various regions studied. There are no statistically* 

*significant differences (*p *> 0.05) between the samples of* fleur de sel*.*

In Portugal, the vast majority of the salt production starts by capturing seawater, due to tidal changes, into several successive ponds with different widths and heights. Next, it undergoes through various evaporation processes, due to the wind and solar actions, improving the salt crystals' precipitation. The coarse

and coarse salt were obtained for analysis, from the same brand.

salt is then collected, roughly washed, and packaged. On the other hand, *fleur de sel* is only the first surface layer of formed salt produced in saltworks. This type of table salt is collected and immediately packaged without being previously cleaned [36]. Nevertheless, some types of salts may undergo sanitization, as well as a refining process, before packaging [8]. Therefore, to understand the level of contamination existing in the Portuguese saltworks, all the salts acquired for this study were of artisanal origin, i.e., no refinement or industrial treatment was applied.

Once samples were analyzed, it was evident the presence of a high MP concentration compared to other studies already carried out in several countries (**Table 3**). These values may be a direct proof of the lack of refinement or treatment processes that undergo in Portuguese saltworks, thus, reflecting the traditional methods still used nowadays. Most studies related to the presence of microplastics in table salt samples either used refined, treated salts and/or salts from which there is no information on their treatment [5, 8, 14, 30, 31]. Hence, it becomes important to study and understand how refining processes influence the abundance of microplastics in table salts.

Overall, *fleur de sel* presented always higher contamination values of MPs than those found in coarse salts. These salt "scales" are formed at the crystallizers' surface and, as such, greater air contamination of plastic particles is expected [2]. Also, since it does not undergo any cleaning process up to its packaging, it is expected a higher concentration of MPs, when compared to artisanal coarse salt.

Moreover, laboratory errors should be considered while manipulating samples. For instance, MPs were only analyzed using a stereoscope, with most of them measuring less than 500 μm. However, several studies indicate that from this size


*The microplastic particles are ordered from most to least predominant.*

*Fr—Fragments; Fb—Fibers; Fl—Films; BLa—Black; BLu—Blue; G—Green; R—Red; T—Transparent;* 

*W—White; ND—No data.*

#### **Table 3.**

*Comparison between the concentrations of MPs found in several published articles and the current study.*

an underestimation of the real value may occur. Hidalgo-Ruiz et al. [37], stated that the visual identification of MPs is a valid method for dimensions superior to 500 μm, while MPs smaller than this threshold need to be analyzed using stricter methodologies. A visual identification-only approach can lead to underestimations ranging from 20% [38] to 70% [37], with that percentage increasing inversely with MPs' size [31].

Among the studies conducted so far, two presented similar results to those found in the Portuguese table salts: Renzi and Blašković [31] analyzed sea salt from Italy and Croatia and found between 22 and 19,800 MPs/Kg; and Kim et al. [8], that discovered 0 to 13,629 MPs/Kg and 0 to 148 MPs/Kg in sea salt and well salt, respectively, from worldwide salt samples. In this study, values ranged from 595 to 5090 MPs/Kg in sea salt and from 3325 to 6430 MPs/kg in Rio Maior's well salt.

Regarding *fleur de sel*, values ranged from 2320 to 6430 MPs/Kg and, for coarse salt, between 595 and 3985 MPs/Kg. Until now, only Portuguese salt has had a higher concentration of MPs in well salt [33], when compared to sea salt. Unfortunately, there is a lack of studies in other regions with similar characteristics to Rio Maior's saltworks, which do not allow for further data analysis. Concerning the MPs classification (shape and color), this study presented similar results to Gündoğdu [29], Iñiguez et al. [5], and Kosuth et al. [30], with fibers and fragments being the most predominant overall, as well as, black, blue, and transparent microplastics.

Therefore, we can argue that regardless of its source, microplastic contamination in table salts is an emerging concern, mainly due to their public health implications and environmental pollution. Indeed, microplastics are consumed not only through table salts but also via tap water, beer, honey [30], atmospheric air [2] and a wide variety of seafood. In fact, bivalves are the most studied group of animals since most species are filterers and become easily contaminated [39–41]. Microplastics can be hazardous already by themselves in the environment, however, they also function as transporters/emitters of persistent organic pollutants (e.g., bisphenol A, organochlorides) due to their adsorption ability. Hence, it is important to investigate and evaluate possible transmission risks in which microplastics may affect public health [5].

The World Health Organization recommends a maximum daily salt (Na<sup>+</sup> ) intake of 5.0 g/day. Nevertheless, the Portuguese population generally consumes 8.0 g/day, due to a strong and rooted gastronomic culture. Therefore, with the values obtained in this study, Portuguese people would consume, on average, approximately 7443 or 12,325 MPs/year depending on the table salts origin (sea salt and well salt, respectively). If we calculate by the salt type, an average Portuguese person can consume 5551 or 10,769 MPs/year if they consume only coarse salt or *fleur de sel*, respectively. However, these values are only theoretical and that in reality the amount MPs ingested is relatively smaller, since WHO also takes into account the salt found in food additives and processed food for the maximum daily salt intake threshold [3].

#### **5. Conclusions**

The present study was the first to assess the presence/absence of microplastic polymers in *fleur de sel*, a type of salt formed at the surface of saltworks' crystallizers. Overall, microplastics were found in all samples of Portuguese table salt, regardless of their origin and type, with higher contamination values being found in Rio Maior's "well salt".

**13**

*Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

as microplastics.

impairments.

CIIMAR.

**Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

**Acknowledgements**

Moreover, more studies are needed, since salt is a very common and wellrooted ingredient in Portuguese gastronomic culture. In fact, there are other available table salts to the population that were not studied yet. Additionally, new management tools need to be applied to decrease the concentration of impurities (e.g., insects' feathers, exoskeletons, etc.,…) and contaminants, such

Nowadays, research needs to be increasingly strengthened regarding microplastics contamination so that better regulations can exist together with a broader understanding. Also, these regulations need to be supported by government agencies in order to implement actions that reduce the emission of plastics into the environment and, thus, preventing environmental and human

This study was funded by the "Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P. (FCT), Portugal, with national funds (FCT/MCTES, "orçamento de Estado", project reference PTDC/MAR-PRO/1851/2014), and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the COMPETE 2020 program (POCI-01- 0145-FEDER-016885) through the project "PLASTICGLOBAL—Assessment of plastic-mediated chemicals transfer in food webs of deep, coastal and estuarine ecosystems under global change scenarios" that is also funded by the Lisboa 2020 program (LISBOA-01-0145-FEDER-016885). The study was also supported by the Strategic Funding UID/Multi/04423/2013 through national funds provided by FCT and ERDF in the framework of the program Portugal 2020 to

*Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

MPs' size [31].

well salt.

microplastics.

public health [5].

**5. Conclusions**

in Rio Maior's "well salt".

maximum daily salt intake threshold [3].

an underestimation of the real value may occur. Hidalgo-Ruiz et al. [37], stated that the visual identification of MPs is a valid method for dimensions superior to 500 μm, while MPs smaller than this threshold need to be analyzed using stricter methodologies. A visual identification-only approach can lead to underestimations ranging from 20% [38] to 70% [37], with that percentage increasing inversely with

Among the studies conducted so far, two presented similar results to those found in the Portuguese table salts: Renzi and Blašković [31] analyzed sea salt from Italy and Croatia and found between 22 and 19,800 MPs/Kg; and Kim et al. [8], that discovered 0 to 13,629 MPs/Kg and 0 to 148 MPs/Kg in sea salt and well salt, respectively, from worldwide salt samples. In this study, values ranged from 595 to 5090 MPs/Kg in sea salt and from 3325 to 6430 MPs/kg in Rio Maior's

Regarding *fleur de sel*, values ranged from 2320 to 6430 MPs/Kg and, for coarse salt, between 595 and 3985 MPs/Kg. Until now, only Portuguese salt has had a higher concentration of MPs in well salt [33], when compared to sea salt. Unfortunately, there is a lack of studies in other regions with similar characteristics to Rio Maior's saltworks, which do not allow for further data analysis. Concerning the MPs classification (shape and color), this study presented similar results to Gündoğdu [29], Iñiguez et al. [5], and Kosuth et al. [30], with fibers and fragments being the most predominant overall, as well as, black, blue, and transparent

Therefore, we can argue that regardless of its source, microplastic contamination in table salts is an emerging concern, mainly due to their public health implications and environmental pollution. Indeed, microplastics are consumed not only through table salts but also via tap water, beer, honey [30], atmospheric air [2] and a wide variety of seafood. In fact, bivalves are the most studied group of animals since most species are filterers and become easily contaminated [39–41]. Microplastics can be hazardous already by themselves in the environment, however, they also function as transporters/emitters of persistent organic pollutants (e.g., bisphenol A, organochlorides) due to their adsorption ability. Hence, it is important to investigate and evaluate possible transmission risks in which microplastics may affect

The World Health Organization recommends a maximum daily salt (Na<sup>+</sup>

intake of 5.0 g/day. Nevertheless, the Portuguese population generally consumes 8.0 g/day, due to a strong and rooted gastronomic culture. Therefore, with the values obtained in this study, Portuguese people would consume, on average, approximately 7443 or 12,325 MPs/year depending on the table salts origin (sea salt and well salt, respectively). If we calculate by the salt type, an average Portuguese person can consume 5551 or 10,769 MPs/year if they consume only coarse salt or *fleur de sel*, respectively. However, these values are only theoretical and that in reality the amount MPs ingested is relatively smaller, since WHO also takes into account the salt found in food additives and processed food for the

The present study was the first to assess the presence/absence of microplastic polymers in *fleur de sel*, a type of salt formed at the surface of saltworks' crystallizers. Overall, microplastics were found in all samples of Portuguese table salt, regardless of their origin and type, with higher contamination values being found

)

**12**

Moreover, more studies are needed, since salt is a very common and wellrooted ingredient in Portuguese gastronomic culture. In fact, there are other available table salts to the population that were not studied yet. Additionally, new management tools need to be applied to decrease the concentration of impurities (e.g., insects' feathers, exoskeletons, etc.,…) and contaminants, such as microplastics.

Nowadays, research needs to be increasingly strengthened regarding microplastics contamination so that better regulations can exist together with a broader understanding. Also, these regulations need to be supported by government agencies in order to implement actions that reduce the emission of plastics into the environment and, thus, preventing environmental and human impairments.

#### **Acknowledgements**

This study was funded by the "Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P. (FCT), Portugal, with national funds (FCT/MCTES, "orçamento de Estado", project reference PTDC/MAR-PRO/1851/2014), and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the COMPETE 2020 program (POCI-01- 0145-FEDER-016885) through the project "PLASTICGLOBAL—Assessment of plastic-mediated chemicals transfer in food webs of deep, coastal and estuarine ecosystems under global change scenarios" that is also funded by the Lisboa 2020 program (LISBOA-01-0145-FEDER-016885). The study was also supported by the Strategic Funding UID/Multi/04423/2013 through national funds provided by FCT and ERDF in the framework of the program Portugal 2020 to CIIMAR.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

#### **Author details**

Ana Sofia Soares1 , Carlos Pinheiro2,3, Uirá Oliveira2,3 and Maria Natividade Vieira2,3\*

1 Abel Salazar Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Porto, Portugal

2 Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

3 Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Matosinhos, Portugal

\*Address all correspondence to: mnvieira@fc.up.pt

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**15**

*Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

Thompson RC, Barlaz M. Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B Biological Sciences. 2009;**364**:1985-1998. DOI: 10.1098/

[8] Kim JS, Lee HJ, Kim SK, Kim HJ. Global pattern of microplastics (MPs) in commercial food-grade salts: Sea salt as an indicator of seawater MP pollution. Environmental Science & Technology. 2018;**52**:12819-12828. DOI: 10.1021/acs.

[9] Austin HM, Stoops-Glas PM. The distribution of polystyrene spheres and nibs in Block Island sound during 1972- 1973. Chesapeake Science. 1977;**18**:89-

[10] Carpenter EJ, Smith KL. Plastics on the Sargasso Sea surface. Science. 1972;**175**:1240-1241. DOI: 10.1126/

[11] Colton JB, Burns BR, Knapp FD. Plastic particles in surface waters of the Northwestern Atlantic. Science. 1974;**185**:491-497. DOI: 10.1126/

[12] Kartar S, Milne RA, Sainsbury M. Polystyrene waste in the Severn estuary. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 1973;**4**:144. DOI: 10.1016/0025-326X(73)90010-6

[13] Critchell K, Bauer-Civiello A, Benham C, Berry K, Eagle L, Hamann M, et al. Plastic pollution in the coastal environment: Current challenges and future solutions. In: Wolanski E, Day JW, Elliot M, Ramachandran R, editors. Coasts and Estuaries. 1st ed. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier; 2019. pp. 595-609. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-814003-1.00034-4

[14] Yang D, Shi H, Li L, Li J, Jabeen K, Kolandhasamy P. Microplastic pollution in table salts from China. Environmental Science & Technology. 2015;**49**:13622- 13627. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b03163

[15] OSPAR. Assessment Document of Land-Based Inputs of Microplastics in the Marine Environment [Internet]. 2017. Available from: https://www.ospar.

org/documents?v=38018

92. DOI: 10.2307/1350372

science.175.4027.1240

science.185.4150.491

est.8b04180

[2] Lusher A. Microplastics in the marine environment: Distribution, interactions

and effects. In: Bergmann M, Gutow L, Klages M, editors. Marine Anthropogenic Litter. 1st ed. Cham: Springer; 2015. pp. 245-307. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3\_10

[3] Karami A, Golieskardi A, Keong Choo C, Larat V, Galloway TS, Salamatinia B. The presence of

microplastics in commercial salts from different countries. Science Reports. 2017;**7**:1-11. DOI: 10.1038/srep46173

[4] Plastic Europe. An Analysis of European Plastics Production, Demand and Waste Data [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www. plasticseurope.org/application/ files/6315/4510/9658/Plastics\_the\_

facts\_2018\_AF\_web.pdf

marpolbul.2018.05.047

[5] Iñiguez ME, Conesa JA,

Fullana A. Microplastics in Spanish table salt. Science Reports. 2017;**7**:1-7. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-09128-x

[6] Barboza LGA, Dick Vethaak A, Lavorante B, Lundebye AK,

Guilhermino L. Marine microplastic debris: An emerging issue for food security, food safety and human health. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2018;**133**:336-348. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[7] Jambeck JR, Geyer R, Wilcox C, Siegler TR, Perryman M, Andrady A, et al. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science. 2015;**347**:768-771.

DOI: 10.1126/science.1260352

[1] Barnes DK, Galgani F,

rstb.2008.0205

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*Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

#### **References**

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

**14**

**Author details**

Ana Sofia Soares1

Portugal

, Carlos Pinheiro2,3, Uirá Oliveira2,3 and Maria Natividade Vieira2,3\*

1 Abel Salazar Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Porto, Portugal

3 Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Matosinhos,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

2 Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

\*Address all correspondence to: mnvieira@fc.up.pt

provided the original work is properly cited.

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[28] Ogata Y, Takada H, Mizukawa K, Hirai H, Iwasa S, Endo S, et al. International Pellet Watch: Global monitoring of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in coastal waters. 1. Initial phase data on PCBs, DDTs, and HCHs. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2009;**58**:1437-1446. DOI: 10.1016/j. marpolbul.2009.06.014

[29] Gündoğdu S. Contamination of table salts from Turkey with microplastics. Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment. 2018;**35**:1006-1014. DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2018.1447694

**17**

2007

*Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

> [38] Eriksen M, Mason S, Wilson S, Box C, Zellers A, Edwards W, et al. Microplastic pollution in the surface waters of the Laurentian Great Lakes. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2013;**77**:177-182. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[39] Davidson K, Dudas SE. Microplastic ingestion by wild and cultured Manila clams (*Venerupis philippinarum*) from Baynes Sound, British

Columbia. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2016;**71**:147-156. DOI: 10.1007/

[40] Foekema EM, De Gruijter C, Mergia MT, van Franeker JA, Murk AJ, Koelmans AA. Plastic in North Sea fish. Environmental Science & Technology. 2013;**47**:8818-8824. DOI: 10.1021/

[41] van Cauwenberghe L, Janssen CR. Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption. Environmental Pollution. 2014;**193**:65-70. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.010

marpolbul.2013.10.007

s00244-016-0286-4

es400931b

[30] Kosuth M, Mason SA, Wattenberg EV. Anthropogenic contamination of tap water, beer, and sea salt. PLoS One. 2018;**13**:1-18. DOI:

10.1371/journal.pone.0194970

marpolbul.2018.06.065

20. DOI: 10400.18/4125

marpolbul.2016.09.025

10.1186/1746-1448-7-3

10.1021/es2031505

[37] Hidalgo-Ruz V, Gutow L,

Thompson RC, Thiel M. Microplastics in the marine environment: A review of the methods used for identification and quantification. Environmental Science & Technology. 2012;**46**:3060-3075. DOI:

[32] Santos M, Nascimento AC, Santiago S, Gama AC, Calhau MA. O sal na alimentação dos portugueses. Instituto Nacional de Saúde. 2016;**8**:17-

[33] Calado C, Brandão JM. Salinas interiores em Portugal: O caso das marinhas de Rio Maior. Geonovas. 2009;**22**:45-54. DOI: 10400.9/926

[34] Napper IE, Thompson RC. Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing conditions. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2016;**112**:39-45. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[35] Branca DL. Uniformity of low density fibrous structures and the effects of manufacturing processes on apparent density [thesis]. Syracuse: State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry;

[36] Rodrigues CM, Bio A, Amat F, Vieira MN. Artisanal salt production in Aveiro/Portugal-an ecofriendly process. Saline Systems. 2011;**7**:3. DOI:

[31] Renzi M, Blaskovic A. Litter & microplastics features in table salts from marine origin: Italian versus Croatian brands. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2018;**135**:62-68. DOI: 10.1016/j. *Microplastic Pollution in Portuguese Saltworks DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91476*

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

Tejada S, Faggio C. Microplastic in marine organism: Environmental and toxicological effects. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology. 2018;**64**:164-171. DOI: 10.1016/j.

distribution of microplastics and fish larvae in the Douro estuary. Science of the Total Environment. 2019;**659**:1071-1081. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[24] Frias JP, Otero V, Sobral P. Evidence

zooplankton from Portuguese coastal waters. Marine Environmental

[25] Neves D, Sobral P, Ferreira JL, Pereira T. Ingestion of microplastics by commercial fish off the Portuguese coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2015;**101**:119-126. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[26] Frias JP, Sobral P, Ferreira AM. Organic pollutants in microplastics from two beaches of the Portuguese coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2010;**60**:1988-1992. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[27] Mizukawa K, Takada H, Ito M, Geok YB, Hosoda J, Yamashita R, et al. Monitoring of a wide range of organic micropollutants on the Portuguese coast using plastic resin pellets. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2013;**70**:296-302. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[28] Ogata Y, Takada H, Mizukawa K, Hirai H, Iwasa S, Endo S, et al. International Pellet Watch: Global monitoring of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in coastal waters. 1. Initial phase data on PCBs, DDTs, and HCHs. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2009;**58**:1437-1446. DOI: 10.1016/j.

Research. 2014;**95**:89-95. DOI: 10.1016/j.

of microplastics in samples of

scitotenv.2018.12.273

marenvres.2014.01.001

marpolbul.2015.11.008

marpolbul.2010.07.030

marpolbul.2013.02.008

marpolbul.2009.06.014

[29] Gündoğdu S. Contamination of table salts from Turkey with microplastics. Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment. 2018;**35**:1006-1014. DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2018.1447694

[17] Li J, Qu X, Su L, Zhang W, Yang D, Kolandhasamy P, et al. Microplastics in mussels along the coastal waters of China. Environmental Pollution. 2016;**214**:177-184. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[16] Guzzetti E, Sureda A,

etap.2018.10.009

envpol.2016.04.012

jamb.2017.05.00138

[19] Antunes J, Frias J,

Sobral P. Microplastics on the Portuguese coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2018;**131**:294-302. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.04.025

[20] Antunes JC, Frias JGL, Micaelo AC, Sobral P. Resin pellets from beaches of the Portuguese coast and adsorbed persistent organic pollutants. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 2013;**130**:62- 69. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2013.06.016

[21] Martins J, Sobral P. Plastic marine debris on the Portuguese coastline: A matter of size? Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2011;**62**:2649-2653. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.09.028

[22] Bessa F, Barria P, Neto JM, Frias J, Otero V, Sobral P, et al. Occurrence of microplastics in commercial fish from a natural estuarine environment.

Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2018;**128**:575-584. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[23] Rodrigues SM, Almeida CMR, Silva D, Cunha J, Antunes C, Freitas V, et al. Microplastic contamination in an urban estuary: Abundance and

marpolbul.2018.01.044

[18] Pinheiro C, Oliveira U,

Vieira MN. Occurrence and impacts of microplastics in freshwater fish. Journal of Aquaculture and Marine Biology. 2017;**5**:00138. DOI: 10.15406/

**16**

[30] Kosuth M, Mason SA, Wattenberg EV. Anthropogenic contamination of tap water, beer, and sea salt. PLoS One. 2018;**13**:1-18. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194970

[31] Renzi M, Blaskovic A. Litter & microplastics features in table salts from marine origin: Italian versus Croatian brands. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2018;**135**:62-68. DOI: 10.1016/j. marpolbul.2018.06.065

[32] Santos M, Nascimento AC, Santiago S, Gama AC, Calhau MA. O sal na alimentação dos portugueses. Instituto Nacional de Saúde. 2016;**8**:17- 20. DOI: 10400.18/4125

[33] Calado C, Brandão JM. Salinas interiores em Portugal: O caso das marinhas de Rio Maior. Geonovas. 2009;**22**:45-54. DOI: 10400.9/926

[34] Napper IE, Thompson RC. Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing conditions. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2016;**112**:39-45. DOI: 10.1016/j. marpolbul.2016.09.025

[35] Branca DL. Uniformity of low density fibrous structures and the effects of manufacturing processes on apparent density [thesis]. Syracuse: State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry; 2007

[36] Rodrigues CM, Bio A, Amat F, Vieira MN. Artisanal salt production in Aveiro/Portugal-an ecofriendly process. Saline Systems. 2011;**7**:3. DOI: 10.1186/1746-1448-7-3

[37] Hidalgo-Ruz V, Gutow L, Thompson RC, Thiel M. Microplastics in the marine environment: A review of the methods used for identification and quantification. Environmental Science & Technology. 2012;**46**:3060-3075. DOI: 10.1021/es2031505

[38] Eriksen M, Mason S, Wilson S, Box C, Zellers A, Edwards W, et al. Microplastic pollution in the surface waters of the Laurentian Great Lakes. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2013;**77**:177-182. DOI: 10.1016/j. marpolbul.2013.10.007

[39] Davidson K, Dudas SE. Microplastic ingestion by wild and cultured Manila clams (*Venerupis philippinarum*) from Baynes Sound, British Columbia. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2016;**71**:147-156. DOI: 10.1007/ s00244-016-0286-4

[40] Foekema EM, De Gruijter C, Mergia MT, van Franeker JA, Murk AJ, Koelmans AA. Plastic in North Sea fish. Environmental Science & Technology. 2013;**47**:8818-8824. DOI: 10.1021/ es400931b

[41] van Cauwenberghe L, Janssen CR. Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption. Environmental Pollution. 2014;**193**:65-70. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.010

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

concentrations.

**1. Introduction**

activities [1].

rational use.

**19**

rivers, reservoirs and lakes

*Gevorg Simonyan*

Systemic-Entropic Approach for

Reservoirs, and Lakes

Assessing Water Quality of Rivers,

Water is a nonrenewable resource, and its unsustainable use almost everywhere has led to a decrease in water quality. The development of water quality indices and the introduction of indexing methods used in assessing the quality of surface waters (pollution) are particularly relevant in recent years. As a result of anthropogenic pollution of the aquatic environment, the entropy of the system changes, which is not always taken into account in hydrochemical studies. This chapter analyzes dozens of freshwater quality indicators existing in science literature and presents the advantages of the water quality indicators developed by the author and colleagues: the geoecological evolving organized index (GEVORG), and the Armenian Water Quality Index. Water quality analyses have been tested for most of the rivers, reservoirs, and lakes of Armenia. It was found that the Armenian Water Quality Index has a linear relationship with most water quality indexes, and an inverse relationship with the Canadian Water Quality Index. The quality of river and reservoir water has been assessed according to the new standards for background

**Keywords:** water quality index, GEVORG index, Armenian Water Quality Index,

Water resources play a vital role in various sectors of economy, such as industrial activities, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, hydropower, and other creative

The study of the ecological status of rivers, reservoirs, and lakes in Armenia is important for assessing the quality of their water, as well as for their further

lated by various environmental monitoring agencies [2].

The suitability of water sources for human consumption is studied using a water quality index (WQI), which is one of the most effective ways to describe water quality. WQI uses water quality data and helps in changing policies that are formu-

WQI was first developed by Horton (HWQI) [3] in the United States, and is based on the 10 most frequently used water quality variables, such as dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, coliform, conductivity, alkalinity, chloride, etc., which are widely used and accepted in European, African, and Asian countries. Horton placed

#### **Chapter 2**

## Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes

*Gevorg Simonyan*

#### **Abstract**

Water is a nonrenewable resource, and its unsustainable use almost everywhere has led to a decrease in water quality. The development of water quality indices and the introduction of indexing methods used in assessing the quality of surface waters (pollution) are particularly relevant in recent years. As a result of anthropogenic pollution of the aquatic environment, the entropy of the system changes, which is not always taken into account in hydrochemical studies. This chapter analyzes dozens of freshwater quality indicators existing in science literature and presents the advantages of the water quality indicators developed by the author and colleagues: the geoecological evolving organized index (GEVORG), and the Armenian Water Quality Index. Water quality analyses have been tested for most of the rivers, reservoirs, and lakes of Armenia. It was found that the Armenian Water Quality Index has a linear relationship with most water quality indexes, and an inverse relationship with the Canadian Water Quality Index. The quality of river and reservoir water has been assessed according to the new standards for background concentrations.

**Keywords:** water quality index, GEVORG index, Armenian Water Quality Index, rivers, reservoirs and lakes

#### **1. Introduction**

Water resources play a vital role in various sectors of economy, such as industrial activities, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, hydropower, and other creative activities [1].

The study of the ecological status of rivers, reservoirs, and lakes in Armenia is important for assessing the quality of their water, as well as for their further rational use.

The suitability of water sources for human consumption is studied using a water quality index (WQI), which is one of the most effective ways to describe water quality. WQI uses water quality data and helps in changing policies that are formulated by various environmental monitoring agencies [2].

WQI was first developed by Horton (HWQI) [3] in the United States, and is based on the 10 most frequently used water quality variables, such as dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, coliform, conductivity, alkalinity, chloride, etc., which are widely used and accepted in European, African, and Asian countries. Horton placed grading scales and weights for determining factors to give the relative importance of each parameter for assessing water quality. Furthermore, a new WQI similar to Horton's index has also been developed by the group of Brown in 1970 [4], which is based on weights to individual parameter. Recently, many modifications have been considered for WQI (BWQI) concept by various scientists and experts. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment has developed a WQI, Canadian Water Quality Index (CWQI), which can be applied by many water agencies in various countries with slight modification [5]. In 1995, the Canadian Ministry of the Environment developed the British Columbia Water Quality Index [6]. The Oregon Water Quality Index (OWQI) takes into account eight water quality variables (temperature, DO, pH, BOD, total phosphorus, total solids, fecal *E. coli*, ammonia, and nitrate nitrogen). The Delphi method has been used to select variables [7]. Malaysia Water Quality Index (MWQI) developed by the Department of the Environment of Malaysia was successfully applied for measuring water quality of 462 rivers in Malaysia. The calculation includes six water parameters: DO, BOD, COD, ammonia nitrogen, suspended solids, and pH [7]. The Bascaron Water Quality Index was developed by Bascarón specifically for Spain [8]. In 1976, the Scottish Engineering Department improved and developed the Scottish Water Quality Index [9]. An effective gradation index for diagnosing a generalized river quality has been developed and illustrated with the case study of the Keya River in Taiwan (TWGI) [10]. The Universal Water Quality Index for Turkey was developed by Boyacioglu [11] based on water quality standards set by the Council of European Communities. Sargaonkar and Deshpande [12] developed Overall Index of Pollution (OIP) for Indian rivers based on measurements and subsequent classification of pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, BOD, hardness, total dissolved solids, total coliforms, arsenic, and fluoride.

Some indexes and their variables are given in **Table 1**.

For the evaluation of the degree of water contamination, the comprehensive indicators are used, which make it possible to evaluate the contamination of water at the same time on a wide range of quality indicators. Water Contamination Index (WCI), CWQI, and specific combinatorial water quality index (SCWQI) are used for the evaluation of surface water quality in Republic of Armenia [5, 13, 14]. It must be noted that most developed complex characteristics of water bodies are in one way or another connected with the existing maximum allowable concentration (MAC) [15, 16].

According to the Water Framework Directive (WFA) (2000/60/EC) developed by the European Union (EU), all European surface waters should be in good ecological condition after 2015, and water bodies with poor quality water should be improved through targeted measuring. Each EU Member State has developed schemes for water quality classification according to WFD [17]. For example, in France, the SEQ-system is used for the classification of river water quality, consisting of three sections. To classify water quality, 15 descriptors are separated into 156 indicators, taking into account similar factors and effects. The evaluation is carried out using the boundary value table, which defines the boundaries of classes.

The index values are calculated based on parameters, which are classified into five classes based on the water usability. Germany's chemical quality classification scheme consists of four main classes and three subclasses, with a similar biological classification. The grades obtained are mapped through color codes.

According to the EU WFW Rural Water Quality Assessment, due to the lack of biological monitoring, assessment was made only with the use of chemical indicators of water quality. Natural background concentrations of hydrochemical indices

**Parameters HWQI BWQI MWQI OWQI OIR TWQI** DO + + + + + + BOD5 + + +++

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes*

pH + + + + + +

<sup>o</sup> + + + +

Turbidity + + +

Suspended solids + +

Fecal coliforms count + + +

Ammonia nitrogen + +

Cd + Cu + Cr + Pb + Zn +

Hardness +

Total coliforms +

Total dissolved solids + +

Fluoride + As +

Fecal *E. coli* +

Nitrate nitrogen +

Ammonia + Total phosphorus + +

COD +

Conductivity + Carbon chloroform extract +

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

Alkalinity + Obvious pollution + Sanitation facility +

Nitrate +

Total solid content +

Chloride +

t

**Table 1.**

**21**

*Some indexes and their variables.*

were taken into account. The determination of background concentrations according to the EU WFD was performed using a statistical method using the logarithmic probability distribution function. The expected background status of the reference state is the absence or insignificance of anthropogenic pressure. It is closely connected with background concentration (BC). Background concentration

Water quality assessment in the Danube River Basin according to the EU WFD (2000/60/EC) program is carried out according to separate indicators [17, 18]. In this classification scheme, indicators are classified into five classes. Class I is referred to as "reference" or background concentration; class II is a target value that should be followed; classes III–V are part of the "non-executable" classification scheme and their values are usually 2–5 times higher than the target value.


#### *Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

**Table 1.**

grading scales and weights for determining factors to give the relative importance of each parameter for assessing water quality. Furthermore, a new WQI similar to Horton's index has also been developed by the group of Brown in 1970 [4], which is based on weights to individual parameter. Recently, many modifications have been considered for WQI (BWQI) concept by various scientists and experts. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment has developed a WQI, Canadian Water Quality Index (CWQI), which can be applied by many water agencies in various countries with slight modification [5]. In 1995, the Canadian Ministry of the Environment developed the British Columbia Water Quality Index [6]. The Oregon Water Quality Index (OWQI) takes into account eight water quality variables (temperature, DO, pH, BOD, total phosphorus, total solids, fecal *E. coli*, ammonia, and nitrate nitrogen). The Delphi method has been used to select variables [7]. Malaysia Water Quality Index (MWQI) developed by the Department of the Environment of Malaysia was successfully applied for measuring water quality of 462 rivers in Malaysia. The calculation includes six water parameters: DO, BOD, COD, ammonia nitrogen, suspended solids, and pH [7]. The Bascaron Water Quality Index was developed by Bascarón specifically for Spain [8]. In 1976, the Scottish Engineering Department improved and developed the Scottish Water Quality Index [9]. An effective gradation index for diagnosing a generalized river quality has been developed and illustrated with the case study of the Keya River in Taiwan (TWGI) [10]. The Universal Water Quality Index for Turkey was developed by Boyacioglu [11] based on water quality standards set by the Council of European Communities. Sargaonkar and Deshpande [12] developed Overall Index of Pollution (OIP) for Indian rivers based on measurements and subsequent classification of pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, BOD, hard-

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

ness, total dissolved solids, total coliforms, arsenic, and fluoride. Some indexes and their variables are given in **Table 1**.

classification. The grades obtained are mapped through color codes.

(MAC) [15, 16].

**20**

For the evaluation of the degree of water contamination, the comprehensive indicators are used, which make it possible to evaluate the contamination of water at the same time on a wide range of quality indicators. Water Contamination Index (WCI), CWQI, and specific combinatorial water quality index (SCWQI) are used for the evaluation of surface water quality in Republic of Armenia [5, 13, 14]. It must be noted that most developed complex characteristics of water bodies are in one way or another connected with the existing maximum allowable concentration

According to the Water Framework Directive (WFA) (2000/60/EC) developed by the European Union (EU), all European surface waters should be in good ecological condition after 2015, and water bodies with poor quality water should be improved through targeted measuring. Each EU Member State has developed schemes for water quality classification according to WFD [17]. For example, in France, the SEQ-system is used for the classification of river water quality, consisting of three sections. To classify water quality, 15 descriptors are separated into 156 indicators, taking into account similar factors and effects. The evaluation is carried out using the boundary value table, which defines the boundaries of classes. The index values are calculated based on parameters, which are classified into five classes based on the water usability. Germany's chemical quality classification scheme consists of four main classes and three subclasses, with a similar biological

Water quality assessment in the Danube River Basin according to the EU WFD (2000/60/EC) program is carried out according to separate indicators [17, 18]. In this classification scheme, indicators are classified into five classes. Class I is referred to as "reference" or background concentration; class II is a target value that should be followed; classes III–V are part of the "non-executable" classification scheme and their values are usually 2–5 times higher than the target value.

*Some indexes and their variables.*

According to the EU WFW Rural Water Quality Assessment, due to the lack of biological monitoring, assessment was made only with the use of chemical indicators of water quality. Natural background concentrations of hydrochemical indices were taken into account. The determination of background concentrations according to the EU WFD was performed using a statistical method using the logarithmic probability distribution function. The expected background status of the reference state is the absence or insignificance of anthropogenic pressure. It is closely connected with background concentration (BC). Background concentration is the value of the water quality indicator concentration before exposure to any source of pollution.

V-shaped at an upper flow, on average, a cane. There are two monitoring posts: No. 71—0.5 km from Geghahovit top and No. 72—at the mouth of the river [31–33]. Argichi is a river in the Gegharkunik region, in the basin of Lake Sevan*;* it starts from the northern slope of the Gndasar mountains of the Geghama mountain range, at a height of 2600 m. The river's length is 51 km, and the drainage basin area is

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes*

Gavaraget is a river in the Gegharkunik region, in Lake Sevan basin. It starts from the northern slope of the Geghama mountain range, at a height of 3050 m and flows into Lake Sevan. The river's length is 50 km, the drainage basin area is

Akhurian Reservoir is located in the Akhurian River basin in Armenia and

It is one of the largest reservoirs in the Caucasus, with coordinates 40° 33<sup>0</sup> 47.67″ <sup>N</sup>

Lake Arpi is situated in the north-west of the Republic of Armenia. The lake is fed by meltwater and four streams, and it is the source of the Akhurian River. Being an alpine-specific ecosystem with its rare flora and fauna, it ensures ecological balance of adjacent extensive area. The reservoir-lake is 7.3 km long and 4.3 km

wide, with an area of 20 km<sup>2</sup> and coordinates 41° 03<sup>0</sup> <sup>0</sup>″ N 43° 37<sup>0</sup> <sup>00</sup>″ E.

*Location of monitoring posts in Lake Sevan and rivers Dzknaget, Gavaraget, Argichi, Martuni, Vardenis,*

monitoring post, No. 74—at the river's mouth [31–33].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

Turkey. The reservoir has a surface area of 54 km<sup>2</sup>

. Its water is used for irrigation purposes and energy production. There is a

. The river freezes in winter. Its water is used for irrigation purposes and energy production. There is a monitoring post, No. 74—at the river's mouth [31–33]. The locations and monitoring posts of all the mentioned rivers are given in

, and maximum length of 20 km.

384 km2

480 km<sup>2</sup>

**Figure 1**.

*2.1.2 Reservoirs*

43° 39<sup>0</sup> 16.26″ E.

**Figure 1.**

**23**

*Masrik, and Sotq.*

The Government of the Republic of Armenia ("Decree No. 75-N of March 27, 2011") established a new system for assessing surface water quality in Armenia for each water quality indicator for each watercourse [19]. The advantages of the new water quality standards in Armenia are that, firstly, the classification of environmental norms is based on natural BC, and secondly, the choice of indicators was made taking into account the load on the surface waters of the Republic of Armenia (based on 43 water indicators). The calculations of the BC took place in the RA rivers in 2005–2010 hydrochemical monitoring.

In recent years, for a comprehensive assessment of surface water quality, we have proposed the geoecological evolving organized index (GEVORG) or entropy water quality index (EWQI) and the Armenian Water Quality Index (AWQI) [20, 21].

Using EWQI and AWQI, a comprehensive assessment of surface water quality was carried out [22–26], and a structural analysis of the state of biological systems at the level of proteins, ribonucleic acid, and cell [27, 28]; of the state of trees [29]; and of the state of naftide systems [30] was made.

The aim of this work is to assess the water quality of the rivers, reservoirs, and Lake Sevan using the Armenian Water Quality Index and for the WFD using BC.

#### **2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1 Study area**

#### *2.1.1 Rivers*

Dzknaget River is a river in the Gegharkunik and Tavush regions of Armenia. It is located in the eastern slopes of the Pambak Mountains and 1 km south of Tsovagyugh in the north-western corner of Lake Sevan. The river's length is 22 km. In this river, the fish caviar of Lake Sevan are debugged. Partly because of this reason, the river was named after a *river of fish*. There are two monitoring posts: No. 60–0.5 km above Semyonovka and No. 61—at the mouth of the river [31–33].

Masrik is a river in the Gegharkunik region of Armenia. It starts from the slopes of the eastern Sevan Mountains and flows into Lake Sevan in the north of the village of Tsovak. Its length is 45 km. The catchment area is 682 km2 , and the annual runoff is 131 million m<sup>3</sup> . There is a monitoring post, No. 63—at the river's mouth [31–33].

Sotk (Zod), a river in the Gegharkunik region, is the right tributary of Masrik. It starts from the western slopes of the eastern Sevan ridge at a height of 2670 m. The length of the river is 21 km, the catchment basin area is 59.5 km<sup>2</sup> . In the upper and middle streams, it flows through the V-shaped valley. Average annual expenditure is 0.28 m<sup>3</sup> /s. Its water is used for irrigation. There are two monitoring posts: No. 64 —0.5 km from the mine top and No. 65—at the mouth of the river [31–33].

Vardenis River, is a river in the Gegharkunik region, in the Lake Sevan basin. It starts from the northern slopes of the central part of the Vardenis Range, at an altitude of 3215 m. The river's length is 28 km, the catchment basin area is 116 km2 . River valley is V-shaped in the upper and middle currents, extending below it, leaving the semi-desert plain and north of Lake Vardenik into Lake Sevan. Its water is used for irrigation. There is a monitoring post, No. 70—at the mouth of the river [31–33].

Martuni River, is a river in the Gegharkunik region, in the Lake Sevan basin. It starts from the northern slopes of the Vardenis Ridge, at an altitude of 3300 meters. Its length is 27.6 km, and the catchment basin area is 101 km<sup>2</sup> . River valley is a

#### *Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

V-shaped at an upper flow, on average, a cane. There are two monitoring posts: No. 71—0.5 km from Geghahovit top and No. 72—at the mouth of the river [31–33].

Argichi is a river in the Gegharkunik region, in the basin of Lake Sevan*;* it starts from the northern slope of the Gndasar mountains of the Geghama mountain range, at a height of 2600 m. The river's length is 51 km, and the drainage basin area is 384 km2 . Its water is used for irrigation purposes and energy production. There is a monitoring post, No. 74—at the river's mouth [31–33].

Gavaraget is a river in the Gegharkunik region, in Lake Sevan basin. It starts from the northern slope of the Geghama mountain range, at a height of 3050 m and flows into Lake Sevan. The river's length is 50 km, the drainage basin area is 480 km<sup>2</sup> . The river freezes in winter. Its water is used for irrigation purposes and energy production. There is a monitoring post, No. 74—at the river's mouth [31–33].

The locations and monitoring posts of all the mentioned rivers are given in **Figure 1**.

#### *2.1.2 Reservoirs*

is the value of the water quality indicator concentration before exposure to any

The Government of the Republic of Armenia ("Decree No. 75-N of March 27, 2011") established a new system for assessing surface water quality in Armenia for each water quality indicator for each watercourse [19]. The advantages of the new water quality standards in Armenia are that, firstly, the classification of environmental norms is based on natural BC, and secondly, the choice of indicators was made taking into account the load on the surface waters of the Republic of Armenia (based on 43 water indicators). The calculations of the BC took place in the RA

In recent years, for a comprehensive assessment of surface water quality, we have proposed the geoecological evolving organized index (GEVORG) or entropy water quality index (EWQI) and the Armenian Water Quality Index (AWQI) [20, 21]. Using EWQI and AWQI, a comprehensive assessment of surface water quality was carried out [22–26], and a structural analysis of the state of biological systems at the level of proteins, ribonucleic acid, and cell [27, 28]; of the state of trees [29]; and

The aim of this work is to assess the water quality of the rivers, reservoirs, and Lake Sevan using the Armenian Water Quality Index and for the WFD using BC.

Dzknaget River is a river in the Gegharkunik and Tavush regions of Armenia. It

Masrik is a river in the Gegharkunik region of Armenia. It starts from the slopes of the eastern Sevan Mountains and flows into Lake Sevan in the north of the village

Sotk (Zod), a river in the Gegharkunik region, is the right tributary of Masrik. It starts from the western slopes of the eastern Sevan ridge at a height of 2670 m. The

/s. Its water is used for irrigation. There are two monitoring posts: No. 64

middle streams, it flows through the V-shaped valley. Average annual expenditure

Vardenis River, is a river in the Gegharkunik region, in the Lake Sevan basin. It

Martuni River, is a river in the Gegharkunik region, in the Lake Sevan basin. It starts from the northern slopes of the Vardenis Ridge, at an altitude of 3300 meters.

—0.5 km from the mine top and No. 65—at the mouth of the river [31–33].

starts from the northern slopes of the central part of the Vardenis Range, at an altitude of 3215 m. The river's length is 28 km, the catchment basin area is 116 km2

River valley is V-shaped in the upper and middle currents, extending below it, leaving the semi-desert plain and north of Lake Vardenik into Lake Sevan. Its water is used for irrigation. There is a monitoring post, No. 70—at the mouth of the river

. There is a monitoring post, No. 63—at the river's mouth [31–33].

, and the annual runoff

. In the upper and

. River valley is a

.

Tsovagyugh in the north-western corner of Lake Sevan. The river's length is 22 km. In this river, the fish caviar of Lake Sevan are debugged. Partly because of this reason, the river was named after a *river of fish*. There are two monitoring posts: No. 60–0.5 km above Semyonovka and No. 61—at the mouth of the river [31–33].

is located in the eastern slopes of the Pambak Mountains and 1 km south of

of Tsovak. Its length is 45 km. The catchment area is 682 km2

length of the river is 21 km, the catchment basin area is 59.5 km<sup>2</sup>

Its length is 27.6 km, and the catchment basin area is 101 km<sup>2</sup>

source of pollution.

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

rivers in 2005–2010 hydrochemical monitoring.

of the state of naftide systems [30] was made.

**2. Materials and methods**

**2.1 Study area**

is 131 million m<sup>3</sup>

is 0.28 m<sup>3</sup>

[31–33].

**22**

*2.1.1 Rivers*

Akhurian Reservoir is located in the Akhurian River basin in Armenia and Turkey. The reservoir has a surface area of 54 km<sup>2</sup> , and maximum length of 20 km. It is one of the largest reservoirs in the Caucasus, with coordinates 40° 33<sup>0</sup> 47.67″ <sup>N</sup> 43° 39<sup>0</sup> 16.26″ E.

Lake Arpi is situated in the north-west of the Republic of Armenia. The lake is fed by meltwater and four streams, and it is the source of the Akhurian River. Being an alpine-specific ecosystem with its rare flora and fauna, it ensures ecological balance of adjacent extensive area. The reservoir-lake is 7.3 km long and 4.3 km wide, with an area of 20 km<sup>2</sup> and coordinates 41° 03<sup>0</sup> <sup>0</sup>″ N 43° 37<sup>0</sup> <sup>00</sup>″ E.

#### **Figure 1.**

*Location of monitoring posts in Lake Sevan and rivers Dzknaget, Gavaraget, Argichi, Martuni, Vardenis, Masrik, and Sotq.*

Yerevan Lake is an artificial reservoir located in the capital of Armenia in Yerevan. The reservoir-lake Yerevan is 7.3 km long and 5.0 km wide, with an area of 0.65 km<sup>2</sup> and coordinates 40° 9<sup>0</sup> 35.04″ N 44° 28<sup>0</sup> 36.54″ E.

village Pambak with 255<sup>о</sup> azimuth from the surface; No. 122<sup>0</sup>

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

face; No. 1280

**2.2 Index determination**

*2.2.1 Canadian Water Quality Index (CWQI)*

obtained by using the following relation:

amount by which the objectives do not meet.

which are summarized in **Table 2**.

number of individual ingredients:

**25**

*2.2.2 Water contamination index (WCI)*

1290

the village Pambak with 235<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the surface; No. 123<sup>0</sup>

village Pambak with 255<sup>о</sup> azimuth, at a depth of 20 m; No. 123—13 km from

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes*

village Pambak with 235<sup>о</sup> azimuth, at a depth of 20 m; No. 124—1 km from the village Tsovak to the north-west from the surface; No. 125—1 km from the mouth of the river Karchaghbyur to the west, from the surface; No. 126—at Arpa-Sevan tunnel exit; No. 127—1.5 km from the city of Martuni, to the north, from the surface; No. 128—15 km from the village Eranos with 90<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the sur-

No. 129—24 km from the village Eranos with 90<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the surface; No.

131–7.5 km north of the village of Chkalovka, from the surface; No. 131<sup>0</sup>

north of the village of Chkalovka, at a depth of 20 m [21, 31–33].

*CWQI* ¼ 100 �

—24 km from the village Eranos with 90<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the surface, at a depth of 20 m; No. 130—7 km north-west of the village of Noratus, from the surface; No.

CWQI provides a consistent method, which has been formulated by Canadian jurisdictions, for conveying water quality information to both the management and public [5]. Moreover, a committee has been established under the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment WQI, which can be applied by numerous water agencies in various countries with slight modification. This method has been developed to evaluate surface water for protection of aquatic life in accordance to specific guidelines. The parameters related with various measurements may vary from one station to the other and sampling protocol requires at least four parameters, sampled at least four times. The calculation of index scores in CWQI method can be

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

<sup>2</sup> <sup>þ</sup> *<sup>F</sup>*<sup>2</sup> 3

<sup>1</sup>*:*<sup>732</sup> , (1)

, (2)

*F*2 <sup>1</sup> <sup>þ</sup> *<sup>F</sup>*<sup>2</sup>

q

Therefore, five categories have been suggested for classification of water quality,

*Ci MACi*

WCI was established by the USSR Goskomgidromet (State Committee of Hydrometeorology) [13] and belongs to the category of indicators most often used to assess the quality of water bodies. This index is a typical additive coefficient and represents the average percentage of exceeding the MAC for a strictly limited

> *WCI* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>1</sup> *n* X*n i*¼1

where scope (*F*1) represent the percentage of variable that do not meet their objectives at least once during the time period under consideration ("failed variables"), relative to the total number of variables measured frequency (*F*2) is the number of times by which the objectives do not meet; and amplitude (*F*3) is the

—15 km from the village Eranos with 90<sup>о</sup> azimuth, at a depth of 20 m;

—2.2 km from the

—13 km from the

—7.5 km

Aparan Reservoir is located in the Aragatsotn region of Armenia. It has been built on the river Kassah. It has an area of 7.9 km<sup>2</sup> and coordinates 40° 29<sup>0</sup> <sup>49</sup>″ N 44° <sup>26</sup><sup>0</sup> <sup>07</sup>″ E. Its water is used for irrigation.

Kechut Reservoir is located in the Vayots Dzor region of Armenia, on the river Arpa, 3.5 km south of the resort town of Jermuk. The reservoir was built in 1981. Water from it through the conduit enters Lake Sevan to regulate the level. It has coordinates 39° 47<sup>0</sup> <sup>54</sup>″ N 45° 39<sup>0</sup> <sup>22</sup>″ E.

Azat Reservoir is located in Armenia, in the Ararat region, above the village of Lanjazat, at an altitude of 1050 m above sea level. The reservoir was built on the Azat River. The volume of the lake is 70 million m<sup>3</sup> . Its water is used to irrigate the Ararat Plain. It has coordinates 40° 04<sup>0</sup> <sup>00</sup>″ N 44° 36<sup>0</sup> <sup>00</sup>″ E [21, 31–33].

#### *2.1.3 Lake Sevan*

Lake Sevan is located in the north-eastern part of the Armenian Highland, in the Gegharkunik Region. Sevan is considered to be one of the three ancient and biggest lakes (Vana and Urmia) of the Armenian Kingdom. It was called the "blue eyes" of Armenia and is surrounded by Geghama, Vardenis, Pambak, Sevan, and Areguni mountain chains. The blue beauty of Armenia is situated at an altitude of 1900 m above sea level and the total surface area is about 5000 km<sup>2</sup> . It was famously known as "Geghama Tsov (in English sea), Gegharkunyats Tsov." It is the world's secondhighest lake with freshwater after the Titicaca in South America and is the largest in the South Caucasus. The lake's length is 70 km, and maximum width is 55 km. It has an area of 1240 km<sup>2</sup> (1360 km<sup>2</sup> before the level is lowered). Twenty-eight rivers flow into the lake, the largest of which reaches a length of 50 km. Only one river flows from Sevan-Hrazdan, which flows into the Araks. The mineralization of water is about 700 mg/l. Lake is of tectonic barren nature. The basin of the same name is of tectonic origin, and the dam was formed due to the outflow of the Holocene lavas. The lake consists of two unequal parts called Big and Small. The Sevan's Peninsula is located in the north-western part of the lake and it is famous for its medieval monasteries and khachkars (cross-stones). Sevanavank is a monastery complex situated on the peninsula.

Small and Big Sevan: Small Sevan is very deep—up to 83 m and has rugged banks. It is in this part that the greater volume of lake water is concentrated. In the Big Sevan, the bottom is flat, the banks are not very rugged, and the depth does not exceed 30 meters. There are 26 stations on the Lake Sevan (monitoring posts), from No. 115 to No. 119; also stations No. 130 and 131 are located in the Small Sevan and those from No. 120 to 129 in the Big Sevan. These monitoring posts are shown in **Figure 1**.

The water monitoring posts of Lake Sevan are located at: No. 115—3.5 km distance from the peninsula to the east; No. 116—70° azimuth from the peninsula, from the surface; No. 117—а distance of 1 km from the Dzknaget river, from the surface; No. 117—а distance of 1 km from the Dzknaget river, at depth of 20 m; No. 118—0.5 km south-west from the village Shorzha, from the surface; No. 119—6 km south-west from the village Shorzha, from the surface; No. 119<sup>0</sup> —6 km south-west from the village Shorzha, at a depth of 20 m; No. 120—2 km from the village Artanish with 135<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the surface; No. 120<sup>0</sup> —2 km from the village Artanish with 135<sup>о</sup> azimuth, at depth of 20 m; No.121—10 km from the village Pambak with 270<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the surface; No. 121<sup>0</sup> —10 km from the village Pambak with 270<sup>о</sup> azimuth, at a depth of 20 m; No. 122—2.2 km from the *Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

village Pambak with 255<sup>о</sup> azimuth from the surface; No. 122<sup>0</sup> —2.2 km from the village Pambak with 255<sup>о</sup> azimuth, at a depth of 20 m; No. 123—13 km from the village Pambak with 235<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the surface; No. 123<sup>0</sup> —13 km from the village Pambak with 235<sup>о</sup> azimuth, at a depth of 20 m; No. 124—1 km from the village Tsovak to the north-west from the surface; No. 125—1 km from the mouth of the river Karchaghbyur to the west, from the surface; No. 126—at Arpa-Sevan tunnel exit; No. 127—1.5 km from the city of Martuni, to the north, from the surface; No. 128—15 km from the village Eranos with 90<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the surface; No. 1280 —15 km from the village Eranos with 90<sup>о</sup> azimuth, at a depth of 20 m; No. 129—24 km from the village Eranos with 90<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the surface; No. 1290 —24 km from the village Eranos with 90<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the surface, at a depth of 20 m; No. 130—7 km north-west of the village of Noratus, from the surface; No. 131–7.5 km north of the village of Chkalovka, from the surface; No. 131<sup>0</sup> —7.5 km north of the village of Chkalovka, at a depth of 20 m [21, 31–33].

#### **2.2 Index determination**

Yerevan Lake is an artificial reservoir located in the capital of Armenia in Yerevan. The reservoir-lake Yerevan is 7.3 km long and 5.0 km wide, with an area of

Aparan Reservoir is located in the Aragatsotn region of Armenia. It has been built on the river Kassah. It has an area of 7.9 km<sup>2</sup> and coordinates 40° 29<sup>0</sup> <sup>49</sup>″ N 44°

Kechut Reservoir is located in the Vayots Dzor region of Armenia, on the river Arpa, 3.5 km south of the resort town of Jermuk. The reservoir was built in 1981. Water from it through the conduit enters Lake Sevan to regulate the level. It has

Azat Reservoir is located in Armenia, in the Ararat region, above the village of Lanjazat, at an altitude of 1050 m above sea level. The reservoir was built on the

Lake Sevan is located in the north-eastern part of the Armenian Highland, in the Gegharkunik Region. Sevan is considered to be one of the three ancient and biggest lakes (Vana and Urmia) of the Armenian Kingdom. It was called the "blue eyes" of Armenia and is surrounded by Geghama, Vardenis, Pambak, Sevan, and Areguni mountain chains. The blue beauty of Armenia is situated at an altitude of 1900 m

as "Geghama Tsov (in English sea), Gegharkunyats Tsov." It is the world's secondhighest lake with freshwater after the Titicaca in South America and is the largest in the South Caucasus. The lake's length is 70 km, and maximum width is 55 km. It has an area of 1240 km<sup>2</sup> (1360 km<sup>2</sup> before the level is lowered). Twenty-eight rivers flow into the lake, the largest of which reaches a length of 50 km. Only one river flows from Sevan-Hrazdan, which flows into the Araks. The mineralization of water is about 700 mg/l. Lake is of tectonic barren nature. The basin of the same name is of tectonic origin, and the dam was formed due to the outflow of the Holocene lavas. The lake consists of two unequal parts called Big and Small. The Sevan's Peninsula is located in the north-western part of the lake and it is famous for its medieval monasteries and khachkars (cross-stones). Sevanavank is a monastery

Small and Big Sevan: Small Sevan is very deep—up to 83 m and has rugged banks. It is in this part that the greater volume of lake water is concentrated. In the Big Sevan, the bottom is flat, the banks are not very rugged, and the depth does not exceed 30 meters. There are 26 stations on the Lake Sevan (monitoring posts), from No. 115 to No. 119; also stations No. 130 and 131 are located in the Small Sevan and those from No. 120 to 129 in the Big Sevan. These monitoring posts are shown in

The water monitoring posts of Lake Sevan are located at: No. 115—3.5 km distance from the peninsula to the east; No. 116—70° azimuth from the peninsula, from the surface; No. 117—а distance of 1 km from the Dzknaget river, from the surface; No. 117—а distance of 1 km from the Dzknaget river, at depth of 20 m; No. 118—0.5 km south-west from the village Shorzha, from the surface; No. 119—6 km

from the village Shorzha, at a depth of 20 m; No. 120—2 km from the village

village Artanish with 135<sup>о</sup> azimuth, at depth of 20 m; No.121—10 km from the

the village Pambak with 270<sup>о</sup> azimuth, at a depth of 20 m; No. 122—2.2 km from the

south-west from the village Shorzha, from the surface; No. 119<sup>0</sup>

village Pambak with 270<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the surface; No. 121<sup>0</sup>

Artanish with 135<sup>о</sup> azimuth, from the surface; No. 120<sup>0</sup>

Ararat Plain. It has coordinates 40° 04<sup>0</sup> <sup>00</sup>″ N 44° 36<sup>0</sup> <sup>00</sup>″ E [21, 31–33].

. Its water is used to irrigate the

. It was famously known

—6 km south-west

—2 km from the

—10 km from

0.65 km<sup>2</sup> and coordinates 40° 9<sup>0</sup> 35.04″ N 44° 28<sup>0</sup> 36.54″ E.

<sup>26</sup><sup>0</sup> <sup>07</sup>″ E. Its water is used for irrigation.

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

coordinates 39° 47<sup>0</sup> <sup>54</sup>″ N 45° 39<sup>0</sup> <sup>22</sup>″ E.

complex situated on the peninsula.

**Figure 1**.

**24**

*2.1.3 Lake Sevan*

Azat River. The volume of the lake is 70 million m<sup>3</sup>

above sea level and the total surface area is about 5000 km<sup>2</sup>

#### *2.2.1 Canadian Water Quality Index (CWQI)*

CWQI provides a consistent method, which has been formulated by Canadian jurisdictions, for conveying water quality information to both the management and public [5]. Moreover, a committee has been established under the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment WQI, which can be applied by numerous water agencies in various countries with slight modification. This method has been developed to evaluate surface water for protection of aquatic life in accordance to specific guidelines. The parameters related with various measurements may vary from one station to the other and sampling protocol requires at least four parameters, sampled at least four times. The calculation of index scores in CWQI method can be obtained by using the following relation:

$$CWQI = 100 - \frac{\sqrt{F\_1^2 + F\_2^2 + F\_3^2}}{1.732},\tag{1}$$

where scope (*F*1) represent the percentage of variable that do not meet their objectives at least once during the time period under consideration ("failed variables"), relative to the total number of variables measured frequency (*F*2) is the number of times by which the objectives do not meet; and amplitude (*F*3) is the amount by which the objectives do not meet.

Therefore, five categories have been suggested for classification of water quality, which are summarized in **Table 2**.

#### *2.2.2 Water contamination index (WCI)*

WCI was established by the USSR Goskomgidromet (State Committee of Hydrometeorology) [13] and belongs to the category of indicators most often used to assess the quality of water bodies. This index is a typical additive coefficient and represents the average percentage of exceeding the MAC for a strictly limited number of individual ingredients:

$$WCI = \frac{1}{n} \sum\_{i=1}^{n} \frac{C\_i}{\text{MAC}\_i},\tag{2}$$


*2.2.4 Geoecological evolving organized index and Armenian index of water quality*

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes*

*<sup>H</sup>* ¼ �<sup>X</sup> *N*

where *Pi* is the probability of frequency of occurrence of an event.

quality, the following computational algorithm is used [17–19]:

4.Determine geoecological syntropy (*I*) and entropy (*H*):

*i*¼1

Different processes in hydroecological systems can occur both with increase and decrease in of entropy. Pollution of water systems can be represented as a system of the hydrochemical parameters (elements), the concentration of which exceeds the MAC. Then, in the equation, Shannon *Pi* is the probability of the number of cases of MAC excess of i-substance or indicator of water of total cases of *MAC-N*, *Pi* = *ni*/*N*. For determination of the values of the EWQI and AWQI of environmental

1.To determine the number of cases of MAC excess of i-substance or indicator of

2.Estimate the total amount of cases at the maximum allowable concentration

6.Further, the total amount multiplicity of MAC exceedances is estimated:

Therefore, five categories have been suggested for classification of the water

*<sup>I</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>X</sup>*<sup>n</sup>* log <sup>2</sup>*n=<sup>N</sup>* (4)

*H* ¼ log <sup>2</sup>*N*–*I:* (5)

G = *H/I* (6)

AWQI = G + 0.1 log2 M. (7)

*pi* log <sup>2</sup>*pi*

, (3)

calculated by the following equation:

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

water

and

**27**

(N)—*N* = P*n*.

(M)– M = Pm.

7.Then, log2M is computed.

qualities, which are summarized in **Table 4**.

3.Compute log2*N*, *n*log2*n* and P *n*log2*n*.

5.Then GEVORG index (G) is determined:

8.Finally, Armenian Water Quality Index is obtained:

An open system can exchange energy, material, and, which is not less important, information from environment. The system consumes information from the environment and provides information to environment for acting and interacting with environment. Shannon [34, 35] was the first who related concepts of entropy and information. He has suggested that entropy is the amount of information attributable to one basic message source, generating statistically independent reports. The information entropy for independent random event *x* with *N* possible states is

**Table 2.**

*Classes of water quality depending on the value of CWQI.*


**Table 3.**

*Classes of water quality depending on the value of WCI.*

where *Ci* is the concentration of the component (in some cases the value of the physicochemical parameter) and *n* is the number of indicators used for calculating the index, *n* = 6 (pH, biological oxygen demand of BOD5 dissolved oxygen in water, petroleum products, nitrite ions (NO2 ), and ammonium ion (NH4 + )). Seven categories have been proposed for the classification of water quality, which are listed in **Table 3**.

#### *2.2.3 Specific combinatory water quality index (SСWQI)*

In accordance with RD 52.24.643-2002, "The method for the integrated assessment of the degree of contamination of surface waters by hydrochemical indicators" the calculation of the specific combinatorial water quality index has been introduced [14]. To assess the quality of water of rivers and water bodies, it is divided into several contamination classes. The classes are based on the intervals of the specific combinatory water pollution index, depending on the number of critical pollution indicators. At least 15 indicators are analyzed. The required list includes: dissolved oxygen in water, BOD5, chemical oxygen consumption—COD, phenols, petroleum products, nitrite ions (NO2 ), nitrate ions (NO3 ), ammonium ion (NH4 + ), iron total (Fe2+ and Fe3+), copper (Cu2+), zinc (Zn2+), nickel (Ni2+), manganese (Mn2+), chlorides, and sulfates. The value of SСWQI is determined by the frequency and the multiplicity of the MPC exceeding by several indicators and can vary in waters of different degrees of contamination from 1 to 16 (for pure water is 0). The highest index value corresponds to the worst water quality. Taking into account the number of bullpen, it allows dividing the surface waters into five classes, depending on the degree of their contamination. The third and fourth classes for more detailed water quality assessment are respectively divided into two and four categories.

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

#### *2.2.4 Geoecological evolving organized index and Armenian index of water quality*

An open system can exchange energy, material, and, which is not less important, information from environment. The system consumes information from the environment and provides information to environment for acting and interacting with environment. Shannon [34, 35] was the first who related concepts of entropy and information. He has suggested that entropy is the amount of information attributable to one basic message source, generating statistically independent reports. The information entropy for independent random event *x* with *N* possible states is calculated by the following equation:

$$H = -\sum\_{i=1}^{N} p\_i \log\_2 p\_i,\tag{3}$$

where *Pi* is the probability of frequency of occurrence of an event.

Different processes in hydroecological systems can occur both with increase and decrease in of entropy. Pollution of water systems can be represented as a system of the hydrochemical parameters (elements), the concentration of which exceeds the MAC. Then, in the equation, Shannon *Pi* is the probability of the number of cases of MAC excess of i-substance or indicator of water of total cases of *MAC-N*, *Pi* = *ni*/*N*.

For determination of the values of the EWQI and AWQI of environmental quality, the following computational algorithm is used [17–19]:


$$I = \sum n \log\_2 n / N \tag{4}$$

and

where *Ci* is the concentration of the component (in some cases the value of the physicochemical parameter) and *n* is the number of indicators used for calculating the index, *n* = 6 (pH, biological oxygen demand of BOD5 dissolved oxygen in water,

**CWQI value Rating of water quality Water quality classes**

**WCI value Rating of water quality Water quality classes**

up to 0.2 Very clean I 0.2–1.0 Clean II 1.0–2.0 Moderately polluted III 2.0–4.0 Contaminated IV 4.0–6.0 Dirty V 6.0–10.0 Very dirty VI >10.0 Extremely dirty VII

–100 Excellent water quality 1 –94 Good water quality 2 –79 Fair water quality 3 –59 Marginal water quality 4 –44 Poor water quality 5

gories have been proposed for the classification of water quality, which are listed in

In accordance with RD 52.24.643-2002, "The method for the integrated assessment of the degree of contamination of surface waters by hydrochemical indicators" the calculation of the specific combinatorial water quality index has been introduced [14]. To assess the quality of water of rivers and water bodies, it is divided into several contamination classes. The classes are based on the intervals of the specific combinatory water pollution index, depending on the number of critical pollution indicators. At least 15 indicators are analyzed. The required list includes: dissolved oxygen in water, BOD5, chemical oxygen consumption—COD, phenols, petroleum

), nitrate ions (NO3

quality assessment are respectively divided into two and four categories.

(Fe2+ and Fe3+), copper (Cu2+), zinc (Zn2+), nickel (Ni2+), manganese (Mn2+), chlorides, and sulfates. The value of SСWQI is determined by the frequency and the multiplicity of the MPC exceeding by several indicators and can vary in waters of different degrees of contamination from 1 to 16 (for pure water is 0). The highest index value corresponds to the worst water quality. Taking into account the number of bullpen, it allows dividing the surface waters into five classes, depending on the degree of their contamination. The third and fourth classes for more detailed water

), and ammonium ion (NH4

), ammonium ion (NH4

+

)). Seven cate-

+

), iron total

petroleum products, nitrite ions (NO2

*Classes of water quality depending on the value of WCI.*

*Classes of water quality depending on the value of CWQI.*

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

products, nitrite ions (NO2

*2.2.3 Specific combinatory water quality index (SСWQI)*

**Table 3**.

**26**

**Table 3.**

**Table 2.**

$$H = \log\_2 N \text{-} I.\tag{5}$$

5.Then GEVORG index (G) is determined:

$$\mathbf{G} = \mathbf{H} \mathbf{\!/\!\!\!\!\!\/} \tag{6}$$


$$\text{AWQI} = \text{G} + 0.1 \log\_2 \text{M.} \tag{7}$$

Therefore, five categories have been suggested for classification of the water qualities, which are summarized in **Table 4**.


#### **Table 4.**

*Classes of water quality depending on the value of EWQI and AWQI.*


AWQI = (0.196 0.060) + (1.217 0.095)▪EWQI, R = 0.97914, N = 9 AWQI = (0.717 0.142) + (0.127 0.085)▪WCI, R = 0.46584, N = 9 AWQI = (0.539 0.287) + (0.251 0.196)▪SCWQI, R = 0.41219, N = 9 AWQI = (2.685 0.957) (0.021 0.011)▪CWQI, R = 0.55362, N = 9 Analysis of obtained data indicates that AWQI has liner dependence on WCI, SCWQI, and EWQI and an inverse dependence on CWQI. This result is based on the fact that the scale of the Canadian index of quality of water begins from 100, and scales of indexes of impurity of water, and EWQI, WQI, and SCWQI, start

**Sampling points EWQI AWQI WCI CWQI SCWQI** 0.415 0.650 0.77 90.38 0.8 0.856 1.208 0.92 83.98 1.48 0.604 0.993 2.21 78.71 1.74 0.321 0.559 0.64 88.74 1.31 0.642 0.989 1.2 75.25 1.86 0.370 0.625 0.82 90.63 1.20 0.625 0.899 0.66 90.52 0.68 0.333 0.584 0.95 86.62 1.40 0.303 0603 1.51 81.7 1.04 0.955 1.325 1.62 83.8 1.38 0.625 1.077 3.86 70.14 2.15

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes*

The quality of the water in the rivers was also evaluated according to the new

In 2013–2019, the waters of the Dzknaget, Martuni, Sotk, Gavarvget rivers (monitoring post 77) and Martuni (monitoring post 71) were found to be of "moderate" or "good" quality. The water at the mouth of the Vardenis and Gavarvget

**River Sampling points 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019**

standards of background concentrations (see **Table 7**).

Dzknaget 60 0.5 km above Semyonovka 61 River mouth

Masrik 63 River mouth Sotq 64 0.5 km from the mine top 65 River mouth

Vardenis 70 River mouth Martuni 71 0.5 km from Geghhovit 72 River mouth

Argichi 74 River mouth Gavaraget 77 0.5 km from Tsakhkvan 78 River mouth

*Water quality classes of analyzed rivers.*

from scratch.

**Table 7.**

**29**

**Table 6.**

*Water quality indices of rivers (2009).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

**Table 5.** *Water quality classification by EU WFD.*

#### *2.2.5 Water quality classification by EU WFD*

The calculations of the BC took place in the RA rivers in 2005–2010 hydrochemical monitoring.

According to the decision of the Government of the Republic of Armenia, "On establishing standards for ensuring water quality for each area of water basin management," there are five classes: "Excellent" (1st grade), "Good" (2nd grade), "Moderate" (3rd grade), "Unsatisfactory" (4th grade), and "Bad" (5th grade). Each class is indicated by color (**Table 5**). A general assessment of the chemical quality of water is performed by the class of the lowest quality indicator. So if different quality indicators of a surface water body fall into different quality classes, the final classification is considered the worst. The following principle applies: "If someone is in bad shape, then everyone is in poor condition" or the principle "someone is out, everyone is out."

#### **3. Results and discussion**

#### **3.1 Results for rivers**

In this work, we present data on the study of water quality of rivers in 2009– 2019. Since 2013, in Armenia, the quality of river water has been assessed by the new standards for background concentrations.

The quality of the waters of the Dzknaget, Sotk, Masrik, Vardenis, Martuni, Argichi, and Gavaraget rivers is comprehensively evaluated by the indices: AWQI, EWQI, WCI, CWQI, and SCWQI.

The values of the WQIs are shown in **Table 6**.

With the help of the computer program "Origin-6," an analysis of the linear relationship between AWQI and other WQIs is done: AWQI = *a* + *b* (WQI).

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*


#### **Table 6.**

*2.2.5 Water quality classification by EU WFD*

*Classes of water quality depending on the value of EWQI and AWQI.*

hydrochemical monitoring.

*Water quality classification by EU WFD.*

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

**Table 4.**

**Table 5.**

everyone is out."

**3. Results and discussion**

EWQI, WCI, CWQI, and SCWQI.

new standards for background concentrations.

The values of the WQIs are shown in **Table 6**.

**3.1 Results for rivers**

**28**

The calculations of the BC took place in the RA rivers in 2005–2010

5 Bad

establishing standards for ensuring water quality for each area of water basin management," there are five classes: "Excellent" (1st grade), "Good" (2nd grade), "Moderate" (3rd grade), "Unsatisfactory" (4th grade), and "Bad" (5th grade). Each class is indicated by color (**Table 5**). A general assessment of the chemical quality of water is performed by the class of the lowest quality indicator. So if different quality indicators of a surface water body fall into different quality classes, the final classification is considered the worst. The following principle applies: "If someone is in bad shape, then everyone is in poor condition" or the principle "someone is out,

According to the decision of the Government of the Republic of Armenia, "On

**GEVORG value AWQI value Rating of water quality Water quality classes**

**Water quality class Assessment Water quality** 1 Excellent 2 Good 3 Moderate 4 Unsatisfactory

˂ 0.7 ˂ 1.1 Excellent water quality 1 0.7–1.0 1.1–1.4 Good water quality 2 1.0–1.4 1.4–1.8 Fair water quality 3 1.4–1.7 1.8–2.1 Marginal water quality 4 ˃ 1.7 ˃ 2.1 Poor water quality 5

In this work, we present data on the study of water quality of rivers in 2009– 2019. Since 2013, in Armenia, the quality of river water has been assessed by the

The quality of the waters of the Dzknaget, Sotk, Masrik, Vardenis, Martuni, Argichi, and Gavaraget rivers is comprehensively evaluated by the indices: AWQI,

With the help of the computer program "Origin-6," an analysis of the linear relationship between AWQI and other WQIs is done: AWQI = *a* + *b* (WQI).

*Water quality indices of rivers (2009).*

AWQI = (0.196 0.060) + (1.217 0.095)▪EWQI, R = 0.97914, N = 9 AWQI = (0.717 0.142) + (0.127 0.085)▪WCI, R = 0.46584, N = 9 AWQI = (0.539 0.287) + (0.251 0.196)▪SCWQI, R = 0.41219, N = 9 AWQI = (2.685 0.957) (0.021 0.011)▪CWQI, R = 0.55362, N = 9

Analysis of obtained data indicates that AWQI has liner dependence on WCI, SCWQI, and EWQI and an inverse dependence on CWQI. This result is based on the fact that the scale of the Canadian index of quality of water begins from 100, and scales of indexes of impurity of water, and EWQI, WQI, and SCWQI, start from scratch.

The quality of the water in the rivers was also evaluated according to the new standards of background concentrations (see **Table 7**).

In 2013–2019, the waters of the Dzknaget, Martuni, Sotk, Gavarvget rivers (monitoring post 77) and Martuni (monitoring post 71) were found to be of "moderate" or "good" quality. The water at the mouth of the Vardenis and Gavarvget


**Table 7.** *Water quality classes of analyzed rivers.* rivers had an average and "unsatisfactory" quality for ammonium ions and phosphate. The water at the mouth of the Martuni River in 2014 was of "poor" quality for ammonium and phosphate ions, and the water at the mouth of the Masrik River in 2017–2019 was also of "poor" quality for vanadium.

#### **3.2 Results for reservoirs**

In this chapter [26], we studied the quality of water in the years 2009–2012 of the reservoirs of the lakes of Arpi, Yerevan, Akhuryan, Azat, Aparaan, and ketchut using AWQI, ЕWQI WCI, and SCWQI, and CWQI. An analysis of the data shows that AWQI has a linear relationship with WCI, SCWQI, and ЕWQI and an inverse relationship with CWQI.

In this work, we presented data on the study of water quality in reservoirs in 2013–2019. Since 2014, in Armenia, the quality of reservoir water has been assessed by the new standards for background concentrations.

In 2013, it was found out that the reservoirs of lakes Arpi, Yerevan and Akhuryan regularly increased the MACs of nitrite ions, ammonium, copper, vanadium, aluminum, chromium, manganese and iron. For example, in reservoir Akhuryan for NO2, Al, V, Cu, Mn, and Cr the number of cases of an increase in the MAC is 5, 8, 8, 8, 6 and 7 times, respectively. The amount of excess cases of MPC – *<sup>N</sup>* = 42, <sup>P</sup>*<sup>n</sup>* log <sup>2</sup>*n=* 118.76, *<sup>I</sup>* = 118.76/42 = 2.8276, *<sup>H</sup>* = log242–2.8276 = 2.5616, AWGI = *G* = 2.5616/ 2.8276 = 0.9059. The total amount of the multiplicity of MAC


exceedances-M <sup>¼</sup> <sup>P</sup>m =24.5, log2M = 4.6123, AWQI = 0.9059 + 0.4612 = 1.3671.

**Reservoirs 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019**

An analysis of the data shows that AWQI has a linear relationship with ЕWQI. AWQI = �(0.054 � 0.205) + (1.613 � 0.251)∙EWQI; R2 = 0.95.457; N = 6. The quality of the water in the reservoirs was also evaluated according to the

In 2014, the water of the Arpi Lake reservoir was of "moderate" quality in terms of phosphate ion and COD, and the water of the Akhuryan reservoir was "moderate" in terms of ammonium, nitrite, and phosphate ions. The water of the Azat reservoir was also of "moderate" quality in terms of phosphate ion, the water of the Aparan reservoir was "good" in terms of phosphate ion, and the water of Yerevan lake was of "poor" quality. The waters of the Kechut and Aparan reservoirs were of "good" quality. In 2015, the water of the reservoir of Lake Arpi had a "moderate" quality in terms of COD and the water of the Akhuryan reservoir had a "moderate" quality in terms of phosphate ion and COD. The water in Yerevan Lake had a "moderate" quality in terms of ammonium, nitrite, and phosphate ions and COD.

The values of the indices EWQI and AWQI are given in **Tables 8** and **9**.

**Reservoir Azat Ketchut Positions 113 114**

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes*

N 13 28 Pnlog2n 28.262 81.15 I 2.173 2.898 H 1.5253 1.9066 EQWI 0.7019 0.6579 M = Σm 17.9 9 log2M 4.159 3.168 AQWI 1.1178 0.9746

**Indicator n nlog2n n nlog2n** BOD5 48 00 Al 0 0 6 15.51 V 6 15.51 11 38 Cu 0 0 4 8 Mn 3 4.752 7 19.64

new standards of background concentrations (see **Table 10**).

*EQWI and AQWI for reservoirs of Azat and Ketchut (2013).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

**Table 9.**

Lake Arpi Lake Yerevan Akhuryan Аparan Azat Ketchut

**Table 10.**

**31**

*Water quality classes of analyzed reservoirs.*

#### **Table 8.**

*Entropic and Armenian water quality indexes for reservoirs of Lake Arpi, Akhuryan, Аparan, and Lake Yerevan (2013).*


*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

#### **Table 9.**

rivers had an average and "unsatisfactory" quality for ammonium ions and phosphate. The water at the mouth of the Martuni River in 2014 was of "poor" quality for ammonium and phosphate ions, and the water at the mouth of the Masrik River

In this chapter [26], we studied the quality of water in the years 2009–2012 of the reservoirs of the lakes of Arpi, Yerevan, Akhuryan, Azat, Aparaan, and ketchut using AWQI, ЕWQI WCI, and SCWQI, and CWQI. An analysis of the data shows that AWQI has a linear relationship with WCI, SCWQI, and ЕWQI and an inverse

In this work, we presented data on the study of water quality in reservoirs in 2013–2019. Since 2014, in Armenia, the quality of reservoir water has been assessed

In 2013, it was found out that the reservoirs of lakes Arpi, Yerevan and Akhuryan regularly increased the MACs of nitrite ions, ammonium, copper, vanadium, aluminum, chromium, manganese and iron. For example, in reservoir Akhuryan for NO2, Al, V, Cu, Mn, and Cr the number of cases of an increase in the MAC is 5, 8, 8, 8, 6 and 7 times, respectively. The amount of excess cases of MPC – *<sup>N</sup>* = 42, <sup>P</sup>*<sup>n</sup>* log <sup>2</sup>*n=* 118.76, *<sup>I</sup>* = 118.76/42 = 2.8276, *<sup>H</sup>* = log242–2.8276 = 2.5616, AWGI = *G* = 2.5616/ 2.8276 = 0.9059. The total amount of the multiplicity of MAC

**Reservoir Lake Arpi Akhuryan Аparan Lake Yerevan Positions 109 110 111 112 Indicator n nlog2n n nlog2n n nlog2n n nlog2n** BOD5 0 0 0 0 5 11.61 0 0

<sup>+</sup> 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 33.2 NO2ˉ 0 0 5 11.61 0 0 12 43 Al 6 15.51 8 24 8 24 2 2 V 6 15.51 8 24 8 24 12 43 Cu 6 15.51 8 24 6 15.51 11 38 Mn 5 11.61 6 15.51 8 24 11 38 Se 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 24 Cr 5 11.61 7 19.64 0 0 12 43

N 28 42 35 78 Pnlog2n 69.75 118.76 99.12 264.2 I 2.491 2.8276 2.8320 3.3871 H 2.313 2.5616 2.2943 2.8946 EQWI 0.9288 0.9059 0.8101 0.8546 M = Σm 33.6 24.5 15.2 49.3 log2M 5.067 4.612 3.924 5.620 AQWI 1.4355 1.3671 1.2025 1.4166

*Entropic and Armenian water quality indexes for reservoirs of Lake Arpi, Akhuryan, Аparan, and Lake*

in 2017–2019 was also of "poor" quality for vanadium.

by the new standards for background concentrations.

**3.2 Results for reservoirs**

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

relationship with CWQI.

NH4

**Table 8.**

**30**

*Yerevan (2013).*

*EQWI and AQWI for reservoirs of Azat and Ketchut (2013).*


#### **Table 10.**

*Water quality classes of analyzed reservoirs.*

exceedances-M <sup>¼</sup> <sup>P</sup>m =24.5, log2M = 4.6123, AWQI = 0.9059 + 0.4612 = 1.3671. The values of the indices EWQI and AWQI are given in **Tables 8** and **9**.

An analysis of the data shows that AWQI has a linear relationship with ЕWQI.

AWQI = �(0.054 � 0.205) + (1.613 � 0.251)∙EWQI; R2 = 0.95.457; N = 6. The quality of the water in the reservoirs was also evaluated according to the

new standards of background concentrations (see **Table 10**).

In 2014, the water of the Arpi Lake reservoir was of "moderate" quality in terms of phosphate ion and COD, and the water of the Akhuryan reservoir was "moderate" in terms of ammonium, nitrite, and phosphate ions. The water of the Azat reservoir was also of "moderate" quality in terms of phosphate ion, the water of the Aparan reservoir was "good" in terms of phosphate ion, and the water of Yerevan lake was of "poor" quality. The waters of the Kechut and Aparan reservoirs were of "good" quality. In 2015, the water of the reservoir of Lake Arpi had a "moderate" quality in terms of COD and the water of the Akhuryan reservoir had a "moderate" quality in terms of phosphate ion and COD. The water in Yerevan Lake had a "moderate" quality in terms of ammonium, nitrite, and phosphate ions and COD.

The water of the Azat reservoir was also of "moderate" quality according to COD, and the water of the Kechut and Aparan reservoir was of "good" quality. In 2016, the water of the reservoirs of Lake Arpi and Azat was of "good" quality, and the waters of the Akhuryan, Aparan, and Kechut reservoirs were "moderate" in COD. The water of Yerevan Lake had a "poor" quality in terms of ammonium, nitrate, nitrite, and phosphate ions and COD.

In 2017, the water of the reservoirs of Lake Arpi, Akhuryan, Aparan, Kechut, and Azat was of "good" quality, and the water of Yerevan Lake was of "unsatisfactory" quality for ammonium and nitrite ions. In 2018, the water in the reservoir of Lake Arpi had "moderate" quality in terms of phosphate ion and suspended solids, and the water in the Akhuryan reservoir had "moderate" quality in ammonium and phosphate ions, as well as in COD and BOD5. The water of the Aparan reservoir also had "moderate" COD quality. The water of Yerevan Lake had "unsatisfactory" quality for ammonium and nitrite ions. The waters of the Kechutsky and Azat reservoirs were of "good" quality. In 2019, the water in the reservoir of Lake Arpi had "moderate" quality in terms of phosphate ion and suspended solids, and the water in the Akhuryan reservoir had "moderate" quality in terms of COD and suspended solids. The water of Yerevan Lake had "unsatisfactory" quality in terms of nitrite ion. The waters of the Kechut, Aparan, and Azat reservoirs were of "good" quality.

According to WQI values, the water quality in the Aparan, Azat, and Kechut reservoirs has "good" and "excellent" grade. The water quality of the reservoirs of Akhuryan, Lake Arpi and in Yerevan Lake, on the contrary, is "poor" from 3rd to 2nd class, and restricts the use of water for irrigation purposes. The poor water quality of the Lake Arpi reservoir is associated with an increase in the amount of metals. The reduced water quality of the Akhuryan reservoir and Yerevan lake is associated with pollution from the main settlements in the river basin, respectively, in Gyumri and Yerevan, with municipal wastewater.

and the first manifestation of flowers was recorded in 1964 and repeated in different volumes at different times. Large-scale flourishing was observed in 2018. It has been established that the maximum permissible concentration of vanadium, copper, chromium, magnesium, BOD5, and selenium is regularly exceeded in

*Entropic and Armenian water quality indexes for Small Lake Sevan (2009).*

**Positions 115 116 117 118 119 130 Indicator n nlog2n n nlog2n n nlog2n n nlog2n n nlog2n n nlog2n** Mg 0 0 5 11.6 5 11.6 6 15.5 4 8 5 11.6 Cu 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 V 8 24 8 24 8 24 8 24 8 24 8 24 Cr 5 11.6 6 15.5 6 15.5 6 15.5 5 11.6 6 15.5 Br 8 24 8 24 8 24 8 24 8 24 8 24 Se 8 24 8 24 7 19.64 7 19.64 6 15.5 7 19.64 N 29 35 34 36 31 34 Pnlog2n 83.6 99.1 94.74 98.64 83.1 94.74 I 2.882 2.831 2.786 2.74 2.68 2.786 H 1.974 2.295 2.298 2.427 2.271 2.298 G 0.686 0.811 0.826 0.886 0.847 0.825 M = Pm 11.8 13 14 17.1 14.1 14.3 log2M 3.56 3.7 3.81 4.093 3.815 3.836 AWQI 1.041 1.181 1.207 1.294 1.228 1.209

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes*

For example, in position No. 118 of Lake Sevan, number of MAC increasing cases for V, Br, Se, Cr, Mg, and Cu has been changed 8, 8, 7, 6, 6 and 1 times, respectively [36]. The amount of excess cases of MAC – *<sup>N</sup>* = 36, <sup>P</sup>*<sup>n</sup>* log <sup>2</sup>*n =* 98.64, *I* = 98.64/36 = 2.740, *H* = log236–2.740 = 2.427, *G* = 2.740/2.427 = 0.886. The total amount of the multiplicity of MАC exceedances -M <sup>¼</sup> <sup>P</sup>m =17.1, log2M = 4.093, AWQI = 0.886 + 0.409 = 1.294. The calculation algorithm and the values of the EWQI and AWQI indices of other position of Smally Sevan are given

Quality of Lake Sevan water was also comprehensively evaluated by other indexes: WCI, CWQI, and SCWQI. Values of the WQIs are given in **Table 13**.

It is shown that water quality by the EWQI and AWQI of the 2nd pollution class, by the WCI and CWQI of the 3rd pollution class, and by SPWQI is mainly the 2nd

With the help of the computer program "Origin-6", the analysis of the linear relationship between AWQI and other WQIs was provided: AWQI = *a* + *b* (WQI). Analysis of obtained data indicates that AWQI has liner dependence with WCI,

A satisfactory correlation is obtained when all the positions of the Lake Sevan are

• AWQI = (0.739 � 0.074) + (0.313 � 0.047) ▪ WCI,R = 0.80233, N = 26

• AWQI = (1.047 � 0.127) + (0.096 � 0.069) ▪ SCWQI, R = 0.27301, N = 26

• AWQI = (0.203 � 0.038) + (1.225 � 0.046) ▪ EWQI, R = 0.98339, N = 26

the waters of Lake Sevan (see **Table 11**).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

and in some cases up to the 3rd class of pollution.

SCWQI, and EWQI, and an inverse dependence with CWQI.

in **Table 12**.

**Table 12.**

considered together.

**33**

#### **3.3 Results for Lake Sevan**

The purpose of this section is to assess the water quality of Lake Sevan using the Armenian Water Quality Index and other indicators of water quality, as well as to identify the causes of the appearance of blue-green algae that contribute to growth.

In July 2019, an increase in the blue-green algae of Anaben was recorded in Lake Sevan. These algae were first found in Lake Sevan in the middle of the last century,


#### **Table 11.**

*Excess concentration from MAC (times).*

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*


#### **Table 12.**

The water of the Azat reservoir was also of "moderate" quality according to COD, and the water of the Kechut and Aparan reservoir was of "good" quality. In 2016, the water of the reservoirs of Lake Arpi and Azat was of "good" quality, and the waters of the Akhuryan, Aparan, and Kechut reservoirs were "moderate" in COD. The water of Yerevan Lake had a "poor" quality in terms of ammonium, nitrate,

In 2017, the water of the reservoirs of Lake Arpi, Akhuryan, Aparan, Kechut, and Azat was of "good" quality, and the water of Yerevan Lake was of "unsatisfactory" quality for ammonium and nitrite ions. In 2018, the water in the reservoir of Lake Arpi had "moderate" quality in terms of phosphate ion and suspended solids, and the water in the Akhuryan reservoir had "moderate" quality in ammonium and phosphate ions, as well as in COD and BOD5. The water of the Aparan reservoir also had "moderate" COD quality. The water of Yerevan Lake had "unsatisfactory" quality for ammonium and nitrite ions. The waters of the Kechutsky and Azat reservoirs were of "good" quality. In 2019, the water in the reservoir of Lake Arpi had "moderate" quality in terms of phosphate ion and suspended solids, and the water in the Akhuryan reservoir had "moderate" quality in terms of COD and suspended solids. The water of Yerevan Lake had "unsatisfactory" quality in terms of nitrite ion. The

waters of the Kechut, Aparan, and Azat reservoirs were of "good" quality.

in Gyumri and Yerevan, with municipal wastewater.

**3.3 Results for Lake Sevan**

**Table 11.**

**32**

*Excess concentration from MAC (times).*

According to WQI values, the water quality in the Aparan, Azat, and Kechut reservoirs has "good" and "excellent" grade. The water quality of the reservoirs of Akhuryan, Lake Arpi and in Yerevan Lake, on the contrary, is "poor" from 3rd to 2nd class, and restricts the use of water for irrigation purposes. The poor water quality of the Lake Arpi reservoir is associated with an increase in the amount of metals. The reduced water quality of the Akhuryan reservoir and Yerevan lake is associated with pollution from the main settlements in the river basin, respectively,

The purpose of this section is to assess the water quality of Lake Sevan using the Armenian Water Quality Index and other indicators of water quality, as well as to identify the causes of the appearance of blue-green algae that contribute to growth. In July 2019, an increase in the blue-green algae of Anaben was recorded in Lake Sevan. These algae were first found in Lake Sevan in the middle of the last century,

**Year Mg V Cr Cu Se BOD5** 2009 1.1–1.4 5.0–7.0 2.0–3.0 2.0–3.0 3.0–4.0 — 2010 1.1–1.3 5.0 2.0 2.0–3.0 2.0 2.0–3.0 2011 1.1 5.0 2.0 — 2.0 1.1–1.9 2012 1.1–1.2 6.2–6.4 — 2.1 2.1–2.6 — 2013 1.1–1.2 5.0–5.7 1.8 — 2.5 — 2014 1.1 3.8–5.6 1.2–3.4 — 1.2–19 1.2–1.5 2015 1.2–1.7 2.9–5.9 1.2–3.9 — 1.2–5.0 1.2–1.4 2016 1.2 3.8–8.0 1.2–1.7 1.4–1.5 1.2–6.5 1.2 2017 1.2 5.0–5.9 2.0–3.8 1.3–7.3 5.7–7.0 1.2–1.4 2018 1.2–1.3 3.7–6.6 1.7–3.3 1.2–2.9 1.4–2.7 1.2 2019 — 4.5–8.9 1.2–6.6 1.2–3.5 3.1–3.3 —

nitrite, and phosphate ions and COD.

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

*Entropic and Armenian water quality indexes for Small Lake Sevan (2009).*

and the first manifestation of flowers was recorded in 1964 and repeated in different volumes at different times. Large-scale flourishing was observed in 2018.

It has been established that the maximum permissible concentration of vanadium, copper, chromium, magnesium, BOD5, and selenium is regularly exceeded in the waters of Lake Sevan (see **Table 11**).

For example, in position No. 118 of Lake Sevan, number of MAC increasing cases for V, Br, Se, Cr, Mg, and Cu has been changed 8, 8, 7, 6, 6 and 1 times, respectively [36]. The amount of excess cases of MAC – *<sup>N</sup>* = 36, <sup>P</sup>*<sup>n</sup>* log <sup>2</sup>*n =* 98.64, *I* = 98.64/36 = 2.740, *H* = log236–2.740 = 2.427, *G* = 2.740/2.427 = 0.886. The total amount of the multiplicity of MАC exceedances -M <sup>¼</sup> <sup>P</sup>m =17.1, log2M = 4.093, AWQI = 0.886 + 0.409 = 1.294. The calculation algorithm and the values of the EWQI and AWQI indices of other position of Smally Sevan are given in **Table 12**.

Quality of Lake Sevan water was also comprehensively evaluated by other indexes: WCI, CWQI, and SCWQI. Values of the WQIs are given in **Table 13**.

It is shown that water quality by the EWQI and AWQI of the 2nd pollution class, by the WCI and CWQI of the 3rd pollution class, and by SPWQI is mainly the 2nd and in some cases up to the 3rd class of pollution.

With the help of the computer program "Origin-6", the analysis of the linear relationship between AWQI and other WQIs was provided: AWQI = *a* + *b* (WQI).

Analysis of obtained data indicates that AWQI has liner dependence with WCI, SCWQI, and EWQI, and an inverse dependence with CWQI.

A satisfactory correlation is obtained when all the positions of the Lake Sevan are considered together.


#### *Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*


• AWQI = (0.529 0.181) + (0.452 0.116) ▪ WCI, R = 0.81003, N = 10

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

• AWQI = (1.292 0.172) + (0.031 0.092) ▪ SCWQI, R = 0.11946, N = 10

• AWQI = (0.252 0.082) + (1.174 0.099) ▪ EWQI, R = 0.97297, N = 10

• AWQI = (2.776 0.1.935) (0.023 0.028) ▪ CWQI, R = 0.27118, N = 10:

A good correlation is also obtained when the underlying layers are considered

• AWQI = (0.778 0.054) + (0.287 0.034) ▪ WCI, R = 0.9545, N = 9

• AWQI = (0.849 0.208) + (0.205 0.111) ▪ SCWQI, R = 0.57343, N = 9

• AWQI = (0.209 0.061) + (1.217 0.072) ▪ EWQI, R = 0.98775, N = 9

• AWQI = (2.998 0.753) (0.026 0.011) ▪ CWQI, R = 0.66353, N = 9:

index is mainly the 2nd and in some cases up to the 3rd class of pollution.

Lake Sevan are also discharged into Sevan.

tion in the spring was twice as high as normal.

cally minimal (33 million m<sup>3</sup>

**35**

Over the past 10 years, the water level in Sevan has risen by 3 meters, leaving under water trees, stubble and buildings that have not yet been cleaned. The ecosystem of Lake Sevan is also polluted due to debris entering the lake. In addition to sewage systems from dozens of settlements in Lake Sevan, sewage and agricultural and wastewater from service and recreation facilities operating on the shores of

It should be noted that in 2019 there was little rain. For example, in May, 36 million m<sup>3</sup> of precipitation was recorded in the lake, which is close to the histori-

According to the results of research conducted by the Ministry of Nature Protection in 2018, the concentrations of phosphate and ammonium ions in Lake Sevan were high, and a sharp rise in temperature created favorable conditions for intensive flowering of the lake. The average concentration of phosphate ion in the surface and middle layers was 0.08 mg/l, and in the underlying layer—0.15 mg/l, which did not exceed the norm of the RA environment (0.3 mg/l). The average concentration of ammonium ion in the surface layer is 0.25 mg/l, and in the

) precipitation. Due to the strong wind force, evapora-

Thus, a correlation between AWQI and other WQIs was established. Analysis of obtained data indicates that AWQI has liner dependence on WCI, SCWQI, EWQI and an inverse dependence on CWQI. This result is based on the fact that the scale of the Canadian index of quality of water begins from 100, and scales of indexes of impurity of water, EWQI, WQI, and SCWQI, start from scratch. It has been established that the maximum permissible concentrations of copper, vanadium, chromium, magnesium, and selenium regularly increase in the waters of Lake Sevan. It has been found that the Armenian Water Quality Index demonstrates a linear dependence on the water contamination index, a specific combinatorial water quality index, and an index of geoecological evolving organization and an inverse relationship to the Canadian Water Quality Index. It is shown that water quality by the geoecological evolving organized index and Armenian Water Quality Index of the 2nd pollution class, by the water contamination index and Canadian Water Quality Index of the 3rd pollution class, and by specific combinatorial water quality

together

**Table 13.**

*Water quality indices of Lake Sevan (2009).*

• AWQI = (2.637 0.513) (0.021 0.008) ▪ CWQI, R = 0.49061, N = 26:

For the Small Lake Sevan:


For the Big Lake Sevan:

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*


A good correlation is also obtained when the underlying layers are considered together


Thus, a correlation between AWQI and other WQIs was established. Analysis of obtained data indicates that AWQI has liner dependence on WCI, SCWQI, EWQI and an inverse dependence on CWQI. This result is based on the fact that the scale of the Canadian index of quality of water begins from 100, and scales of indexes of impurity of water, EWQI, WQI, and SCWQI, start from scratch. It has been established that the maximum permissible concentrations of copper, vanadium, chromium, magnesium, and selenium regularly increase in the waters of Lake Sevan. It has been found that the Armenian Water Quality Index demonstrates a linear dependence on the water contamination index, a specific combinatorial water quality index, and an index of geoecological evolving organization and an inverse relationship to the Canadian Water Quality Index. It is shown that water quality by the geoecological evolving organized index and Armenian Water Quality Index of the 2nd pollution class, by the water contamination index and Canadian Water Quality Index of the 3rd pollution class, and by specific combinatorial water quality index is mainly the 2nd and in some cases up to the 3rd class of pollution.

Over the past 10 years, the water level in Sevan has risen by 3 meters, leaving under water trees, stubble and buildings that have not yet been cleaned. The ecosystem of Lake Sevan is also polluted due to debris entering the lake. In addition to sewage systems from dozens of settlements in Lake Sevan, sewage and agricultural and wastewater from service and recreation facilities operating on the shores of Lake Sevan are also discharged into Sevan.

It should be noted that in 2019 there was little rain. For example, in May, 36 million m<sup>3</sup> of precipitation was recorded in the lake, which is close to the historically minimal (33 million m<sup>3</sup> ) precipitation. Due to the strong wind force, evaporation in the spring was twice as high as normal.

According to the results of research conducted by the Ministry of Nature Protection in 2018, the concentrations of phosphate and ammonium ions in Lake Sevan were high, and a sharp rise in temperature created favorable conditions for intensive flowering of the lake. The average concentration of phosphate ion in the surface and middle layers was 0.08 mg/l, and in the underlying layer—0.15 mg/l, which did not exceed the norm of the RA environment (0.3 mg/l). The average concentration of ammonium ion in the surface layer is 0.25 mg/l, and in the

• AWQI = (2.637 0.513) (0.021 0.008) ▪ CWQI, R = 0.49061, N = 26:

**Sampling points EWQI AWQI WCI CWQI SCWQI** 0.686 1.041 1.35 68.65 1.75 0.811 1.181 1.41 70.37 1.65 0.826 1.207 1.42 70.95 1.56 ' 0.831 1.201 1.43 70.21 1.81 0.867 1.276 1.87 65.98 1.88 0.847 1.228 1.48 69.12 1.81 ' 0.923 1.334 1.90 66.35 2.11 0.939 1.340 1.67 67.24 1.65 ' 0.921 1.332 1.92 65.50 1.96 0.803 1.187 1.60 66.79 1.94 ' 0.799 1.192 1.56 66.89 1.83 0.820 1.204 1.50 66.65 2.19 ' 0.820 1.214 1.49 68.68 1.59 0.811 1.205 1.50 67.05 1.69 ' 0.819 1.212 1.55 66.58 1.75 0.819 1.212 1.53 68.16 1.85 0.819 1.222 1.52 66.49 1.59 0.825 1.229 1.54 67.27 1.82 0.833 1.237 1.55 67.14 1.78 0.883 1.312 1.75 66.02 2.11 ' 0.825 1.209 1.44 68.25 2.03 0.815 1.198 1.44 67.60 1.93 ' 0.815 1.198 1.52 67.96 1.79 0.825 1.209 1.43 68.64 1.63 0.834 1.217 1.43 68.48 1.88 ' 0.825 1.208 1.46 68.45 1.95

• AWQI = (0.787 0.213) + (0.275 0.143) ▪ WCI, R = 0.65192, N = 7

• AWQI = (0.965 0.438) + (0.131 0.252) ▪ SCWQI, R = 0.22730, N = 7

• AWQI = (0.189 0.053) + (1.234 0.064) ▪ EWQI, R = 0.99321, N = 7

• AWQI = (2.097 1.361) (0.013 0.019) ▪ CWQI, R = 0.28427, N = 7:

For the Small Lake Sevan:

*Water quality indices of Lake Sevan (2009).*

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

**Table 13.**

**34**

For the Big Lake Sevan:

underlying layer 0.17 mg/l, which does not exceed the norm of the environment RA (0.5 mg/l). The average concentration of nitrate ions in the surface layer was 0.19 mg/l, and in the underlying layer—0.12 mg/l. The observed concentrations do not exceed the ecological norm of RA (11 mg/l).

**References**

**75**(5):388–405

1965;**37**(3):300

[1] Nikanorov AM. Scientific Basis for Water Quality Monitoring. Sankt-Peterburg, Rossia: Gidrometeoizdat;

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

Edinburg, UK: Engineering Division;

[10] Liou S, Lo S, Wang S. A generalized

water quality index for Taiwan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2004;**96**(1):35–52

[12] Sargaonkar A, Deshpand V. Development of an overall index of pollution for surface water based on a general classification scheme in Indian context. Environmental Monitoring and

Assessment. 2003;**89**(1):43–67

of the State Committee of

4293742/4293742635.htm

Hydrochemical Indicators.

[15] Tirkey P, Bhattacharya T,

[16] Maximum Permissible

2002. p. 55 (in Russian)

[13] Temporary guidelines of complex evaluation of surface and sea water quality by hydrochemical indicators have been introduced by the instruction

Hydrometeorology, No. 250-1163. 1986. p. 5 (in Russian). Available from: https://files.stroyinf.ru/Index2/1/

[14] RD 52.24.643-2002. The Leading Document. Methodical Instructions. A Method of a Complex Assessment of Degree of Impurity of Surface Water on

Gidrometeoizdat, Sankt-Peterburg;

Chakraborty S. Water quality indices— Important tools for water quality assessment. International Journal of Advances in Chemistry. 2015;**1**(1):15–29

Concentrations of Harmful Substances in the Water. Sanitary Water Bodies and the Requirements for the Composition and Properties of Water in Reservoirs at Points of Drinking and Cultural and Domestic Water Use. HMC, Moscow:

[11] Boyacioglu H. Development of a water quality index based on a European classification scheme. Water SA. 2013;

1976. p. 61

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes*

**33**(1):101–106

[2] Stambuk-Giljanovic N. Comparison of Dalmatian water evaluation indices. Water Environment Research. 2003;

[3] Horton RK. An index number system for rating water quality. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation.

[5] Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life: CCME water quality index 1.0,

[4] Brown RM, Mclennald NI, Deininger RA, Tozer RG. A water quality index: Do we dаre? Water and Seawage Works. 1970;**117**(10):339

user's manual. In: Canadian

1998;**33**(4):519–549

[7] Department of Environment Malaysia (DOE) 2013. Malaysia Environmental Quality Report on 2012 (Report No. WEQR-2012). Putrajaya.

[8] Bascaron M. Establishment of a methodology for the determination of water quality. Boletin Informativo del Medio Ambiente. 1979;**9**:30–51

[9] Scottish Research Development Department (SRDD). Development of a Water Quality Index. Applied Research & Development, Report Number ARD3.

OMR press Sdn.Bhd; 2013

**37**

Environmental Quality Guidelines, 1999. Winnipeg: Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment; 2001

[6] Zandbergen PA, Hall KJ. Analysis of the British Columbia water quality index for watershed managers: A case study of two small watersheds. Water Quality Research Journal of Canada.

2005. p. 577 (in Russian)

#### **4. Conclusions**

The quality of the waters of the Dzknaget, Sotk, Masrik, Vardenis, Martuni, Argichi, and Gavaraget rivers and the lakes of Arpi, Yerevan, Akhuryan, Azat, Aparan and Kechut reservoirs comprehensively evaluated by the indices: AWQI, EWQI, WCI, CWQI, and SCWQI.

The quality of rivers and reservoirs water has been assessed by the new standards for background concentrations.

The water at the mouth of the Martuni River in 2014 was of "poor" quality for ammonium and phosphate ions, and the water at the mouth of the Masrik River in 2017–2019 was also of "poor" quality for vanadium. In 2013–2019, the waters of the Dzknaget, Martuni, Sotk, and Gavaraget rivers (monitoring post No. 77) and Martuni (monitoring post No. 71) were mostly of "good" quality. The water at the mouth of the Vardenis and Gavarvget rivers had an average and "unsatisfactory" quality for ammonium ions and phosphate.

The poor water quality of the Lake Arpi reservoir is associated with an increase in the amount of metals. Reduced water quality of the Akhuryan reservoir and Lake Yerevan is associated with pollution from the main settlements in the river basin, respectively, in Gyumri and Yerevan, with municipal wastewater.

For the first time, the water quality in the reservoirs of Lake Sevan was evaluated using the Armenian Water Quality Index. It was found out that the water of Lake Sevan is regularly increased MAC of vanadium, copper, chromium, magnesium, bromium, and selenium. The water quality in the Lake Sevan is poor.

It has been found that the Armenian Water Quality Index is linearly dependent on the water contamination index, the specific combinatorial water quality index, the geoecological evolving organized index, and has inverse relationship to the Canadian Water Quality Index.

#### **Author details**

Gevorg Simonyan Yerevan State University (YSU), Yerevan, Republic of Armenia

\*Address all correspondence to: sim-gev@mail.ru; gevorg.simonyan@ysu.am

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

#### **References**

underlying layer 0.17 mg/l, which does not exceed the norm of the environment RA (0.5 mg/l). The average concentration of nitrate ions in the surface layer was 0.19 mg/l, and in the underlying layer—0.12 mg/l. The observed concentrations do

The quality of the waters of the Dzknaget, Sotk, Masrik, Vardenis, Martuni, Argichi, and Gavaraget rivers and the lakes of Arpi, Yerevan, Akhuryan, Azat, Aparan and Kechut reservoirs comprehensively evaluated by the indices: AWQI,

The quality of rivers and reservoirs water has been assessed by the new stan-

The water at the mouth of the Martuni River in 2014 was of "poor" quality for ammonium and phosphate ions, and the water at the mouth of the Masrik River in 2017–2019 was also of "poor" quality for vanadium. In 2013–2019, the waters of the Dzknaget, Martuni, Sotk, and Gavaraget rivers (monitoring post No. 77) and Martuni (monitoring post No. 71) were mostly of "good" quality. The water at the mouth of the Vardenis and Gavarvget rivers had an average and "unsatisfactory"

The poor water quality of the Lake Arpi reservoir is associated with an increase in the amount of metals. Reduced water quality of the Akhuryan reservoir and Lake Yerevan is associated with pollution from the main settlements in the river basin,

For the first time, the water quality in the reservoirs of Lake Sevan was evaluated using the Armenian Water Quality Index. It was found out that the water of Lake Sevan is regularly increased MAC of vanadium, copper, chromium, magnesium, bromium, and selenium. The water quality in the Lake Sevan is poor.

It has been found that the Armenian Water Quality Index is linearly dependent on the water contamination index, the specific combinatorial water quality index, the geoecological evolving organized index, and has inverse relationship to the

respectively, in Gyumri and Yerevan, with municipal wastewater.

Yerevan State University (YSU), Yerevan, Republic of Armenia

\*Address all correspondence to: sim-gev@mail.ru; gevorg.simonyan@ysu.am

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

not exceed the ecological norm of RA (11 mg/l).

EWQI, WCI, CWQI, and SCWQI.

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

dards for background concentrations.

quality for ammonium ions and phosphate.

Canadian Water Quality Index.

provided the original work is properly cited.

**Author details**

Gevorg Simonyan

**36**

**4. Conclusions**

[1] Nikanorov AM. Scientific Basis for Water Quality Monitoring. Sankt-Peterburg, Rossia: Gidrometeoizdat; 2005. p. 577 (in Russian)

[2] Stambuk-Giljanovic N. Comparison of Dalmatian water evaluation indices. Water Environment Research. 2003; **75**(5):388–405

[3] Horton RK. An index number system for rating water quality. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation. 1965;**37**(3):300

[4] Brown RM, Mclennald NI, Deininger RA, Tozer RG. A water quality index: Do we dаre? Water and Seawage Works. 1970;**117**(10):339

[5] Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life: CCME water quality index 1.0, user's manual. In: Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, 1999. Winnipeg: Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment; 2001

[6] Zandbergen PA, Hall KJ. Analysis of the British Columbia water quality index for watershed managers: A case study of two small watersheds. Water Quality Research Journal of Canada. 1998;**33**(4):519–549

[7] Department of Environment Malaysia (DOE) 2013. Malaysia Environmental Quality Report on 2012 (Report No. WEQR-2012). Putrajaya. OMR press Sdn.Bhd; 2013

[8] Bascaron M. Establishment of a methodology for the determination of water quality. Boletin Informativo del Medio Ambiente. 1979;**9**:30–51

[9] Scottish Research Development Department (SRDD). Development of a Water Quality Index. Applied Research & Development, Report Number ARD3. Edinburg, UK: Engineering Division; 1976. p. 61

[10] Liou S, Lo S, Wang S. A generalized water quality index for Taiwan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2004;**96**(1):35–52

[11] Boyacioglu H. Development of a water quality index based on a European classification scheme. Water SA. 2013; **33**(1):101–106

[12] Sargaonkar A, Deshpand V. Development of an overall index of pollution for surface water based on a general classification scheme in Indian context. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2003;**89**(1):43–67

[13] Temporary guidelines of complex evaluation of surface and sea water quality by hydrochemical indicators have been introduced by the instruction of the State Committee of Hydrometeorology, No. 250-1163. 1986. p. 5 (in Russian). Available from: https://files.stroyinf.ru/Index2/1/ 4293742/4293742635.htm

[14] RD 52.24.643-2002. The Leading Document. Methodical Instructions. A Method of a Complex Assessment of Degree of Impurity of Surface Water on Hydrochemical Indicators. Gidrometeoizdat, Sankt-Peterburg; 2002. p. 55 (in Russian)

[15] Tirkey P, Bhattacharya T, Chakraborty S. Water quality indices— Important tools for water quality assessment. International Journal of Advances in Chemistry. 2015;**1**(1):15–29

[16] Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Harmful Substances in the Water. Sanitary Water Bodies and the Requirements for the Composition and Properties of Water in Reservoirs at Points of Drinking and Cultural and Domestic Water Use. HMC, Moscow:

Ministry of Health of the USSR; 1973. p. 14 (in Russian)

[17] Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy. OJ L327; 22 December 2000. Available from: https:// eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ ALL/?uri=CELEX:32000L0060

[18] Water Quality in the Danube River Basin-2004, Yearbook. International Communications for the Danube River; 2005. Available from: https://www. icpdr.org/main/sites/default/files/ TNMN\_Yearbook\_2005\_long\_version. pdf

[19] RA Government Decision N 75-N of 27 January 2011 "On Defining the Norms for Securing Water Quality of Each Basin Management Area Depending on the Features of the Specific Area" (in Armenian). Available from: http://www.irtek.am/views/act. aspx?aid=58822

[20] Pirumyan G, Pirumyan E, Simonyan G, Simonyan A. Method of determining the level of water pollution. RA Patent, №3063A; 2016

[21] Pirumyan GP, Simonyan GS, Margaryan LA. Geoecological Evaluational Integrating Index of Natural Waters and Other Systems. Yerevan: Copy Print LTD.; 2019. p. 244

[22] Simonyan AG, Pirumyan GP, Simonyan GS. Analysis of environmental status of the Kechut Artificial Reservoir and river Arpa with Armenian index of water quality. Austrian Journal of Technical and Natural Sciences. 2016;**7-8**:37–41

[23] Simonayn AG. Analysis of the environmental status of the river Voghji with Armenina index of water quality. Proceedings of YSU, Series Chemistry and Biology. 2016;**2**:20–24

[24] Simonyan GS, Simonyan AG, Pirumyan GP. Systemic-entropy approach for estimating the water quality of a river. Oxidation Communications. 2018;**41**(2):307–317 [32] Sargsyan VO. Vodi Armenii [Armenian Water]. Yerevan: YSUAB;

[33] Dictionary of Physical-Geographic Objects in the Republic of Armenia. State Committee of the Real Estate Cadastre. Yerevan, Armenia, 2007. p.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes*

[34] Shannon C. Works on Information Theory and Cybernetics. IL, Moscow;

[35] Shannon CE. A mathematical theory of communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1948;**27**:379–423 and

2008. p. 208

136 (in Armenian)

623–656

**39**

1963. p. 830 (in Russian)

[36] The Environmental Impact Monitoring Center of the Ministry of Nature Protection of the Republic of Armenia on the Environmental Monitoring Results of the

Environmental Impact Assessment.

2009. p. 55 (in Armenian)

[25] Simonyan AG, Simonyan GS, Pirumyan GP. Аnalysis of environmental status of the Rivers Aghstev and Getik with Armenian index of water quality. Еuropean Journal of Natural History. 2016;**4**:22–27

[26] Simonyan G, Pirumyan G. Entropysystem approach to assess the ecological status of reservoirs in Armenia. Preprints. 2019:2019010260. DOI: 10.20944/preprints201901.0260.v.1

[27] Simonyan GS, Simonyan AG. Entropy approach to the assessment of chaos and the order of biological systems. Successes in Modern Natural Sciences. 2015;**9**:100–104 (in Russian)

[28] Simonyan GS. Chaos and the order of biological systems in the light of the synergistic theory of information. In: International Conference "Modern Problems of Chemical Physics", Yerevan. 2012. pp. 227–228

[29] Simonyan GS, Simonyan AG, Sayadyan ML, Sarsekova DN, Pirumyan GP. Analysis of environmental status of wood and shrub vegetation by the Armenian Index of environmental quality. Oxidation Communications. 2018;**41**(4):533–541

[30] Simonyan GS. Evaluation of the influence of nitrogen on the stability of naptic systems with the help of geoecological evolving organized index. Oxidation Communications. 2019; **42**(3):329–336

[31] Chilingaryan LA, Mnatsakanyan BP, Aghababyan KA, Tokmajyan HV. Watercourse of Armenian Rivers and Lakes. Yerevan, Armenia: Agropress; 2002. p. 50 (in Аrmenian)

*Systemic-Entropic Approach for Assessing Water Quality of Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93220*

[32] Sargsyan VO. Vodi Armenii [Armenian Water]. Yerevan: YSUAB; 2008. p. 208

Ministry of Health of the USSR; 1973.

*Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology*

[24] Simonyan GS, Simonyan AG, Pirumyan GP. Systemic-entropy approach for estimating the water quality of a river. Oxidation

Communications. 2018;**41**(2):307–317

[25] Simonyan AG, Simonyan GS,

environmental status of the Rivers Aghstev and Getik with Armenian index of water quality. Еuropean Journal of

[26] Simonyan G, Pirumyan G. Entropysystem approach to assess the ecological

Natural History. 2016;**4**:22–27

status of reservoirs in Armenia. Preprints. 2019:2019010260. DOI: 10.20944/preprints201901.0260.v.1

[27] Simonyan GS, Simonyan AG. Entropy approach to the assessment of chaos and the order of biological systems. Successes in Modern Natural Sciences. 2015;**9**:100–104 (in Russian)

[28] Simonyan GS. Chaos and the order of biological systems in the light of the synergistic theory of information. In: International Conference "Modern Problems of Chemical Physics", Yerevan. 2012. pp. 227–228

[29] Simonyan GS, Simonyan AG, Sayadyan ML, Sarsekova DN, Pirumyan GP. Analysis of

environmental status of wood and shrub vegetation by the Armenian Index of environmental quality. Oxidation Communications. 2018;**41**(4):533–541

[30] Simonyan GS. Evaluation of the influence of nitrogen on the stability of naptic systems with the help of geoecological evolving organized index. Oxidation Communications. 2019;

[31] Chilingaryan LA, Mnatsakanyan BP, Aghababyan KA, Tokmajyan HV. Watercourse of Armenian Rivers and Lakes. Yerevan, Armenia: Agropress;

2002. p. 50 (in Аrmenian)

**42**(3):329–336

Pirumyan GP. Аnalysis of

European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy. OJ L327; 22

December 2000. Available from: https:// eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ ALL/?uri=CELEX:32000L0060

[18] Water Quality in the Danube River Basin-2004, Yearbook. International Communications for the Danube River; 2005. Available from: https://www. icpdr.org/main/sites/default/files/ TNMN\_Yearbook\_2005\_long\_version.

[19] RA Government Decision N 75-N of 27 January 2011 "On Defining the Norms for Securing Water Quality of

Each Basin Management Area Depending on the Features of the Specific Area" (in Armenian). Available from: http://www.irtek.am/views/act.

[20] Pirumyan G, Pirumyan E, Simonyan G, Simonyan A. Method of determining the level of water pollution.

[21] Pirumyan GP, Simonyan GS, Margaryan LA. Geoecological Evaluational Integrating Index of Natural Waters and Other Systems. Yerevan: Copy Print LTD.; 2019. p. 244

[22] Simonyan AG, Pirumyan GP,

environmental status of the Kechut Artificial Reservoir and river Arpa with Armenian index of water quality. Austrian Journal of Technical and Natural Sciences. 2016;**7-8**:37–41

[23] Simonayn AG. Analysis of the environmental status of the river Voghji with Armenina index of water quality. Proceedings of YSU, Series Chemistry

and Biology. 2016;**2**:20–24

**38**

Simonyan GS. Analysis of

RA Patent, №3063A; 2016

aspx?aid=58822

[17] Directive 2000/60/EC of the

p. 14 (in Russian)

pdf

[33] Dictionary of Physical-Geographic Objects in the Republic of Armenia. State Committee of the Real Estate Cadastre. Yerevan, Armenia, 2007. p. 136 (in Armenian)

[34] Shannon C. Works on Information Theory and Cybernetics. IL, Moscow; 1963. p. 830 (in Russian)

[35] Shannon CE. A mathematical theory of communication. The Bell System Technical Journal. 1948;**27**:379–423 and 623–656

[36] The Environmental Impact Monitoring Center of the Ministry of Nature Protection of the Republic of Armenia on the Environmental Monitoring Results of the Environmental Impact Assessment. 2009. p. 55 (in Armenian)

**41**

Section 2

Ecological Factors

Affecting Inland Waters

Section 2
