**4. Genetic variation among firefly populations: the difficulty in translocation**

Genetic issues become more important in sustainable biodiversity conservation especially in animal translocation. Avoiding or reducing genetic problems is a key to reducing the risk of extinction. Thus, not only focusing on maximizing species survival from established population measures, but also focusing on the genetic diversity, genetic drift and genetic adaptation to captivity are necessary to evaluate viability of populations in the long term.

The evidences of genetic and behavioral variation among firefly populations in Japan were discussed above. Firefly translocation requires an appropriate evaluation prior to their introduction into the wild. Likewise, the long term post-monitoring of both genetic and phenotypic measures is needed to measure the success of translocation and to identify future threats.

Genetic differentiation of fireflies is caused by various factors, including limitation of dispersal activity, habitat specificity or mating systems. The species with limited dispersal species have a higher probability of reproductive isolation. As in the desert firefly *Microphotus octarthrus*, which have winged males and apterous larviform females, the discontinuous habitats results in genetic isolation [62]. Strong habitat specificity was apparently involved, and there are several other cases of genetic divergence of fireflies influenced by geographical isolation. The variation of genetic structure of *Pyrocoelia rufa* in Korea was examined among islands, western and earthen parts being separated by mountain barriers resulting in different habitat types [63]. Consistently, the variation of genetic and phenotypic patterns of several firefly species in Japan was geographically separated by the Itoigawa-Shizuoka tectonic line. *Hotaria parvula* with morphological variation of body size

are associated with genetic differentiation and are reproductively isolated [64]. Likewise, two population groups of *L. cruciata* in eastern and western areas of the tectonic line were also genetically different and displayed different flash communication patterns (slow-flash and fast-flash types) [65]. The variation in male flash patterns (based on inter-flash interval) was subsequently confirmed to have the potential to hinder in pre-mating between populations. The intermediate flash type fireflies that might be introgressive hybridization were found near the barrier area [66, 67]. Surprisingly, the "quick-flash type" was investigated in the Goto islands, the western tip of Kyushu but it was in the same haplotype as the fast flash fireflies inhabiting the mainland [68]. On the other hand, *A. lateralis* populations throughout the Korean Peninsula, northeast China, Sakhalin, and Japan were examined for genetic variation of two flash pattern types (which also have a difference in adult emergence season duration) but they could not be separated phylogenetically [69].
