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[14] Godone D, Godone F. The Support of Geomatics in Glacier Monitoring: The Contribution of Terrestrial Laser Scanner. Rijeka: IntechOpen; 2012. DOI: 10.5772/33463

[15] Westoby MJ, Brasington J, Glasser NF, Hambrey MJ, Reynolds JM. "Structure-from-Motion" photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications. Geomorphology. 2012;**179**:300-314. DOI: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.08.021

[16] Baltsavias EP. Airborne laser scanning: Basic relations and formulas. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 1999;**54**(2-3):199-214. DOI: 10.1016/S0924-2716(99)00015-5

[17] Glennie CL, Carter WE, Shrestha RL, Dietrich WE. Geodetic imaging with airborne LiDAR: The Earth's surface revealed. Reports on Progress in Physics. 2013;(8):24-76. DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/76/8/086801

[18] Chauve A, Mallet C, Bretar F, Durrieu S, Pierrot-Deseilligny M, Puech W, et al. Processing fullwaveform Lidar data: Modelling raw signals. In: Proceedings of the International Archives of Photogrammetry Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. 2007. pp. 102-107

[19] Fonstad MA, Dietrich JT, Courville BC, Jensen JL, Carbonneau PE. Topographic structure from motion: A new development in photogrammetric measurement. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 2013;**38**:421-430. DOI: 10.1002/esp.3366

[20] Cignetti M, Godone D, Wrzesniak A, Giordan D. Structure from motion multisource application for landslide characterization and monitoring: The champlas du col case study, sestriere, north-western Italy. Sensors (Switzerland). 2019;**19**(10):2364. DOI: 10.3390/ s19102364

[21] Manconi A, Allasia P, Giordan D, Baldo M, Lollino G, Corazza A, et al. Landslide 3D surface deformation model obtained via RTS measurements. In: Landslide Science and Practice. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2013. pp. 431-436. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-31445-2\_56

[22] Allasia P, Baldo M, Giordan D, Godone D, Wrzesniak A, Lollino G. Near real time monitoring systems and periodic surveys using a multi sensors UAV: The case of Ponzano landslide. In: IAEG/AEG Annual Meeting Proceedings, San Francisco, California, 2018-Volume 1. Springer International Publishing: Cham; 2018. pp. 303-310. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-93124-1\_37

[23] Langbein JO. Deformation of the Long Valley Caldera, California: Inferences from measurements from 1988 to 2001. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 2003;**127**(3-4):247-267. DOI: 10.1016/ S0377-0273(03)00172-0

[24] Nainwal HC, Negi BDS, Chaudhary M, Sajwan KS, Gaurav A. Temporal changes in rate of recession: Evidences from Satopanth and Bhagirath Kharak glaciers, Uttarakhand, using Total Station Survey. Current Science. 2008;**94**(5):653-660

[25] Ahn Y, Box JE. Glacier velocities from time-lapse photos: Technique development and first results from the Extreme Ice Survey (EIS) in Greenland. Journal of Glaciology. 2010;**56**(198):723-734. DOI: 10.3189/002214310793146313

[26] Dietrich R, Maas HG, Baessler M, Rülke A, Richter A, Schwalbe E, et al. Jakobshavn Isbræ, West Greenland: Flow velocities and tidal interaction of the front area from 2004 field observations. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface. 2007;**112**(3):F03S21. DOI: 10.1029/2006JF000601

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[37] Riesen P, Strozzi T, Bauder A, Wiesmann A, Funk M. Short-term surface ice motion variations measured with a ground-based portable real aperture radar interferometer. Journal of Glaciology. 2011;**57**(201):53-60. DOI: 10.3189/002214311795306718

[38] Voytenko D, Dixon TH, Werner C, Gourmelen N, Howat IM, Tinder PC, et al. Monitoring a glacier in southeastern Iceland with the portable terrestrial radar interferometer. In: Proceedings of the International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS). 2012. pp. 3230-3232. DOI: 10.1109/ IGARSS.2012.6350736

[39] Voytenko D, Stern A, Holland DM, Dixon TH, Christianson K, Walker RT. Tidally driven ice speed variation at Helheim Glacier, Greenland, observed with terrestrial radar interferometry. Journal of Glaciology. 2015;**61**(226):301- 308. DOI: 10.3189/2015JoG14J173

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[41] López-Moreno JI, Alonso-

González E, Monserrat O, Del Río LM, Otero J, Lapazaran J, et al. Groundbased remote-sensing techniques for diagnosis of the current state and recent evolution of the Monte Perdido Glacier, Spanish Pyrenees. Journal of Glaciology. 2019;**65**(249):85-100. DOI: 10.1017/

[47] Macheret YY, Zhuravlev AB. Radio echo-sounding of Svalbard glaciers. Journal of Glaciology. 1982;**28**(99):295-314. DOI: 10.1017/

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[49] Arcone SA, Yankielun NE. 1.4 GHz radar penetration and evidence of drainage structures in temperate ice: Black Rapids Glacier, Alaska, USA. Journal of Glaciology. 2000;**46**(154):477-490

[50] Machguth H, Eisen O, Paul F, Hoelzle M. Strong spatial variability of snow accumulation observed with helicopter-borne GPR on two adjacent Alpine glaciers. Geophysical Research Letters. 2006;**33**(13). DOI:

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[42] Luzi G, Dematteis N, Zucca F, Monserrat O, Giordan D, López-Moreno JI. Terrestrial radar interferometry to monitor glaciers with complex atmospheric screen. In: Proceedings of the International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS); Vol. 2018, July. 2018. pp. 6243-6246. DOI: 10.1109/

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*Glaciers and the Polar Environment*

lapse images. arxiv.org; 2017

10.5194/esurf-5-861-2017

10.3189/2015AoG70A985

gi-4-23-2015

[28] Schwalbe E, Maas HG. The

[29] Benoit L, Dehecq A, Pham HT, Vernier F, Trouvé E, Moreau L, et al. Multi-method monitoring of Glacier d'Argentière dynamics. Annals of Glaciology. 2015;**56**(70):118-128. DOI:

[30] Messerli A, Grinsted A. Image georectification and feature tracking toolbox: ImGRAFT. Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems. 2015;**4**(1):23-34. DOI: 10.5194/

[31] Fallourd R, Trouvé E, Roşu D, Vernier F, Bolon P, Harant O, et al. Monitoring temperate glacier displacement by multi-temporal

TerraSAR-X images and continuous GPS measurements. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing. 2011;**4**(2):372-386. DOI: 10.1109/JSTARS.2010.2096200

[32] Vernier F, Fallourd R, Friedt JM, Yan Y, Trouvé E, Nicolas J-M, et al. Fast correlation technique for glacier flow monitoring by digital camera and spaceborne SAR images. EURASIP Journal on Image and Video Processing. 2011;**1**:11. DOI: 10.1186/1687-5281-2011-11

[33] Evans AN. Glacier surface motion computation from digital image séquences. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. 2000;**38**(2 II):1064-1072. DOI:

Campbell A, Fahnestock M, Malone SD.

[27] Brinkerhoff D, O'Neel S. Velocity variations at Columbia Glacier captured by particle filtering of oblique timeObservations of seasonal and diurnal glacier velocities at Mount Rainier, Washington, using terrestrial radar interferometry. The Cryosphere. 2015;**9**(6):2219-2235. DOI: 10.5194/

[35] Luzi G, Pieraccini M, Mecatti D, Noferini L, Macaluso G, Tamburini A, et al. Monitoring of an alpine glacier by means of ground-based SAR interferometry. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters. 2007;**4**(3):495- 499. DOI: 10.1109/LGRS.2007.898282

[36] Noferini L, Mecatti D, Macaluso G, Pieraccini M, Atzeni C. Monitoring of Belvedere Glacier using a wide angle GB-SAR interferometer. Journal of Applied Geophysics. 2009;**68**(2):289- 293. DOI: 10.1016/j.jappgeo.2009.02.004

[37] Riesen P, Strozzi T, Bauder A, Wiesmann A, Funk M. Short-term surface ice motion variations measured with a ground-based portable real aperture radar interferometer. Journal of Glaciology. 2011;**57**(201):53-60. DOI:

10.3189/002214311795306718

[38] Voytenko D, Dixon TH,

Werner C, Gourmelen N, Howat IM, Tinder PC, et al. Monitoring a glacier in southeastern Iceland with the portable terrestrial radar interferometer. In: Proceedings of the International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS). 2012. pp. 3230-3232. DOI: 10.1109/ IGARSS.2012.6350736

[39] Voytenko D, Stern A, Holland DM, Dixon TH, Christianson K, Walker RT. Tidally driven ice speed variation at Helheim Glacier, Greenland, observed with terrestrial radar interferometry. Journal of Glaciology. 2015;**61**(226):301- 308. DOI: 10.3189/2015JoG14J173

[40] Xie S, Dixon TH, Voytenko D, Holland DM, Holland D, Zheng T. Precursor motion to iceberg calving at Jakobshavn Isbræ, Greenland,

tc-9-2219-2015

determination of high-resolution spatiotemporal glacier motion fields from time-lapse sequences. Earth Surface Dynamics. 2017;**5**(4):861-879. DOI:

**140**

10.1109/36.841985

[34] Allstadt KE, Shean DE,

observed with terrestrial radar interferometry. Journal of Glaciology. 2016;**62**(236):1134-1142. DOI: 10.1017/ jog.2016.104

[41] López-Moreno JI, Alonso-González E, Monserrat O, Del Río LM, Otero J, Lapazaran J, et al. Groundbased remote-sensing techniques for diagnosis of the current state and recent evolution of the Monte Perdido Glacier, Spanish Pyrenees. Journal of Glaciology. 2019;**65**(249):85-100. DOI: 10.1017/ jog.2018.96

[42] Luzi G, Dematteis N, Zucca F, Monserrat O, Giordan D, López-Moreno JI. Terrestrial radar interferometry to monitor glaciers with complex atmospheric screen. In: Proceedings of the International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS); Vol. 2018, July. 2018. pp. 6243-6246. DOI: 10.1109/ IGARSS.2018.8519008

[43] Caduff R, Schlunegger F, Kos A, Wiesmann A. A review of terrestrial radar interferometry for measuring surface change in the geosciences. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 2015;**40**(2):208-228. DOI: 10.1002/ esp.3656

[44] Monserrat O, Crosetto M, Luzi G. A review of ground-based SAR interferometry for deformation measurement. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 2014;**93**:40-48. DOI: 10.1016/j. isprsjprs.2014.04.001

[45] Pellikka P, Rees W. Remote Sensing of Glaciers: Techniques for Topographic, Spatial and Thematic Mapping of Glaciers. Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press; 2009. ISBN: 978-0-415-40166-1

[46] Daniels DJ. Ground Penetrating Radar: Theory and Applications. 2nd ed. The Institution of Electrical Engineers, London; 2004

[47] Macheret YY, Zhuravlev AB. Radio echo-sounding of Svalbard glaciers. Journal of Glaciology. 1982;**28**(99):295-314. DOI: 10.1017/ S0022143000011643

[48] Damm V. Ice thickness and bedrock map of Matusevich Glacier drainage system (Oates Coast). Terra Antart. 2004;**11**(1-2):85-90

[49] Arcone SA, Yankielun NE. 1.4 GHz radar penetration and evidence of drainage structures in temperate ice: Black Rapids Glacier, Alaska, USA. Journal of Glaciology. 2000;**46**(154):477-490

[50] Machguth H, Eisen O, Paul F, Hoelzle M. Strong spatial variability of snow accumulation observed with helicopter-borne GPR on two adjacent Alpine glaciers. Geophysical Research Letters. 2006;**33**(13). DOI: 10.1029/2006GL026576

[51] Pralong A, Funk M. On the instability of avalanching glaciers. Journal of Glaciology. 2006;**52**(176):31-48. DOI: 10.3189/172756506781828980

[52] Röthlisberger H. Water pressure in intra- and subglacial channels. Journal of Glaciology. 1972;**11**(62):177-203. DOI: 10.3189/ s0022143000022188

[53] Hart DP. The elimination of correlation errors in PIV processing. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics; Volucella. 1998. pp. 13-16

[54] Giordan D, Wrzesniak A, Allasia P. The importance of a dedicated monitoring solution and communication strategy for an effective management of complex active landslides in urbanized areas. Sustainability. 2019;**11**(4):946. DOI: 10.3390/su11040946

*Glaciers and the Polar Environment*

[55] Wrzesniak A, Giordan D. Development of an algorithm for automatic elaboration, representation and dissemination of landslide monitoring data. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk. 2017;**8**(2):1898-1913. DOI: 10.1080/19475705.2017.1392369

**143**

**Chapter 8**

Insects

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

tions and services.

Glacial Biodiversity: Lessons from

At first glance, the ground surrounding the glacier front and the streams originated by melting glaciers seem to be too extreme to host life forms. They are instead ecosystems, colonized by bacteria, fungi, algae, mosses, plants and animals (called the "glacial biodiversity"). The best adapted animals to colonize glacier surface, the recently deglaciated terrains and glacial streams are insects, specifically the ground beetles (carabids) and the non-biting midges (chironomids). This chapter aims to overview the species colonizing these habitats, their adaptation strategies to face natural cold and anthropogenic heat and the extinction threats of glacial retreat and pollution by emerging contaminants. Notes on their role in the glacial-ecosystem functioning and related ecosystem services are also given.

**Keywords:** carabid beetles, chironomids, cold-adapted species, debris-covered

Insects are the most diverse and abundant group of animals on Earth and are

Biodiversity of insects is threatened worldwide [1]; 40% of the world's insect species could go extinct within decades [2] with consequent loss of ecosystem func-

Despite the attention from the media, and scientific community, it remains unclear whether such declines are widespread among habitats and geographic regions. Since most of the insects are providing services (e.g., pollination and decomposition) and disservices (e.g., damaging crops and spreading diseases), the efforts in insect conservation biology and population management have been

On the other hand, around the world, mountain regions are changing at an unprecedented rate. Most of the evidences are based on the abiotic component (e.g., temperature increase and precipitation variations), but there are increasing

At high altitude in tropical and temperate mountains and at high latitude, habitat loss, pollution and climate change affect negatively cold-adapted insect species distribution and survival [3, 4]. It is unlikely that insect declines will be homogenous everywhere, but some general patterns can be identified. For example, at high altitude, the high frequency of extreme climatic events and the loss of ice-related

critical drivers of ecosystem function in terrestrial and aquatic systems.

mainly conveyed to highly impacted areas like, for instance, the lowlands.

glaciers, extinction risk, glacier forelands, rock glaciers

evidences about changes in biological communities.

Ground-dwelling and Aquatic

*Mauro Gobbi and Valeria Lencioni*
