**4.1 Consent and participation**

The principle of informed consent emphasized by ethicists for the safety of the research subjects is a universal norm in research ethics. It ensures that the subject who voluntarily partake in a research is adequately informed about the risks involved in such a participation and the subject's consent is obtained only after imparting sufficient information. The issue of consent presents itself as the leading contender challenging procedural justice in geoengineering [4, 5, 10, 50, 56, 59]. Preston [10] has rightly identified informed consent to be a formidable challenge in geoengineering at the level of research and deployment. "If the problems of participation and consent first arise in the context of research, there is no doubt whatsoever that their reappearance in the context of implementation is one of the biggest ethical challenges geoengineering faces. As an engineering project promising global impacts, some form of consent—at least from the representatives of those affected—would appear to be a non-negotiable requirement of just procedure" ([10], p. 29).

While informed consent is essentially significant for geoengineering researches, obtaining such a consent is extremely problematic given the complexities involved in geoengineering. The conventional models of informed consent are no longer useful in the geoengineering context. The principle of informed consent meets challenges such as identifying the victims of the research and deployment, the huge number of population who will be affected by the technology, the difficulties of representative consent, etc. The conventional practice of obtaining representative consent look impractical in a technology with global impact.

The solution proposed by Morrow et al. [9], upholding the principle of respect as a motivation towards ensuring consent for geoengineering, does uphold the values of procedural justice. Morrow et al. [9] suggest that "[…] the scientific community secure the global public's consent, voiced through their governmental representatives, before beginning any empirical research [on geoengineering]" ([9], p. 1). This norm does prevent the public from having to accept a policy to which they have given no consent.

#### **4.2 Unilateral deployment and issue of consensus**

Another problematic that is anticipated in regard to procedural justice is the issue of a single nation most hit by the dangers of climate change unilaterally deciding to deploy geoengineering in a desperate situation. Even in this regard, procedural challenges cannot be ignored as the impact of the deployed technology is not limited to the nation under consideration. Informed consent cannot be assumed even in a such a desperate scenario [60].

The scope for the unilateral deployment is a central challenge to procedural justice in SAG [27, 45, 61–65]. The leading approach among ethicists is to caution against unilateral deployment.

Assessing procedural justice in geoengineering against the theoretical frame of Rawls does not give nod to research and development. From the Rawlsian point of view of procedural justice, in the present state of affairs with geoengineering, there is no deliberation let alone agreement among all stakeholders and those who would be affected by it. Such a consensus is central to the Rawlsian procedural justice. As such the projected fear about unilateral deployment of SAG should not occur in the Rawlsian context. Analysis by Svoboda et al. [11] showed that these conditions cannot be met in unilateral deployment, particularly as there is no governance mechanism for appeal against SAG.

#### *Bioethics in Medicine and Society*

Denouncing unilateral deployment does not imply that SAG itself is procedurally unjust. Svoboda et al. [11] has opened another unique stream of thought along procedural justice arguing that the unilateral SAG does not make geoengineering in itself procedurally unjust.

#### **4.3 Non-ideal theory of justice**

The proponents have recently introduced the notion of non-ideal theory of justice into the geoengineering debate. As the world and its structures are never ideal as it ought to be, it is important to have a realistic approach to geoengineering. It requires considering what matters for justice in circumstances where there is only partial compliance. Accordingly, a non-ideal approach should be taken towards SRM for SRM is a typical instance of the on-ideal theory of justice [4, 13, 66].

Procedural issues in geoengineering should be driven by non-ideal considerations as well. Conversely, recourse to clinical theory, a subset of non-ideal theory, which holds that "politically feasible institutions or policies that would address existing… injustice without violating certain kinds of moral permissibility constraints" ([66], p. 85) is also made in the discussions on procedural justice in the current context.

#### **4.4 Public engagement**

Yet another recommendation made towards developing geoengineering researches procedurally just is to treat geoengineering as a public good. The Oxford geoengineering group has proposed the idea of considering geoengineering as a global public good [67, 68]. Treating geoengineering as a public good would imply public participation in decision making process, ensuring transparency and disclosure of research methods, independent assessment of the impacts and developing proper governance mechanisms before deployment. A modified version of the Oxford principles was also endorsed by the Asilomar geoengineering conference in March 2010. Preston [10] observes that "Oxford principles are notable for stipulating that geoengineering should not be driven by profit-raising questions…" ([10], p. 28). Despite the popularity of the Oxford principles among geoengineering ethicists, it has not gone without critical scrutiny. Gardiner has expressed strong reservations against treating geoengineering as a public good as that alone would not suffice for geoengineering to be procedurally just [60]. According to Gardiner, Oxford principles fail to meet the conditions of non-excludability and fairness. Alternately, he proposed the tollgate principle with greater emphasis on fairness, legitimacy and respect [5].

Despite its vital importance, empirical studies showed that justice concerns still remain an under-recognised factor in the response of the public towards geoengineering [69, 70]. Some models of public engagement include upstream public engagement [71], and supermajority rule [72]. The importance of involving the public in decision making process was emphasised by the Royal Society [58] too.

#### **4.5 Principles of beneficence and minimization**

Principles of beneficence and minimization [9] are also coined as normative principles in the geoengineering debate to make research and development of geoengineering procedurally just. Principle of beneficence coupled with justice warrants that there should be a "favourable risk–benefit ratio and a fair distribution of risks and anticipated benefits […]." As the long time span of geoengineering does not permit achieving a favourable risk–benefit ratio, they also advocate the

**231**

*The Ethical Desirability of Geoengineering: Challenges to Justice*

minimisation principle. As the term itself suggests, this principle suggests keeping the extent and intensity of the research and field tests to the minimum. The purpose of minimum intervention is to avoid as much risks as possible. In the absence of "risk-knowledge calculus" [9] informed by scientific input on the risks and benefits, a maximin approach can be normatively helpful. As per the maximin approach population that are most vulnerable to risks and least likely to benefit deserves

As already discussed in this paper, ethical deliberations in geoengineering are operating against a lot looming uncertainties. Accordingly, the precautionary principle, a tool towards making decisions under uncertainties, finds it natural inroads into the geoengineering debate [73]. Although precautionary principle could provide some useful tips to make it procedurally just, the debate scenario does not provide a consensual opinion on the interpretations of the precautionary principle in the geoengineering debate. Some strong variants of the precautionary principle call for a total ban or moratorium on researches on geoengineering. The weak version emphasises the focuses on avoiding harm in matters of choices under uncertainty and hence an uncompromising approach to harm would be the norm

The possibility of the research and development being skewed towards military intentions is a major issue that demands proper procedural protocols [74]. The chequered history climate modifications is loaded with such misuse of technology as in the case of Vietnam War. The prevalent terrorist challenges pose maximum procedural caution against the technology being hijacked by ill-intentioned groups [71]. Guarding against such possible aberrations is a necessary condition for advancing

This paper tried to analyse the ethical desirability of geoengineering from the point of view justice. The analysis suggests that geoengineering, particularly SAG, conceived in its present format carries serious and almost irreparable damages to justice in its three major variants of distributive, intergenerational and procedural justice. Although the present analysis may seem to go heavily against geoengineering, it could be noted that the ethical desirability of geoengineering is not exclusively confined to the issues of justice. As such the motive here is not to reject geoengineering altogether, rather to motivate the proponents of geoengineering to meet the conditions of justice before researching, developing and deploying

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94889*

for geoengineering researches too.

procedural justice in geoengineering.

**5. Conclusion**

geoengineering.

special attention.

#### *The Ethical Desirability of Geoengineering: Challenges to Justice DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94889*

minimisation principle. As the term itself suggests, this principle suggests keeping the extent and intensity of the research and field tests to the minimum. The purpose of minimum intervention is to avoid as much risks as possible. In the absence of "risk-knowledge calculus" [9] informed by scientific input on the risks and benefits, a maximin approach can be normatively helpful. As per the maximin approach population that are most vulnerable to risks and least likely to benefit deserves special attention.

As already discussed in this paper, ethical deliberations in geoengineering are operating against a lot looming uncertainties. Accordingly, the precautionary principle, a tool towards making decisions under uncertainties, finds it natural inroads into the geoengineering debate [73]. Although precautionary principle could provide some useful tips to make it procedurally just, the debate scenario does not provide a consensual opinion on the interpretations of the precautionary principle in the geoengineering debate. Some strong variants of the precautionary principle call for a total ban or moratorium on researches on geoengineering. The weak version emphasises the focuses on avoiding harm in matters of choices under uncertainty and hence an uncompromising approach to harm would be the norm for geoengineering researches too.

The possibility of the research and development being skewed towards military intentions is a major issue that demands proper procedural protocols [74]. The chequered history climate modifications is loaded with such misuse of technology as in the case of Vietnam War. The prevalent terrorist challenges pose maximum procedural caution against the technology being hijacked by ill-intentioned groups [71]. Guarding against such possible aberrations is a necessary condition for advancing procedural justice in geoengineering.
