**1. Introduction**

It is a general convention that developments in technology beginning with the Industrial revolution has been largely responsible for the unabated exploitation of the earth which in turn has produced the dangerous climate change. Ironically, the awareness of the dangers of climate change has attributed a rectificatory mission to technology, whereby technology itself emerges as a potential option to combat climate change. The technology under reference here is geoengineering, also called climate engineering. This technology is still at its conceptual levels. However, if developed and deployed, geoengineering will carry unprecedented levels of planetary outreach as it is to be deployed in the open and non-encapsulated system of the earth. Serious recourse to geoengineering as a possible response to climate change began with the paper by Paul Crutzen [1] in *Climatic Change*. IPCC's assessment report in October 2014 had references to geoengineering. Solar Radiation Management (SRM) and Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) are the two major schemes of technologies under geoengineering. SRM aims at the reduction in the amount of sunlight that reach the earth by deploying

sulphate aerosol particles in the stratosphere, deploying space-based mirrors, cloud albedo enhancement, etc. CDR schemes include biomass, iron fertilisation of ocean, upwelling and down-welling of the ocean, carbon capture and sequestration, etc.

*The Ethical Desirability of Geoengineering: Challenges to Justice*

justice is a major challenge in SRM [2–16]. In the scenario emerging from geoengineering, according to Preston [10], p. 30, "… the interests of the most powerful would be protected, while those less powerful will get secondary consideration (if they are considered at all)." Similarly, Aaron Ray [17] and Schneider [18] believe that the asymmetrical impact of geoengineering is causing serious challenges to distributive justice. Bunzl [19] predicts that 10% of the World's population is set to go worse by geoengineering. Ray [17] observes that there will be no correlation between those who bear the cost of geoengineering and those who would reap the benefit of geoengineering. As for Jamieson [20], p. 329, geoengineering is likely to worsen the plight of the poor people: "People in poor countries. .. have. .. (not) reaped much benefit from the activities that may be resulting in climate change." There is sufficient ground to reasonably share the apprehension of Preston that "The many injustices of climate change foisted on the global poor could be unintentionally compounded by geoengi-

The critics of SRM from the perspective of justice based their arguments on reliable analysis of scientific models and philosophical frameworks. Some of the philosophical frameworks coined in this context are the egalitarian theories of distributive justice advocated by Ronald Dworkin [21], John Rawls [22], Amartya Sen [23], and Wigley [24]. An analysis of the possible scenario emerging geoengineering using these theoretical models consistently show that there will be huge inequalities with regard to distribution of harms and benefits. Sulphate Aerosol Injection (SAG) will invoke uneven economic and social results [9–11]. Svoboda et al. [11] conclude their study with the observation that despite the significant differences in the various models coined, it is found that "SAG is ethically problematic on all... the major theories of distributive justice…." ([11], p. 178). An assessment of the consequences of SAG imply that it does not meet the requirements of distributive justice, for there will be uneven

distribution of harms and benefits upon those who will be impacted by SAG.

that calls for aggressive commitment to justice ([25], p. 180).

The same finding has been confirmed by the analysis of the simulations modelled by Morrow et al. [9]. They find a tragic irony herein that even in the present generation, those who bear the risk of SRM will not receive the merits from SRM. Yet another challenge to distributive justice comes from the involvement of the private parties as major stakeholders in the debate. The profit-driven technological developments will have little appreciation for the just distribution of the harms and benefits. This will skew the benefits of geoengineering away from those who would

The study by Carr and Preston [25] showed that concerns of distributive justice in geoengineering are intuitively inbuilt among the popular folk. The public opinion on the approval or disapproval of SRM is largely determined by the relative merit or harm to a particular population. The public is also of the opinion that the harms from geoengineering is not comparable with the harmful effects of the climate change, for while the latter is unintentional, the former is a planned programme

A significant factor that prevents precise assessments of the challenges to justice is related to the prevalent uncertainty in the geoengineering field. Lack of definitive scientific data poses problems to defining the conditions for distributive justice. The present earth system models are inadequate in giving adequate information on important geophysical factors in geoengineering. The precise estimation of regional impacts and the duration of deployment are still matters of uncertainty in deciding on distributive justice in geoengineering. Hence some authors [14, 17, 20] suggest launching specific research agenda for a comprehensive analysis of the political, social, physical and economic and impacts of SRM. Bunzl [19], puts it all in its real gravity: "[it] may seem obvious that at best then, the benefits of geoengineering will be unequal and at worst, some will benefit while some will be harmed."

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94889*

neering" ([10], p. 28).

be most in need of it.

**223**

Given the overarching impact and global outreach of geoengineering, both schemes of geoengineering have generated a lot controversy. Since the publication of Crutzen's paper in 2006, there is a hot debate over the ethical desirability of geoengineering. This paper intends to appropriate the ethics of geoengineering from the perspective of justice. A landscape view of the debate setting reveals that as a form of technology that is still at the conceptual level, a general strand that is running through various streams of the arguments for and against geoengineering is the primacy of the issue of justice. A review of literature on the ethics of geoengineering in 2020 showed that quantitatively justice has surfaced on the forefront to be the most challenging ethical issue in Geoengineering with the highest number of sources on this subset of the ethics in geoengineering. From a random overview of the literature on the ethics of geoengineering, it becomes clear that the issues of justice are central or foundational to most of the ethical issues associated with geoengineering. Justice enjoys a vantage point from which to partly refute or substantiate and to prioritise some of the leading arguments for and against geoengineering.

As the issue of justice, particularly in the context of climate change, is very complex and wide, for want of clarity and precision, this paper dwells on only three dominant subsets of justice, namely, distributive justice, intergenerational justice and procedural justice. These three aspects of justice are chosen because they are found to be most challenging and intriguing in the context of both schemes of geoengineering, particularly of solar radiation management. The challenges to distributive justice is directly pertaining to SRM as it is a long term deployment across the globe and particularly given its unforeseen effects. Yet another issue of justice challenged by geoengineering is its impact upon the future generations as the deployment of SRM is a long term and perhaps an irrevocable deployment. Thus the issue of intergenerational justice becomes a spontaneous actor to be reckoned on the geoengineering scene. Perhaps, the most overarching concern over justice in geoengineering pertains to procedural justice. As for viable normative judgements on justice over an untested and pioneering technology like geoengineering, procedural concerns are of vital importance. Accordingly, the research question in this paper may be drafted as, *is geoengineering ethically desirable from the standpoint of distributive, intergenerational and procedural justice?*

#### **2. Distributive justice in geoengineering**

Distributive justice, in general terms, deals with the distribution of goods in society and the norms on how harms and benefits ought to be shared among persons. It needs to be evaluated if geoengineering increases benefits for some and harms for others. Proponents of climate justice have called for serious attention to the possible scenario of unjust distribution of cost and harms on the one hand and benefits on the other. The almost unanimous opinion is that there is a serious chance of the prevalent socio-economic inequalities in societies and nations be worsened by the consequences of climate engineering. The asymmetry between harm and benefit and the issues pertaining to compensation are the leading elements of distributive justice in geoengineering.

#### **2.1 Harm-benefit asymmetry**

Many a literature on the ethics of geoengineering find that there will be unfair and unjust scenario as regards the distribution of cost and benefits. As such distributive

#### *The Ethical Desirability of Geoengineering: Challenges to Justice DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94889*

justice is a major challenge in SRM [2–16]. In the scenario emerging from geoengineering, according to Preston [10], p. 30, "… the interests of the most powerful would be protected, while those less powerful will get secondary consideration (if they are considered at all)." Similarly, Aaron Ray [17] and Schneider [18] believe that the asymmetrical impact of geoengineering is causing serious challenges to distributive justice. Bunzl [19] predicts that 10% of the World's population is set to go worse by geoengineering. Ray [17] observes that there will be no correlation between those who bear the cost of geoengineering and those who would reap the benefit of geoengineering. As for Jamieson [20], p. 329, geoengineering is likely to worsen the plight of the poor people: "People in poor countries. .. have. .. (not) reaped much benefit from the activities that may be resulting in climate change." There is sufficient ground to reasonably share the apprehension of Preston that "The many injustices of climate change foisted on the global poor could be unintentionally compounded by geoengineering" ([10], p. 28).

The critics of SRM from the perspective of justice based their arguments on reliable analysis of scientific models and philosophical frameworks. Some of the philosophical frameworks coined in this context are the egalitarian theories of distributive justice advocated by Ronald Dworkin [21], John Rawls [22], Amartya Sen [23], and Wigley [24]. An analysis of the possible scenario emerging geoengineering using these theoretical models consistently show that there will be huge inequalities with regard to distribution of harms and benefits. Sulphate Aerosol Injection (SAG) will invoke uneven economic and social results [9–11]. Svoboda et al. [11] conclude their study with the observation that despite the significant differences in the various models coined, it is found that "SAG is ethically problematic on all... the major theories of distributive justice…." ([11], p. 178). An assessment of the consequences of SAG imply that it does not meet the requirements of distributive justice, for there will be uneven distribution of harms and benefits upon those who will be impacted by SAG.

The same finding has been confirmed by the analysis of the simulations modelled by Morrow et al. [9]. They find a tragic irony herein that even in the present generation, those who bear the risk of SRM will not receive the merits from SRM. Yet another challenge to distributive justice comes from the involvement of the private parties as major stakeholders in the debate. The profit-driven technological developments will have little appreciation for the just distribution of the harms and benefits. This will skew the benefits of geoengineering away from those who would be most in need of it.

The study by Carr and Preston [25] showed that concerns of distributive justice in geoengineering are intuitively inbuilt among the popular folk. The public opinion on the approval or disapproval of SRM is largely determined by the relative merit or harm to a particular population. The public is also of the opinion that the harms from geoengineering is not comparable with the harmful effects of the climate change, for while the latter is unintentional, the former is a planned programme that calls for aggressive commitment to justice ([25], p. 180).

A significant factor that prevents precise assessments of the challenges to justice is related to the prevalent uncertainty in the geoengineering field. Lack of definitive scientific data poses problems to defining the conditions for distributive justice. The present earth system models are inadequate in giving adequate information on important geophysical factors in geoengineering. The precise estimation of regional impacts and the duration of deployment are still matters of uncertainty in deciding on distributive justice in geoengineering. Hence some authors [14, 17, 20] suggest launching specific research agenda for a comprehensive analysis of the political, social, physical and economic and impacts of SRM. Bunzl [19], puts it all in its real gravity: "[it] may seem obvious that at best then, the benefits of geoengineering will be unequal and at worst, some will benefit while some will be harmed."

#### **2.2 The issue of compensation**

Compensating the harms as a condition for ensuring justice is often proposed in geoengineering discussions [4, 7, 13, 15, 26–34]. Preston [10] underscores the provision for compensation to the most affected in the likely scenario of the poor becoming poorer in the aftermath of geoengineering deployment. Even in that regard, the challenges to justice are not adequately addressed. Study shows that SAG coupled with compensation would not be justified, as such a deal would significantly shoot up the cost of SAG [11].

The proposal of compensating for harm is not that smooth a solution as it appears to be. It invites a series of questions. What is the baseline to decide on the definition of harm and compensation? Howe to adjust compensation to the parties who have caused the harms? What will be the moral responsibility of individual nations to various consequences? How to identify the losers and gainers in the absence of clear baselines and standards? [28]. The very case of Canada and Uganda may be taken as an example of the complexities highlighted here. If there is reduction in global temperature due to SRM, Canada's agricultural yield will decline significantly and conversely Uganda's reduction in agricultural production will be due to the decline in precipitation. It can be seen that both these reductions are of different moral standing calling for different standards for calculating compensation. This motivates Bunzl [28] to propose differentiated moral assessment of the harms caused by SRM. He concludes, "[…] it is unfair for some to be worse off than others through no fault of their own among equally deserving people, it follows that it is also unfair for some to be better off than others though no more deserving. But in that case, those who are better off under such circumstances can have no complaint if they lose their better-off status" ([28], p. 73).

Similarly, there are also dormant paradoxes in the seemingly sound ethical assumption of compensation [35]. That there is a possibility for compensating harm cannot be considered as a licence or justification to inflict harm. The general ethical practice of penalising the parties who caused the harm to pay the compensation will make any sense if only the benefits of geoengineering is greater than the costs it incurs. As of now, there is no conclusive evidence to suggest that the benefits will outweigh the harm. Accordingly, the issue of compensation carries an inherent contradiction. Thus there is no justification for the "infliction of all manner of costs onto some purely for the benefit of others,... without any discussion of matters such as rights, justice and responsibility" ([35], p. 7).

Marion Hourdequin [36] thinks that there is every chance of climate injustice being exacerbated if the governance, research and deployment are confined to a very few powerful hands. Monopoly of research and deployment is least compatible with justice. She thinks that only the ideals of solidarity and relationship at the societal and technological levels can ensure justice in this context. Hourdequin [37], shares an optimism that a collective response can ensure distributive justice in the context of technological intervention. Hourdequin [36, 38, 39] has highlighted several major nuances of the issues of justice in geoengineering. McLaren is of the opinion that present risk managerial approach to justice is insufficient in the geoengineering context and we need a "relational, care-based imaginary of the future" ([40], p. 2).

#### **2.3 Distributive justice and food justice**

Recently, concerns have also been raised over the dangerous impact of SRM on cultivation, and food production. The consequences of SRM for food justice is to be significantly correlated with the issues of distributive justice in geoengineering [41].

**225**

*The Ethical Desirability of Geoengineering: Challenges to Justice*

tional food before advancing with geoengineering [42].

Due to complex relationality between geoengineering and food production, it is normatively obligatory to ensure sufficient and sustainable production of nutri-

Concerns about distributive justice in SRM are raised also from the viewpoints of virtue ethics and care ethics. From the perspectives of virtue and care ethics, the assessment is that the principle of fairness will not be respected in the SRM

It appears that from the justice point of view, even researching geoengineering could be like opening a Pandora's Box. It is unequivocally agreed by the parties in the debate that greater research is essential for addressing the issue of distributive justice. With the present range of research that are confined mostly to computer simulation, there can be no definitive judgement on the challenges to distributive justice in geoengineering. Unsurprisingly, the dominant approach in the literature on justice in geoengineering is to see geoengineering as a serious challenge to distributive justice from whichever form of geoengineering, mostly stratospheric aerosol injection. This is not to overlook the nominal voices that argue that geoengineering would present itself as providing positive opportunities for global

It could be noted that there are no adequate context-specific studies on the impact of geoengineering on justice. Unfortunately, the debate on distributive justice is extremely polarised towards the analysis of SRM technologies with less attention paid to the distribution of the harms or benefits of CDR approaches. Though the issue of climate justice in relation to anthropogenic climate change is extensively researched (E.g., [47]), most of those researches fall short of addressing

Geological history shows that there is a global impact for any local climatic intervention. The temporal impact of such interventions cannot also be confined to a particular period. This fact is of particular importance in geoengineering as it is self-evident that the impact of the climatic interventions by this generation will not be confined to this generation. The future generations are naturally brought into the debate on the ethics of geoengineering. This is how intergenerational justice is of decisive value in the geoengineering debate. While distributive justice is challenged by the spatial factors resulting from geoengineering, intergenerational justice is

The proprieties of distributing harms and benefits between the present and future generations is the focus of intergenerational justice. It assumes that natural resources are not to be entitled unlimitedly to any particular generation. As custodians of natural resources, each generation has to fulfil its obligations to the future generations. It involves the safe custody and preservation of the natural resources for the sustenance of the future generations. This is the reason why intergenerational justice forms a major component in any theory of ethics. It is a happy state of affairs that due importance is given to this principle in international treaties and conventions. There can be no fair treatment of justice in geoengineering without

As we discuss below, the contested issues of intergenerational justice in geoengineering revolve around the concerns over the problem of sudden termination of

adequately appropriating the challenges to intergenerational justice.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94889*

**2.4 Care and virtue ethics perspectives**

distributive justice and equity [45, 46].

the challenges to justice from geoengineering.

challenged by the temporal imbalances.

**3. Intergenerational justice in geoengineering**

scenario [43, 44].

Due to complex relationality between geoengineering and food production, it is normatively obligatory to ensure sufficient and sustainable production of nutritional food before advancing with geoengineering [42].

## **2.4 Care and virtue ethics perspectives**

Concerns about distributive justice in SRM are raised also from the viewpoints of virtue ethics and care ethics. From the perspectives of virtue and care ethics, the assessment is that the principle of fairness will not be respected in the SRM scenario [43, 44].

It appears that from the justice point of view, even researching geoengineering could be like opening a Pandora's Box. It is unequivocally agreed by the parties in the debate that greater research is essential for addressing the issue of distributive justice. With the present range of research that are confined mostly to computer simulation, there can be no definitive judgement on the challenges to distributive justice in geoengineering. Unsurprisingly, the dominant approach in the literature on justice in geoengineering is to see geoengineering as a serious challenge to distributive justice from whichever form of geoengineering, mostly stratospheric aerosol injection. This is not to overlook the nominal voices that argue that geoengineering would present itself as providing positive opportunities for global distributive justice and equity [45, 46].

It could be noted that there are no adequate context-specific studies on the impact of geoengineering on justice. Unfortunately, the debate on distributive justice is extremely polarised towards the analysis of SRM technologies with less attention paid to the distribution of the harms or benefits of CDR approaches. Though the issue of climate justice in relation to anthropogenic climate change is extensively researched (E.g., [47]), most of those researches fall short of addressing the challenges to justice from geoengineering.
