Usage-Based and Universal Grammar-Based Approaches to Second Language Acquisition

*Kim Hua Tan and Vafa Shojamanesh*

### **Abstract**

The theoretical controversy that surrounds the acquisition of a second or foreign language is seemingly unending. Though there are dissensions in the literature, past studies had indicated that scholars tended to fall into two groups of schools of thought, the usage-based and the universal grammar-based approaches in second language acquisition. This paper reviews the literature of recently published findings in scholarly papers and contrasted the varied views of how second language can be acquired. Empirical evidence of both views are contrasted and discussed. Included in the discussion are environmental variables such as types of input and the length of input and non-environmental variables that are innate in learners.

**Keywords:** usage-based, universal grammar-based, second language acquisition, environment, innate

### **1. Introduction**

Among the linguistic theories and approaches, the discussion of language acquisition and second language learning has been conducted for a span of a few decades by two groups of theorists: the Chomskyan linguistic generative structuralists and the functional psychologists' cognitive linguistics. Generative linguists believe in the existence of autonomous modules for language acquisition in the mind and claim that most of the grammar is not learned from the environment and communication, but arises from an innate universal grammar (UG). In contrast, functional theorists state that grammar is not transferable to the child or anyone else but arises from the functions of the language. Associating with the concepts underlying forms of a language, cognitive linguistics claims that knowledge of a particular language results from language use and that grammar is understood by conceptualization. Cognitive development includes all skills a child attains throughout his life. Cognitive skills matter because they lead to thinking and learning. Without skills such as remembering, numeracy, thinking, learning, reasoning, problem-solving, comparison-making, and decision-making, a child is at risk of falling behind. Cognitive developments matter from childhood to adulthood.

### **2. Usage-based versus universal grammar-based debate in second language (L2) acquisition**

As two different approaches in theoretical linguistics, usage-based and universal grammar-based (UG-based) are two theories in language learning from various perspectives: the former focuses on the influence of experience, input, and frequency in language learning (i.e., cognitive linguistics), while the latter emphasizes the existence of an innate universal grammar and a set of rules as underlying basis for the formation of correct grammatical sentences (i.e., generative grammar).

Based on generative linguistics, language acquisition emerges from a combination of rules which will form grammatical sentences. Generative grammar (proposed by Chomsky in 1950s) arises from an innate universal grammar. Generativists believe that environmental input and language use has no effect on learning grammar. Taylor [1] further explains "acquisition, thus, became a matter of the 'setting' of 'parameters' provided by Universal Grammar, something which, it was assumed, would be possible on only minimal exposure to data" (pp. 573–4). Believing in the existence of an innate system of rules, generativists claim that universal grammar provides "the possible parameters for language and uses parameter-setting approach depending on which specific language is involved" (pp. 1141–2) [2]. It is claimed that language function is analytically separate from language structures.

UG-based approach claims that children have got a prior language knowledge "… which enables them to achieve an adult grammar on the basis of limited evidence" (p. 2) [3]. However, [3] points out, since 1990s, another model of input-driven approach was formed, usage-based theory of language learning, and it became so popular that UG-based approach was considered an outdated theory.

Aligning to cognitive linguistics, a usage-based linguistics (proposed by [4]) is "a form of linguistic analysis, that is, that takes into account not just grammatical structure, but that sees this structure as arising from and interacting with actual language use (p. 17) [5]. Based on this theory "… input is a rich source of information for identifying grammatical regularities and children have a remarkable ability to perform complex computations over statistical information displayed in the input" (p. 3) [3]. This theory argues that linguistic structures result from experience [6]. Tomasello [7] (as cited in [8]) states that language and language acquisition are usage-based and its structure emerges from using language.

Kang [3] points out that empiricists do not believe in the innate knowledge of language; supporting the input-driven language learning approach, they claim that language learning is based on sense and experience. They also state that child's input is systematic and regular which helps him/her to understand the system of the target language by the use of inductive reasoning. Frequency of language input is a major factor in providing the child with the information she/he needs in learning a target language: "…the more frequently a certain linguistic expression is available to the child, the easier it is for the child to learn it [9–12]" (p. 1) [3].

Kemmer and Barlow [13] also discusses two traditions that focus on language use that are usage-based: (1) firthian tradition, emphasizing on the role of context and social aspects, and (2) enunciativist linguistics, focusing on the speech act. "A Usage-Based model is one in which the speaker's linguistic system is fundamentally grounded in 'usage events' instances of a speaker's producing and understanding language" (p. iix) [13]. Langacker [14] (as cited in [13]) characterizes usage-based model with three features: maximality, non-reductivity, and being bottom-up. Accordingly, the mind is capable of analyzing complex structures in multiple ways, resulting in the production of both specific and general patterns through usage. The first two features imply the redundancy and massiveness of the grammar, and the

#### *Usage-Based and Universal Grammar-Based Approaches to Second Language Acquisition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89737*

bottom-up feature determines that general patterns emerge from specific ones and specific patterns are the result of experience.

As [13] points out, usage-based accounts are experience-driven, and frequency of items is an important factor and an inseparable part of language learning, especially in forming and understanding structures and operations; "… Usage-Based events play a double role in the system: they both result from and also shape the linguistic system itself in a kind of feedback loop" (p. viii). In usage-based accounts, language is learned by data observation in the actual use of language. From Langacker's [4] viewpoint, in usage-based model "substantial importance is given to the actual use of the linguistic system and a speaker's knowledge of this use; grammar is held responsible for a speaker's knowledge of the full range of linguistic conventions (p. 494)" (p. 2) [13]. Kemmer and Barlow [13] claims that "through repetition, even a highly complex event can coalesce into a well-rehearsed routine that is easily elicited and reliably executed" (p. 3).

From Croft's [15] point of view, in usage-based models language use specifies grammatical representations: "the Usage-Based model is a model of grammatical representation in which language use determines grammatical representation. Specifically, frequency of use and similarity of form and meaning are the determining factors for the structure of grammatical knowledge in the mind" (p. 499). According to Langacker, usage-based model "focuses on the actual use of the linguistic system and a speaker's knowledge of this use …, it claims that linguistic units are abstracted from usage events, that is, the actual instance of language use" (p. 1142) [2].

In usage-based models, frequency of usage plays a big role in the production, language comprehension, and grammaticality of the patterns. The two mentioned types of frequency are token and type frequency. Token frequency "is how often particular words or specific phrases appear in the input" (p. 166) [16]. As [15] defines "Token frequency is the frequency of occurrence in language use of individual tokens of a grammatical type, such as English regular past tense forms" (p. 499). Quoting from [15, 17] states that how much a form like irregular word forms entrenches in the learner's mind is a token frequency function. Type frequency is defined as "how many different lexical items can be applied to a certain pattern, paradigm or construction" (p. 166) [16], or it is referred as "the frequency of word types that conform to a schema" (p. 499) [15]. The regular past inflection is mentioned to have high type frequency because it is applicable to a large number of different verbs [15, 16].

According to [18], usage-based approaches are input-dependent, and in this theory, "frequency" is considered as the language rule which results from structure analysis in language input. Zyzik [18] states that there must be enough input so that the learner can learn whatever she/he needs: "… it must be abundant enough for the learner to abstract regularities from concrete exemplars of language use" (p. 54), such as native competence which is gained after lifetime attention to the L1 input. Ellis [16] (cited in [18]) points out that in order to achieve native fluency at the L2, there must be huge amounts of language input so that the learners can choose and analyze the words and sequences they prefer. In input-based accounts, children are expected to follow input patterns by experience and environmental effects [19], and the grammatical relations result from the co-occurrence of language functions and forms [20].

Zyzik [18] also states that based on usage-based theory, insufficient input and little access to abundant and implicit input like L1 are the reasons that ultimate attainment cannot be achieved by L2 learners. She points out that "lack of exposure to sufficiently rich and varied input" (p. 56) is the cause of poverty of stimuli. She

mentions that very few studies have been conducted on the quality and quantity of input in instructed settings. She claims that with the help of input frequency, the L2 learner should be able to pick up the abstract regularities from the exposure to the abundant and rich input. According to her, in SLA settings, high-frequency items (i.e., the forms and structures that abundantly emerge in the language input) cause no learning problems; the focus should be on the low-frequency forms in the input.

There is this conflict between the supporters and the opponents of these two approaches (i.e., UG- and usage-based) whether language learning is done on the basis of the input exposure and experience or by the help of the innate knowledge of learners, and still it is not clear whether grammatical learning is usage-based.

### **3. Theoretical applications of usage-based versus universal grammar-based approach: Some empirical evidence**

There are a number of studies that contrasted usage-based and UG-based conditions in empirical studies.

To compare usage-based and UG-based approaches, Kang [3] studied scrambling and multiple nominative case marking as the two syntactic structures among Korean children. The results of his study showed that child's speech to a great extent resembles adult's; both mentioned structures were used very little in the children's speech because their frequencies in parents' speech were low which shows that child's grammar is a reflection of the adult's. This frequency match between child and adult's speech supports the input-driven approach. But examining the same idea in the experimental group showed that though scrambling was absent in the children's input, it was eventually used and learnt, and this rejected the role of input-driven approach. Hence, [3] proposes the existence of an innate knowledge among children which is in support of the UG-based approach.

To delve into the acquisition process in the two theories of UG and usage-based theory, Zyzik [18] studies some problematic linguistic structures in both first and second languages (such as want-to contraction, yes/no formation, and pronoun interpretation) and synthesizes some input constructs (such as frequency effects, the poverty of stimuli, and other cases). According to her, input is not enough for learning some complex structures. In addition to input, learners must have grammatical competence ("innately intuitive knowledge"). She says that learners cannot gain ultimate attainment when the input they receive is impoverished or insufficient. Then by rejecting the poverty of stimuli idea of the usage-based theory, she concludes that "…the input is rich enough for children to acquire all the properties of language if mechanisms such as item-based learning, competition among forms, indirect negative evidence and sensitivity to frequency are given serious consideration" (p. 57). She proposes UG-based as competing approach in the L2 acquisition.

Rothman and Guijarro-Fuentes [21] studied the role of input quality in naturalistic (UG-based) and instructional (usage-based) settings. They state that there is a difference between age of acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. At the age of acquisition process, the focus is on input. Since input causes acquisition, when to be exposed to the significant input is of great importance. They point out that there is a correlation between age of exposure to the native input and age of the first significant exposure, no matter whether the input comes from a naturalistic or instructed context.

Rothman and Guijarro-Fuentes [21] further states that clearly learners in L2 instructed settings receive less amount of input than those who are learning the target language in a naturalistic language learning setting because in naturalistic settings, learners have access to the native speakers outside the class. Thus, as they claim, the

#### *Usage-Based and Universal Grammar-Based Approaches to Second Language Acquisition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89737*

quality of input is introduced as one of the main variables which shows the differences between the two learning settings: different amounts of input result in different competence outcomes. However, as they claim learners in instructed settings receive better input quality; the input includes syntactically, semantically, and morphologically accurate structures, while in naturalistic settings learners receive nonstandard input. This highlights the importance of the instructed input in formal classes in foreign language learning settings. They point out that some of the linguistic properties are not acquired from input due to the poverty of the stimuli. These properties are obtained by language universals. Another point raised is that in instructed language learning settings, teachers themselves are L2 learners which are very common in non-English speaking countries. They emphasized that age of acquisition is neglected among different variables in adult language acquisition. It is decided that input quality causes differences in naturalistic and instructional settings.

Francis [22] investigated the role of the foreign language learners' attention and awareness on their language acquisition. He considered one of the input enhancement techniques, "input flooding", which bombards learners with great amounts of target items. It was used to explore the extent of the acquisition of two of the copulative verbs in Spanish. The participants were divided into experimental and control groups and were tested by these tasks: grammaticality judgment, written production, and picture description. T-tests were used for analyzing the data, and the scores between and within groups were compared. Data analysis revealed that input flood had no significant effect on the acquisition of the two mentioned verbs. He believes that to come to a final conclusion, the input flood on the acquisition of these two verbs was not sufficient. It is suggested to consider simple structures in input flood and in longer treatment periods; being exposed to more structures of the target forms can make a big change on the effect of the input flood on the learners' proficiency level.

Yet another study contrasted UG-based and usage-based in the case of [23] where she studies the correction feedback in L2 speech production from the viewpoints of the two opposing theories: cognitive-interactionist and nativist. According to nativists, language acquisition device (LAD) is inherent in all human beings, and positive evidence is vital for studying the development of a second language. Nativists believe language acquisition is purely implicit, and by corrective feedback learners are informed which structures are unacceptable, while according to cognitive interactionists, learning is both explicit and implicit, and "the information obtained through feedback may serve as input data for explicit rule-learning or subsequent implicit learning" (p. 2) [23]. Li discusses different ways of error correction and defines explicit correction and recast as the 'input-providing feedback', while repetition, elicitation, metalinguistic clue and clarification are identified as 'output-prompting feedback'. In conclusion, [23] provides useful types of feedback to the teachers; for teaching new linguistic structures, input-driven feedbacks such as recasting is suggested, while in teaching previously learned linguistic structures, where deep cognitive processing is involved, output-prompting feedback like self-correction is recommended.

Nativists and cognitivists could not provide sufficient evidence and proofs to specify which approach controls syntax acquisition process, so in [24], Al-Balushi presents a new avenue. He claims that looking at the syntax acquisition from second language learning perspective shows the accessibility of UG by adult L2 learners by using analytical and verbal abilities. He suggests researchers examine the structures and constructions which are neither found in the learner's L1 grammar nor in L2 input. Then it would be easier to find out whether learners' performance is based on experience or not. As [24] addresses, there are still remaining questions about the involvement of UG in language acquisition process and its extent. The role of linguistic data or language input in language acquisition and whether UG can be

a compensation for the impoverished input are the topics yet to be studied and investigated.

In a study by [24] on child language acquisition process, it was further discussed that children use strategies, mechanisms, and pragmatic inferences to comprehend lexical symbols of adults. As he points out, cognitive and social processes both assist children because there are similar semantic relations (like action and agent) in all cultures. Exposure to linguistic input enables children to formulate word classes of nouns and verbs in positions they have not experienced before. As a result, cognitivists believe language is acquired by more cognitive components. However, since the language of a child is a reflection of caregiver or experimental learning situations, syntax acquisition can be referred to usage-based and experience-based approaches [24]. This has implications on future research in second language acquisition.

There are various studies relating to input exposure and effective factors in second language learning and acquisition. The next section is a review of studies focusing on the effect of early input, the effect of late input, and the effect of environmental input.

#### **3.1 The effect of early input in second language acquisition**

Some researchers believe that receiving language input at an early age has positive effects on the learning process. Borovsky [25] believes that early language input has a great influence on increasing lexical proficiency level and having less linguistic input exposure causes learning problems. She states that because of the effect of receiving early input, cognitive mechanism of children is different in the word learning process; children find the relationship between words and their usage by the use of categorization. She also mentions that an increase in the linguistic input has a positive effect on the children's vocabulary learning process.

Kharkhurin [26] hypothesizes that in the early years, cognitive process of the bilingual children causes mental construction which results in cognitive advantages later in their lives. When a target language is learnt early, better underlying concepts are formed, and there will be a better relationship between learner's linguistic and conceptual knowledge.

Huttenlocher et al. [27] points out that normal children learn basic syntactic structures at early ages, but there are variations in the rate and course of acquisition especially when the structures are more complex. They also mention that there is a relation between language input and learners' skills in some parts of syntax. They hypothesized that some skills which were not related to language input at early ages can be influential later.

It is believed that when the L1 is more established at the time of first exposure to the L2, it will interfere more with the L2 production. Flege [28] (as cited in [29]) states that the problems that adults encounter in the learning process is not because of "normal neural maturation" but because of the L1 interference. Iverson et al. [30] (as cited in [29]) mentions when the L1 becomes more developed, the learner faces more problems. So they suggest an early start of the L2 because till L1 categories are not fully established, the L2 learner will have an easier learning process.

Krashen et al. [31] (as cited in [32]) claims that starting younger makes learners more successful and can result in native-like performance. Nevertheless, as they mention, late learners learn faster.

#### **3.2 The effect of late input in second language acquisition**

Munoz [33] states that since late starters have a faster rate of development, further exposure allows them to catch up with the early starters especially regarding *Usage-Based and Universal Grammar-Based Approaches to Second Language Acquisition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89737*

literacy-related skills. Late starters achieve similar proficiency levels in shorter periods of time.

Frediani [34] studied the effect of the age of onset and the amount of instruction on EFL learners' proficiency in Argentina. 7–8-year-olds were compared with 12–13-year-olds. Considering the instructional time, the study shows that though late starters had fewer instruction hours, their cognitive maturity helped them to overcome the problems in language learning.

### **3.3 The effect of environmental input in second language acquisition**

It is believed that being exposed to the target language outside the formal situations influences the learning process. Borovsky [25] states that early linguistic experience of children at home is correlated with their linguistic input ability at school: when their home environment is linguistically enriched, they learn new words faster.

The results of the study by [27] show that child's syntax is highly related to the input variations; there is a critical relationship between teacher's and parents' syntactic input and child's syntactic growth. The effect of the teacher's input is significant not at the beginning of the school year, but over the years, and those who provide language input for the child as a learner play a big role in the learning process of syntax. They found individual differences between children's skills and a correlation between these differences and parents' complexity of speech.

Aukrust [35] states that "children can and do learn language as well as other socio-cognitive skills from keenly observing the interactions of others and listening in on talk" (p. 18). Beals [36] (as cited in [35]) points out that children whose mothers used more words in conversations had a bigger size of the vocabulary.

A brief look at relevant studies to input exposure as most studies indicated usage-based has significant links to second language acquisition.


#### **3.4 Summary of related studies on input exposure**


Language input has been studied from various perspectives to clarify its role in the teaching and learning process so that better learning contexts will be provided for language learners. The amount and length of receiving linguistic input can have a determining role in better learning, especially in foreign language settings that are mostly input-dependent.

### **4. Conclusion**

There is tension between the supporters and the opponents of these two approaches (i.e., UG- and usage-based) on whether language learning is done on the basis of the input exposure and experience or by the help of the innate knowledge of learners, and still it is not clear whether grammatical learning is usage-based or universal grammar-based. What is certain, at this juncture, is that it is worthwhile investigating the following parameters and variables: the role of different types of frequency of L2 input (such as type and token frequency), the role of L1 transfer, the impact of L1 frequency on the learners' performance data, L1 and L2 co-occurrence probabilities, the interaction of the L1 in L2 input, and the impact

*Usage-Based and Universal Grammar-Based Approaches to Second Language Acquisition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89737*

of L1 on L2 proficiency levels. For reliable results, learners should be selected from different age groups and language learning settings (both second language learning settings and foreign language learning settings). It cannot be overly emphasized that sufficient numbers of participants should be considered for these studies as well to have valid outcomes that can be applicable to other contexts and situations. These considerations will certainly help scholars in the pursuit of an answer to the usage-based or universal grammar-based debate. On whether the success of second language acquisition is a result of the innate knowledge or is a result of usage-based experience, the positive effect of the length of exposure shows that grammatical learning can be claimed to be usage-based, but further research by larger groups of learners with early exposure are needed to support this.

### **Acknowledgements**

We would like to thank the Malaysian Ministry of Education for providing the financial support for the research and authorship of this article. Research grant coded FRGS/1/2018/SS09/UKM/02/.

### **Author details**

Kim Hua Tan1 \* and Vafa Shojamanesh2

1 Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

2 Islamic Azad University, Zarghan Branch, Iran

\*Address all correspondence to: kimmy@ukm.edu.my

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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### **Chapter 4**

## Non-Formal Education as a Foundation for Active Learning

*Roy Alonso Terrazas Marín and Brenda Linda Alvarado Espinoza*

### **Abstract**

This chapter will include several examples of how non-formal education serves as a foundation for active learning. It will relate how non-formal education organizations such as the scouting movement through the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM), works to engage young people to be developed holistically. It will also mention non-formal active learning strategies and their relation to semiotic and esthetic stimuli. The role of semiotics in non-formal active learning will be exemplified, and the article will mention how self-commitment may be created when using non-formal education and active learning. Finally, it will be discussed how dialogism takes part in this process.

**Keywords:** non-formal education, active learning, semiotics, aesthesis, dialogism, embodied cognition, scouting, scout method

### **1. Introduction**

The traditional Socratic method (method of Elenchus), has been a form of cooperative argumentative dialog used at learning institutions to stimulate critical thinking for many years. With the development of new technologies in the past 100 years, teaching and learning methods have evolved to add new perspectives and theories. These events have caused lecturers and students to become more active and participative, creating new ways to interact. Nowadays the learning process includes active learning to avoid students receiving passive information that does not relate to their needs. There are considerable studies involving formal education and active learning, but in the case of non-formal education, the information is more limited.

The chapter will describe how non-formal education is used to achieve active learning. The scouting method will be explained and discussed since the scouting movement is the largest youth non-formal active learning community in the world. Subjects such as how semiotic take an important role in this method will be mentioned, and also how the scouting movement uses esthetics and dialogism to achieve the scout's (learners) development goals.

#### **2. The evolution of non-formal education**

Non-formal education has been described [1] as a flexible education process with a defined methodology and most important, capable of adapting to the needs and interests of students. In this kind of process, time is not a pre-established factor because it is defined by the student's pace, and it does not seek to provide a formal certification or scholar degree.

To understand the development of non-formal education, it is required to describe formal and informal education. Formal education is a model that has a systematic organized and structured curriculum, which is rather rigid. This process necessarily involves the presence of a teacher, a student, and an institution. Educational institutions administer the curricula and the final goal is to provide some kind of certification or degree [1].

Informal education, on the other hand, has no defined structure, it has no curricula and it takes place through experience. It consists of accidental or purposeful ways of collaborating with other persons and acquiring new information and everyday skills [1].

In the beginning, the boundaries between formal, non-formal, and informal education were well defined, but changes are being made due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the normal method evolution. Formal education has adopted nonformal methods to solve some of the online demands of students. At the same time, non-formal education is now using assessment recognition programs (ARCNIL) to get a certification. Svetlik [2], relates that non-formal education has become a social issue. It is mentioned that in order to achieve a more efficient knowledge transfer, formal education has become increasingly dependent, and organized. Non-formal education provides relief of bureaucracy issues. Additionally, non-formal education provides knowledge, but the formalization requirements have increased due to the demand for qualified employees. This has led in some cases to the need of creating some sort of certification for this process.

New knowledge demands require internal labor, and training markets allow the development of individuals with knowledge and skills as core workers. Organizations have established training using non-formal methods that transfer knowledge, and most important "skills" to workers. Svetlik [2], mentions that the assumption that formal knowledge and training could fluently bring formal curriculum and convey students, has been misled. It is argued that this is because teachers tend to overlook interdisciplinary knowledge. There might also be communication barriers between schools or researchers, also some companies might resist sharing firm-specific knowledge to preserve a competitive advantage. Polanyi, 1996 cited by Svetlik [2] mentions: "it is difficult to express a great deal of knowledge in an explicit form, and convey it with school teaching methods" Ideological biases and blindness can also be experimented by formal curricula. Finally, access to certain information can remain restricted due to a limited number of participants.

The information presented so far, leads to believe that formal education must be complemented with non-formal education, to seek not only knowledge but the development of real-life "in situ" skills. Since non-formal education is based on "learn by doing" it develops real-life skills by allowing participants to experience their learning, this is where active learning becomes an important factor for knowledge to take place. To exemplify the relation between non-formal education and active learning, this chapter will describe concepts as they are applied in the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM), which is the largest non-formal education organization in the world.

#### **3. Non-formal education and active learning**

Due to the problems of strategies that formal education programs may experiment to accomplish an integrated formation, non-formal education has been essential.

Educational institutions or other types of organizations, favor goal achievements in different areas to contribute to self-realization of the individual.

Nowadays, young generations have a lack of motor, emotional, and social skills. It seems they are more aggressive, anxious, dependent, and less creative [3]. These are some of the reasons why it is imperative that children, adolescents, and young adults are submerged in extracurricular activities. These activities not only give them tools for life, but they also contribute to the awareness of their learning process, so it can be applied in a formal-educational environment.

### **3.1 Active learning**

Learning is a process that implies the way in which people acquire knowledge, or modify the knowledge and skills they possess, in order to improve their task performance [4]. It is an active mechanism that depends on the learner's cognitive activities. It is facilitated by the analysis and reformulation of previous knowledge, and it results from the interaction and adaptation with the environment, in order to get holistically integrated into the world [5].

The Experiential Learning Theory described by Kolb, D. in 1984 [6], enhances the role of experience in the learning process, and its transformative power to create knowledge. It complements the benefits of active learning since the latter is defined as an engagement of activities to assess people's understanding and skills. This enables them to handle a particular situation, and keep active in their learning by evaluating, analyzing, and taking action [7]. In this manner, it is important to acknowledge the benefits of deep, meaningful learning, facilitated by this process, since it is a more effective means of education.

### **4. Scouting in education**

Scouting is a worldwide movement that involves more than 50 million people, distributed in over 200 countries and territories. It is the biggest youth organization in the world, and its mission is to contribute to the self-fulfillment of individuals in order to help them play a constructive role in society [8]. This is made possible by the implementation of a non-formal education process that helps develop capabilities throughout life, in order to make autonomous, supportive, responsible, and committed individuals [9]. Although in some countries or territories, scouting is not necessarily related to academic activities, in some places, scouting is part of the extracurricular activities of elementary (elementary school), secondary (junior high school), and high (senior high school) [10–12].

Today its educational program involves the holistic development of the children, adolescents, and young adults in six basic areas: affectivity, character, creativity, sociability, physical conditioning, and spirituality. Affectivity development is gained by the exploration, identification, and management of emotions, as well as the recognition of their wise use of liberty. Character growth is related to their ability to be congruent with their principles and values. Creativity is obtained through imagination, finding different routes of problem-solving, innovating, project development. In general terms, practicing their thought process. Sociability is developed by solidarity, meaning the identification of common interests and goals through empathy, thus creating a sense of belonging to a social circle. Physical conditioning involves not only the practice of physical activity, acknowledgment of the individual's limits, and general good health habits, but also contact with nature. This is a very important part of scouting, since it encourages to appreciate the environment's resources, and how to respect and use them intelligently. Spirituality is gained by

the identification of self as a small but important part of the world, creating a sense of inner peace and peace with others.

Since the foundation of the scout movement over 110 years ago, the educational program has evolved to attend the youth's needs, adapting itself to fulfill the requirements of the constantly changing generations. Nevertheless, the way that the program is implemented is based on a system that has been essentially the same since it was originated, and it is key to the organization's success: the scout method.

### **4.1 The scout method as a way of active learning**

The scout method (SM) is defined by the WOSM as a "system of progressive self-education activities". It is based on the interaction of equally important elements that work together as a cohesive system. The elements are:


Felder & Brent [13] mention that active learning is a way in which participants assume a dynamic role. They retain more knowledge when they experiment and reflect than just receiving passive information through their senses. Active learning takes time since participants are expected to take action, demonstrate, make models or review information, and finally review their findings.

The SM encourages participants to take an active role, develop skills, work by teams, learn by doing, and most important to make a self-commitment. This aspect becomes fundamental since participants oath to do their best. This concept reinforces active learning since it is the active learner who seeks to develop his full potential.

Another fundamental issue is the work of small groups, young people get to create their own natural team in which they are all friends and each scout has the opportunity to become a leader. These friendship bonds usually last a lifetime since they do not form regular teams as in in formal education. Scout teams called patrols, live experiences that mark them for life, and the stronger the experiences, the stronger the bond that unites them. The patrol becomes the fundamental place in which active learning takes place, they decide which activities to do and ask the adult leaders to help them reach their goals. Patrols interact with each other and constitute a troop and the adults only act as facilitators and advisors for their activities.

### **4.2 Scouting contributions to the United Nations 2030 agenda**

WOSM has been exploring international development programs in which scouts have been earning Badges by developing projects that are created to solve the needs of the communities where they live. These programs are called "Better World framework". It's based on the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS). UN [14] states "The Sustainable Development Goals are the blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. They address the global challenges we face, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice."

WOSM is part of the United Nations (UN), therefore the adoption of these goals was an organization prerogative. This action created a worldwide active learning community in which youngsters collaborate in a very dynamic way with scouts from other countries. Global awareness became evident and the following international programs were created:


### **4.3 Challenges in the implementation of an educational program**

Scouting experience in different parts of the world is unique. The culture, economic, social, and security status, influence the ideal execution of the program.

Culture plays a transcendental role since not all educational objectives can be developed in the same manner, in countries that have distinctive sets of values, traditions, and customs. Even in the same country, language and family dynamics in different ethnic groups can influence the capability of developing certain goals in an area of interest. This is balanced by the program adaptation in conditions where the culture is not only respected but promoted as well. In many cases, economic status determines the permanence in the movement, where the administrative and operative activities have a cost. As with other institutions, membership fees are adjusted according to budgets, and economic strategies at different structural levels of the institution are suggested in order to minimize the financial burden. Social status, determined by the relationship between people of a broad spectrum of ages and genders, influences their capability of being involved in decision making and their opportunities to develop leadership skills. From the moment their cognitive abilities provide a sense of judgment on the youth, their participation in decision making organs is promoted and guided by the adult volunteers that facilitate their education. Nevertheless, there are still areas of opportunity, inequality is still present in different facets since it is a condition in evolution all around the globe. Security status affects the decision-making process. An inadequate satisfaction of basic necessities such as food and health sets aside the educational activities or modifies their application strategies. A practical example is a condition derived from the Covid-19 pandemic, where in the best-case scenario, people have to adapt to an online environment in order to carry on their education. But since there are areas of personal growth that involve social interaction and physical contact, the program execution gets compromised and it's more difficult to deliver.

The holistic character of scouting is determined by the growth of different areas of the being. But since its educational program is a balanced set of activities within and outside the scouting environment, there is much to consider in terms of its effectiveness influenced by the social and physical environment status.

### **5. Semiotics, non-formal education, and active learning**

Friedman & Thellefsen [15] define semiotics as a way to represent knowledge using symbols, this refers to the production and conversion of meaning through the use of ideograms, images, or symbols. These authors mention that there are several systems used to organize and represent knowledge. They imply that a symbolic language may fulfill the following roles:

An interpretative approach, in which each individual might attribute meaning to a symbol by making a correlation between the symbol and some relevant event. This might include a socio-cognitive approach, semiotics, and pragmatics.

A descriptive/objectivist approach, where the learning process is guided by a facilitator and might include cognitive science, linguistics, and concept theory.

Non-formal education as it is used by the WOSM, uses both of the previous roles with one difference.

The objectivist approach defines the use of specific symbols that transfer knowledge. The meaning of these symbols has been defined by scouting authorities. Since non-formal education as used by the WOSM, has very well-defined educational goals, "badges" have been developed by National Scout Organizations (NSO) around the world to be awarded to youngsters that have achieved an educational

*Non-Formal Education as a Foundation for Active Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96002*

**Figure 1.** *World scout emblem explained. Copyright WOSM.*

objective. This badge is the formal recognition of achievement by the NSO and it is known by the international scouting community. This acknowledgment represents an extra stimulus on the youngster and reinforces the non-formal knowledge acquisition process. The objectivist approach defines the extrinsic representation of the badge. The rules that the youngsters need to comply with to get this badge and the acquaintance that young people are expected to have.

The interpretative approach represents the intrinsic meaning of the achievement. This is one of the most important tools of non-formal education, that has been implemented by the WOSM. Most of these achievement badges are delivered in a ceremonial environment which adds meaning to the occasion. Complex symbolic frameworks are created so youngsters receive an unforgettable ceremony. In this process, the personal esthetic meaning gets added to the learning experience.

The perfect example of semiotics it's the world scout emblem (fleur de lis) it is worn by scouts and scout liders around the world to indicate their membership. The Scouting movement founder, Lord Robert Baden Powell of Gilwell, selected this emblem (**Figure 1**) to represent scouts around the world.

As you can appreciate, the world crest is an ideogram that receives an interpretative approach, this interpretation changes depending on which national scout organization uses the emblem. In Latin America National Scout Organizations, this crest also represents the scout oath, and the meaning attributed to it does not represent only an objectivist approach but it goes much further since it becomes enriched by an interpretative meaning often surrounded by an esthetic environment.

### **6. Esthetics and non-formal education**

Casey, et al. [16] mention that an esthetic experience is lived and felt individually, and it relates to a sensory experience in which the person establishes beauty standards. It is a process where the esthetic object exists to be perceived by the audiences. Spectators become witnesses of various forms of sensory data input that is found pleasing to the senses. The important part is that each esthetic experience gets completed only in the consciousness of the spectator, it is an active perceptual engagement between the object and the spectator. It is the personal perception, reflection, and feelings of the person who is experiencing the esthetic phenomenon.

Non-formal education as applied by the WOSM provides designed environments to exploit subjectivity. This allows the viewers to become an active part of the action, favoring the appearance of feelings that will be processed by the participant as embodied cognition. This will allow the youngsters to include high-level mental constructs and perform various cognitive tasks that will add personal meaning to the occasion. The SM gets enriched when youngsters not only get recognition for their work but also create personal bonds with other scouts and develop feelings associated with the events in which they were immersed.

Added esthetic value can be found not only in the meaning of the badge given to the youngsters but also by asking their loved ones to be present. In this way, family and friends can be present throughout the entire educational process and provide continuous support.

### **7. Dialogism and how non-formal education helps**

Jamail-Nesari [17] cites Bakhtin, M. when he defines dialogism as the process in which meaning is evolved out of interactions among the author, the work, and the listener. These elements are affected by the contexts in which they are placed. Bakhtin argues that understanding cannot be reached if a monologism approach is used, since it will only show an objectified world that corresponds to a single and unified consciousness. Bakhtin comments that monologs turn off the process of dialog, but are often used by formal education as the dominant approach for educational situations since education cannot be purely monological because there is always another perspective present in the classroom. Bakhtin proposes a different approach called Dialogism.

Jamail-Nesari [17] mentions that dialogism is a model of conversation used to practice speaking and provide examples of language usage. Bakhtin cited by Jamail-Nesari [17] proposes a different meaning for dialogism. It is mentioned "Any utterance, whether spoken or written, that people use in communication with each other is internally dialogic". For Bakhtin dialog exists not only in spoken words but also in all sorts of expressions, movements, and interactions made to communicate information. Bakhtin proposes that dialogism is a process in which all participants must communicate with each other, there is always room for arguing because dialogism seeks that every person expresses a point of view. This process allows a great deal of freedom for interaction among participants, Bakhtin called this process polyphony (multivoicedness).

Non-formal Education as used by WOSM develops polyphony on different scales. The first one and most basic is when the youngsters get to pick their small group (part of the scouting method). Scouts not only choose their team but also their leader and the rules of their patrol, this is done eminently through dialog. Youngsters assign a formal definition of the duties of each member and seek to fulfill them at any time (meaning that scouts will always try to follow the scout principles). This is where most of the active learning occurs, right inside the smallest group, because each patrol member must work directly with other members to develop projects and seek to enhance their knowledge of various subjects. The next level called council level is where different groups get together in a specific region. At this level, Polyphony is worked in a different way through the use of youth forums, in which youngsters get selected by their scout mates to represent them.

*Non-Formal Education as a Foundation for Active Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96002*

In these forums, scouts learn about current topics and develop communication skills with adults and other scouts from their region. National forums occur once a year, selected youth participants initiate different communication protocols, they also discuss the problems they are facing and how to solve them. Finally, every four years the biggest scout event in the world unites scouts from over 250 countries and territories to experience the ultimate polyphony discussion. In the World Scout Jamboree, thousands of youngsters get together and adopt the model of the UN to work on the problems their communities and the world are facing. Some topics are decent labor, rights of persons with disabilities (inclusion), human rights, environmental actions, migrants and refugees, gender equity, youth, peace, and security. Each scout representative gets selected to speak about his own country and all the opinions, and conclusions are collected by the WOSM and then shared with the NSO and other institutions that express interest.

### **8. Active learning, semiotics, aesthesis, dialogism, and non-formal education a case of study**

WOSM has been divided into six regions worldwide, different actions have been taken by all these regions due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

As the pandemic was unexpected, many countries were unprepared to deal with the requirements and the coordination needed to overcome this disease. In response, every NSO started to involve scouts to respond actively to the needs of the community. Several examples of the Better World Framework projects will be mentioned below, with emphasis of the ones developed in the Asia Pacific Scout Region.

Afghanistan scouts created public awareness campaigns through the distribution of flyers and social media. Older scouts participated in the disinfection of public spaces, vehicles, residential areas, and orphanages. They also helped with the distribution of food and hygiene packages to families facing starvation due to the lockdown. Additionally, entire scout families got involved in sewing and distribution of face masks to police and medical personnel [18].

Scouts from Bhutan have done several health awareness actions, giving information to the communities, preparing postcards for handwashing and general prevention Covid 19 prevention messages, to assist in breaking the chain of transmission. Also, generating spaces of experience sharing after illness, in order to help psychological health, and volunteering to do Covid 19 surveillance duty with school teachers and general public [18].

Scouts from India distributed masks and sanitizers in their communities, organized rallies, door to door campaigns and graphic material for Covid and good health awareness, and posters for local commercial prohibiting entry without masks. They also made food distribution programs for people in need derived from the pandemic, as well as for street animals [18].

In Cambodia, scouts raised funds and organized a food relief operation. Scouts of China issued a COVID 19 guideline and shared it with other countries, they also volunteered to help pack medical masks. Scouts of Fiji focused on homeless people to help them understand the situation and to give them protective equipment. In Kenya, scouts provided families with resources for online school classes, and gave conferences to parents in order to assist their children's education. The Philippines gathered masks, shields, and raised money to help their communities. Scouts from Sri-Lanka distributed dry foods and vegetables for dozens of families facing difficulties from the pandemic. Many countries have changed their entire program activity set to virtual to avoid more infections, and have similar experiences in the development of projects in order to contribute to the resolution of the pandemic.

One of the most important part of the scouting method involves community engagement, this is where active learning takes place since scouting encourages youngsters not only to develop skills but to support their communities in a practical way. All this indoctrination is made using dialogism, in which scouts find personal meaning to specific words, ideas or even experiences as the ones mentioned above.

When scouts from all over the world realized that COVID 19 pandemic had exceeded the health sector capacity of Covid prevention and/or treatment, initiatives where taken without waiting instruction of scout leaders. Youth immediately searched for adult guide to identify ways to help persons in need. With the help of their families, they crafted face masks using their own funds, and donated them to hospitals and police stations. Scouts felt better because they were helping the cause and soon started to seek other ways to help the community, this is where esthetics comes in place since scouts are experiencing that they are doing something beautiful that makes them feel proud. Scouts were able to see the results of their work, so they even became more engaged to help the community.

As months passed by, scouting activities have changed, scouts continued to develop prevention materials making face masks and helping with sanitization of public places, thermal screening, and stress management in underprivileged shelter homes. All this process is being documented and it is being presented to the NSO. So participant scouts can get the international badge known as "Messengers of Peace" (MOP). This is where semiotics take place since all the persons who bear the MOP have contributed to the development of their own communities through a project. Scouts who earned the MOP badge attribute a special meaning to it, since it represents their own effort to help and participate in an active learning procedure in which they overcome all sorts of obstacles to fulfill their goal. These five elements combined, act directly into the youngster's development and learning objectives.

### **9. Conclusions**

Active learning is one of the best ways to potentiate learning. Involvement creates interactions that enable youngsters to have a better understanding of different learning processes that they should go through. Non-formal education was designed to learn "in situ", and one of the most important cornerstones of it is "learn by doing", making non-formal education a foundation for active learning.

The program and SM of WOSM has proven for over 110 years to be one of the best places for active learning in the world. Millions of scouts work daily to ensure this, not only creating local interactions and regional activities but working with other scouts worldwide to develop joint projects that seek to answer their community needs.

This chapter presented how the world scout movement uses non-formal education and active learning to develop educational goals worldwide. It also explained the program, methodology, and core foundations of scouting. This gives a better understanding of how active learning is used in scouting, and the elements that the scouting movement developed over a century ago that helped build the largest youth community in the world.

The pandemic of COVID 19 changed the entire social and economic scenario. The scouting movement was not prepared to work entirely online. Scouting program was designed based on a face to face interaction, in this sense, adjustments had to be done worldwide to ensure the continuation of the movement. Despite this, online scouting is a reality and need to keep adjusting to youth's needs and interests. This also means that there is an opportunity area within adult training, because of the lack of abilities on information technologies and social networks. Even additional

*Non-Formal Education as a Foundation for Active Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96002*

educational strategies that do not rely on technology can be helpful, in order to avoid the issues of lack of resources such as computer equipment or internet access.

Finally, one of the biggest contributions of scouting to active learning has been to develop a methodology that involves playing and learning at the same time, in this way, youth has an enjoyable time while learning actively and helping others.

### **Acknowledgements**

The Autonomous University of Chihuahua. World Organization of the Scout Movement. World Organization of the Scout Movement, Asia Pacific Region. World Organization of the Scout Movement, Inter-American Region.

## **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

### **Appendices and nomenclature**


### **Author details**

Roy Alonso Terrazas Marín1 \* and Brenda Linda Alvarado Espinoza2

1 Engineering Faculty, Autonomous University of Chihuahua Campus II, University Circuit, Chihuahua, Mexico

2 Nursing and Nutrition Faculty, Autonomous University of Chihuahua Campus II, University Circuit, Chihuahua, Mexico

\*Address all correspondence to: raterrazas@uach.mx; roy.terrazas@gmail.com

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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### **Chapter 5**
