*2.1.2 The rivals of school climate*

School climate can be disrupted by a range of external factors, such as certain natural phenomena (e.g. severe weather conditions) or social events (conflict, transition, loss, etc.) or by internal factors, such as the educators' and the staff's behavior, the number of students, the composition of groups, third parties entering the classroom, an accident in the classroom, and so on. In cases when the disruption is threatening to participants, we speak of a state of crisis. According to Freiberg, "a healthy school climate contributes to effective teaching and learning. These instruments for assessing climate can help schools make informed and meaningful changes for the better" ([21], p. 22). To manage states of crisis in schools, it is necessary to take measures, including school readiness, the cognitive and emotional competence of educators in matters of mental health, information on the students' family background and health, good cooperation with educational institutions, parents, school administrators and educators, and clearly defined and predetermined rules of action. Hoy et al. note that "A healthy school climate is imbued with positive student, teacher, and administrator interrelationships. Teachers like their colleagues, their school, their job, and their students are driven by a quest for academic excellence" (2002:39) [22]. According to Marshall [23], school climate is influenced by the following factors:

• The number and quality of interactions between adults and students;

*Beyond Teaching: School Climate and Communication in the Educational Context DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93575*


School atmosphere can have an impact on many areas of the school experience. Positive school climate has been associated with fewer emotional and behavioral problems [24]. Commitment to compliance with school operational rules and positive feedback by educators are two aspects of the pedagogical climate that affect the school experience and students' self-esteem [25]. In addition, a special research project into school climate in high-risk urban settings has shown that a positive and supportive school climate can affect students' academic performance to a great extent [26]. According to another research project, positive interpersonal relationships and an increase in learning opportunities for students in all demographic settings can increase levels of achievement and decrease dangerous behavior [27].

Regarding the roles of the teaching and administrative staff, Taylor and Tashakkori [28] found that the existence of a positive climate in school is connected to an increased sense of job satisfaction for school staff. Finally, the transition from one educational level to the next is also influenced by school climate. Entering a new school can cause stress in teachers and students, and this can have a negative impact on the teaching and learning process. Research has found that a positive and supportive school climate is important for a smooth transition to a new school [21]. Establishing a positive climate in a school unit is a collective, coordinated, and, to a certain degree, disciplined endeavor by the whole staff. When teachers and students feel that they are in an environment that is truly and actually interested in them, they view their everyday teaching and learning experience as a positive process ([29], p. xi). These are schools where staff exhibit a passionate professionalism and enjoy extensible opportunities for collegial dialog, problem solving, and community building and where the culture encourages student involvement in community service and teacher commitment to continual instructional development ([15], p. 29).

#### *2.1.3 Evaluation of school climate*

Evaluating school climate is one of the best ways to ensure its positive characteristics. An environment of cooperation and learning is founded on the social and emotional environment of the school, which is reflected in school climate [9, 30]. The evaluation process is aimed at assessing the level of school climate and designing its further improvement so that schools with a positive school culture can be created. Although traditionally the assessment of student performance has used reading, mathematics, and scientific knowledge as its criteria, an increasing number of education agencies are realizing that these indicators cannot convey educational outcomes in their totality. Data from the assessment of school climate are now used as a complementary form of evaluation. Important information is derived from the reviews of students in their final year. As Freiberg stresses, "the feedback process allows students to be citizens rather than tourists in their school, as they realize that they have an opportunity to participate in shaping the education process" ([21], p. 26).

The school community determines policies that promote the holistic development of all participants in the school community—the social, emotional, moral, political, and intellectual. Also, it promotes an integrated system for overcoming hindrances during teaching and learning. We could say that the school community creates an environment in which all members feel safe and creative. School climate and relationships within the school are one of the main areas of evaluation in the assessment programs for schools. Specifically, during the evaluation process, attention is paid to the following criteria of quality:

*Relationships among educators*: Quality of communication, creative collaboration and collective action, regular meetings, and cooperation with emphasis placed on pedagogical and teaching issues.

*Relationships between educators and students and among students themselves*: The pedagogical teacher-student relationship, development of initiatives for creative teacher-student cooperation, student conduct that complies with school rules, and student participation in the formulation of regulatory practices pertaining to school life.

*Relationships between school and parents*: Effective mechanisms for regular and two-way communication between the school and parents, quality of the information exchanged with parents, development of initiatives for creative cooperation with the Parents' Association.

*Relationships between the school and agencies*: Constructive communication and collaboration with education authorities and agencies, the local community and the broader society, frequency, content, and quality of communication [31].

The process of evaluating and improving school climate is a demanding one. It is understood as a circular process consisting of five stages, including preparation and planning, assessment-evaluation of strengths, weaknesses, and needs, understanding evaluation outcomes, designing and application of the action plan, and reassessing what has been achieved and developing the next stage for improving school climate. The evaluation of indicators is based on data collected through the use of qualitative and quantitative methods and observation and recording tools [32]. The quality of education is, to a great extent, a function of school climate quality, which can be improved substantially, especially when it is understood and evaluated internally by the individuals actually involved in the education process. Internal evaluation requires additional competences on the educator's part, but experience has shown that educators avoid recording data of their pedagogical action. The collection of data with the use of various methods identifies the educator as an education researcher, a quality inherent in pedagogical action. A combination of methods and techniques for observation and recording is the most effective way to cross-check and interpret data, and to define goals for each of the stages of evaluation [33].

School climate is expressed by tangible means, it is greatly influenced by leadership, and it responds to change rapidly. It becomes evident through collectivity, communication, decision-making, trust, expectations, recognition, support, and experimentation. School climate should reflect directly the school's mission statement through its focus and actions. External factors, such as increased funding and provision of resources and staff can play a key role in shaping positive school climate. We are aware, however, that when planning and interventions are carried out by those involved in the internal environment of the school, they tend to be more viable. Could internal school communication be efficient in this respect? This question is analyzed in the following section.

#### **2.2 Communication in educational context**

#### *2.2.1 Concept and definition*

Communication is the main parameter in the creation and development of civilization. For ancient Greeks and Romans, it was an area of great importance. *Beyond Teaching: School Climate and Communication in the Educational Context DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93575*

The Athenian society called for greater competence in oral speech. When in court, citizens could not hire advocates but, rather, they had to defend themselves publicly. Those who stood for public office had to learn how to voice their ideas clearly and convincingly. In an attempt to understand the variables affecting persuasion, modern scholars have tried to transfer the classical persuasion practice into modern reality.

A multitude of definitions can be found in the literature with regard to communication. It has been defined as the delivery, reception, processing, and interpretation of information. This information can be transmitted orally, in writing, and in an active, passive, formal, informal, conscious, or unconscious manner ([34], p. 290). Robbins, Coulter and DeCenzo note that communication is the transfer of understanding and meaning ([35], p. 446). According to Schermerhorn [36], communication is an interpersonal process of sending and receiving symbols with attached messages. Communication is an interpersonal, that is, a social process, which can only be considered complete when some kind of understanding has been reached. It never is a simple case of a stimulus and a response in the way that these terms are used in psychology. Communication is the mechanism by means of which human relationships exist and develop. Irrespective of its conceptual definition, it must involve not only the transfer of meaning but also an understanding of it. Only when the sender's message is fully understood by its recipient(s) can communication be considered effective ([34], p. 294; [36], p. 491).

Communication is a social activity, a social phenomenon that is present both at the interpersonal level and at the organization level. Communication is about transmitting and receiving information and messages between individuals and between groups through a system of symbols. Educators, just like doctors, social workers, psychologists, vocational guidance and business counselors, etc., are what is called "interpersonal professionals", meaning that a great part of their work is dedicated to face-to-face interactions with other people. Such professionals must possess certain skills:


It is a fact that the ways used to communicate today have increased significantly compared to the past [38, 39]. Although educators have several new possibilities and media at their disposal that enable them to send their message to multiple audiences, they still seem to be lacking in key communication skills. It is also true that educators are not concerned about the way and the outcomes of their communication with students on the micro-scale of the classroom. However, experience has shown that this is not the case when they need to collaborate and communicate with other groups, such as staff associations, parents' associations, and education agencies. On such occasions, the necessary communication skills are situated on the macro-level of the social and political sphere, where argumentation and persuasion require more complex knowledge and skills [40].

Conversation analysis in the school context aims to highlight the kinds of conversation that are most effective in students' understanding of the material taught. Most research focuses on teacher-student dialogs [41–43], while studies into student-to-student talk within the education process are rather limited in number. The orality movement has helped to emphasize the significance of oral discourse

in the school context. Regarding the systematic research of talk, two models of communication have been proposed. The *Transmission Model of Communication* views oral discourse as a medium for the transmission of information between a sender and a recipient. Although this model is held in high regard in educational practice, it fails to penetrate the complexity of oral discourse ([44], p. 132). The second model, the *Dialogic Model* [45] draws on Piaget and Vygotsky and their constructive process of discourse. According to the *Dialogic Model*, understanding between interlocutors is constructed through dialog and is shaped by the social and cultural context. Hence, talk is a complete system of cooperative understanding. The dialogic model is also connected to Volosinov and Bakhtin, according to whom utterances and responses constitute a chain of interlinked verbal events [44].

#### *2.2.2 Listening culture*

*Listening* is a complex parameter of communication rather than a simple and natural hearing process. According to the Speech Communication Association, listening is the process of receiving and assimilating ideas and information from spoken messages. Effective listening involves both the literal and the critical understanding of ideas and information transmitted through oral speech ([46], p. 282). Listening is an active process that the individual chooses to occur. Of the events that take place in his environment, the individual selects the ones to which he will direct his attention, which he processes and uses, and which he may even retain and combine with other bits of information that he has previously chosen to save in his memory. The skills of active listening can be cultivated through practice and knowledge acquisition [47]. However, communication can encounter difficulties deriving from a failure to listen. Such hindrances include listeners who do not actually listen but pretend to do so, *selective listeners*, who employ a kind of partial listening whereby they deliberately direct their attention to certain parts of the speaker's talk, and, finally, *egocentric listeners*, who regard themselves as the center of each and every transaction or activity [46]. For a listening culture to be developed, emotional intelligence and empathy on the part of those involved are essential. Listening culture is a determining factor in promoting collaboration among educators and in shaping positive school climate.

According to contemporary educational research, communication is one of the main factors in the development of a sustainable system for improving school climate ([29, 48], p. xv). Within a school unit the whole of the educational workforce communicates with one another, with colleagues from other school units, with the community of parents, but also with various agencies from outside the school [49]. The communication process occurs on a daily basis with all educators within school orgnanizations. For cooperational relationships to be developed in the school, effective communication among members of the school community is considered essential ([35], pp. 428–36). Sergiovanni notes that "School climate and relationships are obviously affected by the organization and communication in the school; school climate lies at the center" ([50], pp. 100–101).

#### *2.2.3 Communication and leadership*

School principals' communication skills can determine, to a large extent, school efficacy and the achievement of goals. Research has shown that school principals devote a great amount of time to communicating with students, other educators, parents, education authorities, and with other individuals relevant to the school environment ([51], p. 53). According to certain findings, their communication is not rigidly planned, but, rather, spontaneous and relaxed, while they do not seem to make a systematic effort to receive or provide feedback or evaluate the

#### *Beyond Teaching: School Climate and Communication in the Educational Context DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93575*

effectiveness of communication. In addition, the communication roles assumed by school principals have increased, mainly because of the possibilities provided by new technologies. Gordon and Alston [10], 97–99) talk about four communication roles of principals: a) communication agent, b) message recipient, c) supervisor, and d) communication seeker.

In a critical analysis of these roles, we could suggest that the roles of the agent and recipient are somewhat inherent in the principal's responsibilities, while the roles of supervisor and seeker require the development of communication skills and practices by the principals themselves. The role of a communication agent requires, first and foremost, that the principal understands the main objective of the message they wish to transfer [52]. When they understand the purpose of the message, they will be able to determine precisely both its content (message encoding) and the appropriate means of transmission (communication channel) ([36], pp. 491–493). At the same time, they must be aware of potential obstacles that may arise in the process of decoding by the person or persons that the message addresses (recipients). Such obstacles can be lack of interest on the recipients' part, their poor cognitive background, prejudice, a problematic situation, etc. An important factor in this process is the existence or nonexistence of mutual trust between the agent and the recipient. Trust, i.e., confidence in the integrity, personality, and competences of a manager, constitutes a key parameter of communicative efficacy, as it is through this trust that the principal can convince recipients of the legitimacy of the objectives involved in the message ([35], p. 413). The role of recipient requires that principals be active listeners who try to decodify the sender's messages without making judgments or resorting to spontaneous interpretations. Instead, they should engage in close observation of nonverbal clues, avoiding distractions and, above all, strengthening empathy for the sender. But how capable are school principals of understanding the emotions of others, including educators? With a certain degree of emotional intelligence, school principals can "read" other people's feelings by focusing communication on actual behaviors, such as verbal, nonverbal, and paralinguistic clues. Communication is of great importance when it comes to understanding and interpreting the feelings of others, that is, their emotional intelligence. Donaldson [53] researched his own high school principalship by surveying staff members regarding communication. He analyzed both direct and indirect forms of communication finding a discrepancy between how he saw himself and how his staff members saw him.

Teachers are in a state of ongoing interaction and communication. The quality of this interaction is mainly dependent on the form of communication they use. An authoritarian attitude and administration turn workers into passive and submissive individuals and can ruin any possibility for meaningful communication and interaction. By contrast, a democratic attitude can contribute to the creation of a better emotional climate of cooperation, optimism, sincerity and responsibility and provides better possibilities for working efficiently and developing the personalities of those involved. A democratic principal can help create a positive school climate and, by doing so, a climate that is also productive. A principal who is demanding, pressing, and authoritarian cannot foster the improvement of interpersonal relationships. By contrast, a friendly, democratic principal can contribute substantially to the development of good relationships among the staff, which is a necessary condition for the progress of the whole organization. "School leaders—principals, teachers, and parents—are the key to eliminating toxic culture and building positive culture" ([15], p. 28).

To conclude, it can be argued that school principals should not restrict their communication roles to sending and receiving messages. Supervising and seeking communication within, from and to the school unit are quality features for establishing an appropriate process of communication than can make a difference in

the lives of all stakeholders—educators, students, and parents. These roles call for a principal who is constantly active and has a profound insight, a principal whose vision will be the enhancement of communication at all levels so that a climate of trust can be created and communication can be promoted.

#### **2.3 Meta-analysis approach of the literature**

The problem set forth in this study is based upon the changes in educational context as caused by current social, financial, and technological factors, and their impact on school climate. This analysis explores the variables of school climate and communication in order to find the extent to which their relationship can work in favor of an open, safe, and creative educational organization where a positive school climate exists, and to which teachers and students will wish to belong.

#### *2.3.1 Literature identification*

The conceptual framework of this study is based on research related to organizational culture and educational communication. The material analyzed consists of contemporary articles and books, which highlight the importance of positive school climate in achieving school objectives, and interpersonal communication as a determining factor in terms of the research questions posed.

#### *2.3.2 Articles selection*

The examination of literature developed on a general-to-specific basis. By constructing the specific research question, we narrowed the focus of the research. We decided on the specific preliminary research question and identified key concepts and preliminary search terms. We selected appropriate databases in library catalogs and on the World Wide Web open access journals.

#### *2.3.3 Method of literature analysis*

This study is a critical meta-analysis of literature on the research hypothesis, that communication is a key factor in promoting positive school climate. Metaanalysis is a recent trend in research. It refers to analyzing published studies to examine trends in the literature or in the results of research studies, such as the impact of a certain independent variable on another [54, 55]. By combining results found in scholarly journals and chapters, researchers can tell how much of an effect a particular variable has had over time.

The availability of electronic databases containing the results of published studies was a substantial benefit for the researcher conducting this meta-analysis. Databases such as https://eric.ed.gov/, www.ascd.org, https://www.hepg.org/, http://education.gsu.edu/, and databases of libraries were used. Sixty articles and books on the subject were selected that cover the key aspects of the topic and the new directions. A thorough study and analysis of their content was performed.

## **3. Results and discussion**

These results are presented and discussed under subthemes, which addressed the questions posed for this study. Thus, the subthemes: "The concept and the importance of school climate", "The Rivals of school climate", and "Evaluation of school climate" emerged for, for the theme "School Climate" and "*Concept and* 

*Definition",* "Listening Culture", and "Communication and Leadership were formed for the theme "Communication in Educational Context". A specific aspect of the problem is clarified in discussing each section of the literature review results.
