**4.2 Drudgery among rural women**

*Occupational Wellbeing*

in kilograms/ (Height in meters)2

**4.1 Physiological parameters and energy expenditure**

improved serrated sickle was average of 51.03 m<sup>2</sup>

Generally, pulse is employed as an ergonomic measure to gauge the physiological

/h as compared to local serrated

or functional demands of labor on the individual workers [22]. The physiological point of view, the work demand or workload refers to the stress placed on the cardio-respiratory system and is decided by the energy cost and cardiac cost of work [23]. [18] reported physiological cost of work and energy expenditure in terms of heart rate were observed to be lower while performing selected activities with groundnut decorticator when compared to the traditional practice. The average cardiac cost of labor was decreased by 83.00 per cent with the utilization of groundnut decorticator. The work output was also found higher with the improved technology [24]. The study revealed that physiological stress output recorded by

harvesting (64%), threshing and winnowing (62%) and rat control practices (58%) [15]. For the period of peak season of agriculture especially during harvesting time, women of farm families labor on an average seven to eight hours a day in the field. This is besides their everyday duties of cooking, fetching water, cleaning etc. [16]. Women are most active in areas like fertilizing, sowing, grain cleaning, drying, etc. Women also partake in almost all aspects of animal husbandry from collecting

fodder and feeding the animals to collecting milk and disposing dunk [17].

**4. Ergonomic evaluation of agriculture farm and allied activities**

Relationship between Anthropometric measurements of women and work efficiency in an Indian context, ergonomic point of view, average age was found 33.39 ± 7.57 years, height 154.94 ± 3.61 cm and weight 51.33 ± 4.06 kg respectively. The mean Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated using standard formula Weight

in the normal category during groundnut shelling for energy expenditure during the shelling by decorticator calculated 9.31 kJ/min in traditional practices, while by improved practice it was 18.94 kJ/min [18]. Anthropometric parameters studied by [19] female workers of different ages to assess the work methods and postural demands during work performance to enhance the operability, safety, convenience and comfort while performing domestic and occupational tasks [20]. The study showed that Vo2 max of the chosen women folk range from 16.1 to 64.8 ml/min with a mean value of 39.89 ml/min. and half of the respondents (50%) had very good physical fitness in the range of 41–45 ml/min. According to [21], the range of average heart rate lies between 153 and 180 beats/min. Nevertheless, the amount considered as a fair amount of work when considering a large sample of cardiac responses was below 130beats/min. The rates however ranged at 153.3/min for water-lifting and 140.3/min for pedal-threshing. Relatively, the increase in uptake of oxygen to workload ranged at 5–7% per 10 beats/min increase, with oxygen-pulse ratio being at various levels 43:120, 55:130, 61:140, and 74:150 [21]. The authors go on to say that stationing the oxygen intake, 120–132 beats/min can be achieved which signifies an average workload. Overall, energy expended throughout the day amongst people working in agriculture ranged (in MJ) between 10.3 to 11.7, of this number, 5.6 to 6.6 MJ (or between 53 and 56%) was used in a work day. The time-weighted average of the entire day comes to 7.2–8.1 kg/min. This implies that the comparatively, the load amounted only to around 20.22% of maximum oxygen uptake. However, if only the energy spent in a working day is considered, the time-weighted average was between 10.9–14.6 kg/min or 30–40% of maximum oxygen uptake.

it was 21.39 ± 1.42 which meant that they were

**56**

Drudgery is usually conceived as physical and psychological strain, fatigue and monotony, hardship, experienced by humans. Drudgery of farm women is a crucial aspect that has attracted wide attention of researchers. If measured by the extensiveness and intensiveness of their involvement, farm women shoulder much more burden than man [26] does. Many of such activities are drudgery susceptible to varying degree. Even women suffer from different health problems, which adversely affect their working efficiency and family welfare. Women have shorter time to rest than men and environmental degradation is increasing women's workload [27]. [28] also reported from Madhya Pradesh, India, participation of women in agriculture, India and developing countries are engaged in most of the farming and home related activities besides their exclusive involvement in domestic chores, women do the extremely tedious, time and labour intensive works. Generally, Indian women feel more work for a long time without rest and perform many roles in society and family. This drudgery or fatigue results in feeling tired, sleepiness, physical or mental stress, exhaustion and pain in body parts. So it are often said that each one the farm women suffer from the drudgery while performing various activities. [29] reported that women working in agriculture usually have to make do with archaic tools or a lack of proper tools at all which can also be unsafe, hazardous and unhealthy.

#### **4.3 Physiological and psycho-physiological stress**

While the mean average of heart rate when resting stationary remained at around 77–81 bpm, while working in the kitchen it ranged around 84–110 bpm while sitting down and 101–130 bpm while working standing up. In the kitchen, grinding turned out to be the most fatiguing work while vegetable-cutting was the friendliest for bpm [19]. Physiological stress on women while harvesting wheat activity averaged their heart rate to be around 121.5 b/min., which increased further up to 126.7 b/min. by the evening. Energy spent was also found to be 15.5 kJ/min, which further increased up to 12.3 kJ/min during evening hours [30]. It can be safely concluded that factors like bad state of workplace and lacking access to better

tools contribute towards discomfort in both healthy and unhealthy individuals. These factors also greatly impact body posture, which alters the psychological functions of a private and produces many sorts of musculoskeletal problems. Agriculture work is expected to cause muscular-skeletal problems in developing countries [31].

## **4.4 Postural stress and Muscular-skeletal disorders in farm women**

Muscular-skeletal disorder is observed to cause occupational ill-health as a leading factor. A bad posture is often cited as a factor causing the disorder in workplaces with prominent physical labour. The cervical spine, head and shoulders, elbow and wrist joint are all the parts, which can be related in the problems of efficiency, design, and discomfort. Muscular-skeletal issues are defined as damages to one's muscles, joints, tendons, or nerves, which can be an outcome of the many physical work-related factors. Early symptoms are pain, swelling, numbness, tingling, and loss of strength and range of motion. If one does not swift, the posture to the correct one it can cause acute and chronic issues. Acute problems are severe pain, excessive circulatory stress, and fatigue which could lead to higher chances of accidents and decreased productivity. Agriculture is generally recognized as the nation's most hazardous industry that displays high rates of musculoskeletal disorders with evidence to suggest that ergonomic risk factors are involved [32]. Chronic effects may produce many injuries and disorders in the musculoskeletal units, which may result in permanent or partial disability of the affected parts depending on the degree of stress and its duration [33]. The percentage deviation in the cervical region comes to1.7percentage to 7.3% among women belonging to 21–30 years. and 31–40 years of age groups while drawing water. In the lumber region the deviation was to the extent of 10and 8.9% leading to several musculoskeletal problems both in cervical and lumbar region [34]. [30] Stated that during the harvesting of wheat, women have to work in squatting posture from morning until evening. As they harvest wheat in this inconvenient position for long duration, there are high incidences of severe low back pain and pain in knees reported by these women [35]. Found that these issues were most frequently perceived in moderate to severe capacity as pain in shoulders, upper back, arms, and lower back while performing the work of threshing. Body Part Discomfort Score (BPDS) of both men and women in agriculture revealed that it was felt most severely in weeding, then in land preparation, followed by threshing, harvesting, irrigation and use of chemicals. On average, the Overall Discomfort Rating scores indicated that all the activities were in the range of 'high discomfort' both for men and women except irrigation where it was within the range of 'moderate discomfort' and therefore the ODR of females just in case of plant protection activity was within the range of 'light discomfort' [36]. Reported Indian farm women using of improved twin-wheel hoe for weeding in soybean crop reduce drudgery with muscular stress and fatigue. The focus of the demonstration was to vary the attitude, skill and knowledge towards recommended practices within the work. Farmwomen adopted the improved technique as it had increased the efficiency to work, reduce the drudgery and helped in avoiding bending or squatting posture. It lessened the exertion and fatigue to make the farmwomen conformable. [37] also revealed that massive number of workers suffered from low back trouble (93.3%), neck trouble (86.6%), wrist trouble (80%) and shoulder trouble (75%) due to the strenuous postures adopted while performing post harvesting jobs. [38] revealed that majority (33%) of the respondents performed the activities of planting/sowing, hand weeding, cutting/plucking, sorting and cleaning in bending, sitting or squatting postures. Mean many intensity of pain felt by respondents in several body parts different body parts revealed that respondents

**59**

body problems are less.

*A Review of Ergonomic Evaluation of Occupational Hazard of Indian Agriculture Farm…*

felt very mild (score-1) to very severe pain (score-5) in various body parts thanks to working in awkward postures for long durations. Hand weeding and cleaning of vegetables were rated as very demanding (mean score- 4.6); and planting/sowing, hand weeding and cleaning activities were very exhausting (mean score- 4.7, 4.6 and 4.8 respectively). Respondents adopted very difficult posture while planting/ sowing; hand weeding, cutting/plucking and cleaning (mean score- 4.7, 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8 respectively). Planting/sowing and cutting/plucking were very painful activities (mean score 4.6); cutting/plucking was perceived as very heavy activity (mean

[39] concluded that both proper standing and bent posture were used by most farm-women while carrying out various activities like cutting (89%), threshing (37%) storage (45%), and Sun drying of grains (56%) respectively. While sowing (57%) and preparing land for threshing (74%), both squatting and bending posture had to be used while only bending posture was used or uprooting of seedlings (95%) and transplanting (96%). Most women used sitting posture for winnowing (92%), sieving (95%) and cleaning (96%). According to [40], women experienced severe to very severe pain in shoulder, upper arm, low back wrist/hands and knees while topdressing fertilizers using the traditional method instead of improved modern ones. The girls using modern methods to when fertilizing the farms showed a significant decline in experiencing pain (91.42%). Therefore most women experience moderate severe to severe pain in neck, shoulder, lower back, upper leg, calf muscles, wrist and ankle while working in

**4.5 Improved techniques and technologies on drudgery of women**

Women in agriculture point to the fact that women are generally employed in the operations, which are either not mechanized or least mechanized and involve a lot of drudgery [41]. According to [42] the average physical cost of labour was less using the chaff cutter, sickle, Bhindi Plucker, seed treatment drum, weeder and groundnut stripper. Using Shovel, paddy thresher and wheelbarrow technologies, there was observed an increase in labour cost compared to old techniques. Work output saw rose with these modern methods except in the case of chaff cutter and seed treatment drum. Women generally had a positive response to using these methods as well. [18] reported use of groundnut decorticator reduced drudgery 84.26 per cent and it also saves time by 96.00 per cent in comparison to traditional practice. [43] study on drudgery reducing farm implements operated by women liked improved sickle and tubular maize cob sheller were carried results revealed that, 75% perceived the sickle as profitable (78.33%), compatible (76.77%), triable (75%) and observable (73.33%). Regarding the utilization of tubular maize cob sheller, 61.67% perceived the unit as profitable, compatible (73.33%), neither simple nor complex (58.33%), triable (66.67%) and observable (58.33%). Both sickle and tubular maize cob sheller were most feasible by majority of the farm women. Improved farm equipment that are women friendly are better in every respect in harvesting the crop. [44] Reported use of Naveen sickle, is best than the local sickle. It cover more area in given time, minimizes the drudgery and therefore the perceived exertion was low. It saves time and money expenditure on labour. It is very easy to handle and

As per [45], women participated most heavily in works such as seed treatment, transplantation, raising nursery, weeding, pruning, grain storage, manual harvesting, picking of vegetables, collection of animal dung and its transportation to fields. The knowledge level of participants about drudgery reducing implements

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98705*

score 4.6).

agriculture.

#### *A Review of Ergonomic Evaluation of Occupational Hazard of Indian Agriculture Farm… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98705*

felt very mild (score-1) to very severe pain (score-5) in various body parts thanks to working in awkward postures for long durations. Hand weeding and cleaning of vegetables were rated as very demanding (mean score- 4.6); and planting/sowing, hand weeding and cleaning activities were very exhausting (mean score- 4.7, 4.6 and 4.8 respectively). Respondents adopted very difficult posture while planting/ sowing; hand weeding, cutting/plucking and cleaning (mean score- 4.7, 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8 respectively). Planting/sowing and cutting/plucking were very painful activities (mean score 4.6); cutting/plucking was perceived as very heavy activity (mean score 4.6).

[39] concluded that both proper standing and bent posture were used by most farm-women while carrying out various activities like cutting (89%), threshing (37%) storage (45%), and Sun drying of grains (56%) respectively. While sowing (57%) and preparing land for threshing (74%), both squatting and bending posture had to be used while only bending posture was used or uprooting of seedlings (95%) and transplanting (96%). Most women used sitting posture for winnowing (92%), sieving (95%) and cleaning (96%). According to [40], women experienced severe to very severe pain in shoulder, upper arm, low back wrist/hands and knees while topdressing fertilizers using the traditional method instead of improved modern ones. The girls using modern methods to when fertilizing the farms showed a significant decline in experiencing pain (91.42%). Therefore most women experience moderate severe to severe pain in neck, shoulder, lower back, upper leg, calf muscles, wrist and ankle while working in agriculture.

#### **4.5 Improved techniques and technologies on drudgery of women**

Women in agriculture point to the fact that women are generally employed in the operations, which are either not mechanized or least mechanized and involve a lot of drudgery [41]. According to [42] the average physical cost of labour was less using the chaff cutter, sickle, Bhindi Plucker, seed treatment drum, weeder and groundnut stripper. Using Shovel, paddy thresher and wheelbarrow technologies, there was observed an increase in labour cost compared to old techniques. Work output saw rose with these modern methods except in the case of chaff cutter and seed treatment drum. Women generally had a positive response to using these methods as well. [18] reported use of groundnut decorticator reduced drudgery 84.26 per cent and it also saves time by 96.00 per cent in comparison to traditional practice. [43] study on drudgery reducing farm implements operated by women liked improved sickle and tubular maize cob sheller were carried results revealed that, 75% perceived the sickle as profitable (78.33%), compatible (76.77%), triable (75%) and observable (73.33%). Regarding the utilization of tubular maize cob sheller, 61.67% perceived the unit as profitable, compatible (73.33%), neither simple nor complex (58.33%), triable (66.67%) and observable (58.33%). Both sickle and tubular maize cob sheller were most feasible by majority of the farm women. Improved farm equipment that are women friendly are better in every respect in harvesting the crop. [44] Reported use of Naveen sickle, is best than the local sickle. It cover more area in given time, minimizes the drudgery and therefore the perceived exertion was low. It saves time and money expenditure on labour. It is very easy to handle and body problems are less.

As per [45], women participated most heavily in works such as seed treatment, transplantation, raising nursery, weeding, pruning, grain storage, manual harvesting, picking of vegetables, collection of animal dung and its transportation to fields. The knowledge level of participants about drudgery reducing implements

*Occupational Wellbeing*

countries [31].

tools contribute towards discomfort in both healthy and unhealthy individuals. These factors also greatly impact body posture, which alters the psychological functions of a private and produces many sorts of musculoskeletal problems. Agriculture work is expected to cause muscular-skeletal problems in developing

Muscular-skeletal disorder is observed to cause occupational ill-health as a leading factor. A bad posture is often cited as a factor causing the disorder in workplaces with prominent physical labour. The cervical spine, head and shoulders, elbow and wrist joint are all the parts, which can be related in the problems of efficiency, design, and discomfort. Muscular-skeletal issues are defined as damages to one's muscles, joints, tendons, or nerves, which can be an outcome of the many physical work-related factors. Early symptoms are pain, swelling, numbness, tingling, and loss of strength and range of motion. If one does not swift, the posture to the correct one it can cause acute and chronic issues. Acute problems are severe pain, excessive circulatory stress, and fatigue which could lead to higher chances of accidents and decreased productivity. Agriculture is generally recognized as the nation's most hazardous industry that displays high rates of musculoskeletal disorders with evidence to suggest that ergonomic risk factors are involved [32]. Chronic effects may produce many injuries and disorders in the musculoskeletal units, which may result in permanent or partial disability of the affected parts depending on the degree of stress and its duration [33]. The percentage deviation in the cervical region comes to1.7percentage to 7.3% among women belonging to 21–30 years. and 31–40 years of age groups while drawing water. In the lumber region the deviation was to the extent of 10and 8.9% leading to several musculoskeletal problems both in cervical and lumbar region [34]. [30] Stated that during the harvesting of wheat, women have to work in squatting posture from morning until evening. As they harvest wheat in this inconvenient position for long duration, there are high incidences of severe low back pain and pain in knees reported by these women [35]. Found that these issues were most frequently perceived in moderate to severe capacity as pain in shoulders, upper back, arms, and lower back while performing the work of threshing. Body Part Discomfort Score (BPDS) of both men and women in agriculture revealed that it was felt most severely in weeding, then in land preparation, followed by threshing, harvesting, irrigation and use of chemicals. On average, the Overall Discomfort Rating scores indicated that all the activities were in the range of 'high discomfort' both for men and women except irrigation where it was within the range of 'moderate discomfort' and therefore the ODR of females just in case of plant protection activity was within the range of 'light discomfort' [36]. Reported Indian farm women using of improved twin-wheel hoe for weeding in soybean crop reduce drudgery with muscular stress and fatigue. The focus of the demonstration was to vary the attitude, skill and knowledge towards recommended practices within the work. Farmwomen adopted the improved technique as it had increased the efficiency to work, reduce the drudgery and helped in avoiding bending or squatting posture. It lessened the exertion and fatigue to make the farmwomen conformable. [37] also revealed that massive number of workers suffered from low back trouble (93.3%), neck trouble (86.6%), wrist trouble (80%) and shoulder trouble (75%) due to the strenuous postures adopted while performing post harvesting jobs. [38] revealed that majority (33%) of the respondents performed the activities of planting/sowing, hand weeding, cutting/plucking, sorting and cleaning in bending, sitting or squatting postures. Mean many intensity of pain felt by respondents in several body parts different body parts revealed that respondents

**4.4 Postural stress and Muscular-skeletal disorders in farm women**

**58**

was almost nil. After being trained, the women showed a 74.6% increase in level of knowledge about drudgery reduction. Saving time thus also lead them to make time to resting and take care of households. [46] reported hexagonal tubular maize Sheller saves almost half the time and increases working efficiency 30.25 per cent and reduces 70.60 per cent drudgery of farm women over traditional practice. It is also seen that maize sheller saves time by 23.78% as compared to traditional practice. [47] another study on hexagonal tubular maize sheller increased working efficiency 79.24 per cent and reduces 87.94 per cent drudgery of farm women over traditional practice. The cleaning efficiency was also increased 6.6% while using hexagonal tubular maize sheller. [25] revealed that drudgery was reduced 70. 21% when twin wheel hoe is used in weeding, it also reduce physiological cost, 21.42%, saves time 71.20% compared to traditional practice (Khurpi) while weeding in soybean crop.
