**6. Occupational hazards in fisheries: Empirical evidences from Nigeria**

Although occupational health, hazards and safety are the concern of many government agencies and international organizations such as the World Health Organization – WHO, Food and Agriculture Organization - FAO and the International Labour Organization- ILO especially with respect to working in the agriculture sector, little empirical evidences abound on the prevalence of

occupational hazards in Nigeria. Where available, data are mostly not disaggregated by subsectors. More importantly, there is dearth of information on occupational hazards associated with the fisheries industry. Apart from the general hazards associated with the agriculture sector, workers in the fishery subsector are exposed to other numerous hazards related to water impoundments, transportation, shift and night-time work and offshore operations [42].

### **6.1 Occupational hazards in aquaculture**

According to Erondu and Anyanwu [24], hazards in aquaculture can be classified into physical, chemical and biological. Physical risk factors in the aquaculture industry include injuries such as stings from fish spines, cuts, sprains, fractures, asthma and rhinitis, snake bites, crab crawling and bites from fish as well as mechanical injuries associated with laboratories. Physical hazards in the aquaculture industry could mainly be in form of noise, injuries and asthma [24].

The use of locally fabricated equipment/machines in most of the feedmills in Nigeria exposes the workers to excessive noise which results in loss of hearing and mental fatigue. Some fish species such as *Clarias gariepinus, Protopterus aethiopicus, Barbus intermedius, Oreochromis niloticus, Baringoensis* and *Lado cylindricus* have fins which can prick fish farmers and their workers if not handled with care [26]. According to Dorooshi [43], Catfish species have strong pectoral fins with spines which are capable of pricking fish farmers as well as sharp teeth used in biting workers during sorting and harvesting in the aquaculture industry. The biting and pricking caused by fish spines and sharp teeth could lead to injuries which are mainly non-fatal but according to Olaoye [26], can lead to amputation of fingers if exposed to viral and bacterial infections. Cuts resulting from the use of sharp objects such as knives and oyster shell are additional causes of injuries [24]. Erondu and Anyanwu [24] also noted that needle stick injury could result among hatchery workers. Aquaculture workers in the feedmill are also prone to asthma caused by dusts from the mixture of different food particles including flour. According to Karkkainen [44], dust released from flour and animal feedmill is the second most common cause of asthma.

Aquaculture workers are also exposed to chemical hazards as a result of inorganic fertilizers, lime, pesticides and formaldehyde in fish ponds; acute and chronic pollution of water ways; flocculants, and disinfectants. The biological hazards in aquaculture include parasitic infestation and pathogenic infections.

#### **6.2 Occupational hazards in artisanal fishing**

Like the aquaculture component, the artisanal fishery is also inherently associated with numerous hazards. In fact, fishing seems to be riskier than aquaculture. According to Oyediran *et al*. [45], fishers are vulnerable due to depleting stock arising from over fishing and excessive pressures on available resources, environmental degradation due to flooding, deforestation and menace of water hyacinth. Industrial activities such as oil spillage, canalization, construction of hydroelectric dams also destabilize ecosystems and fishing activities thereby posing serious occupational hazards to fishers.

Just like with the workers in the aquaculture industry, fisherfolks in the artisanal fishery sector are exposed to injuries caused by bites and pricks from sharp fish spines and fins [9, 45]. Additionally, most if not all the fishermen in Nigeria still makes use of hook and line or longline. The fisherfolks can also sustain injuries when trying to remove the hooks from harvested fish and when attaching baits onto the hooks [46]. The tasks of the workers in artisanal fishery include repetitive

**23**

*Occupational Health Hazards Associated with Nigerian Fisheries*

lifting and pulling of heavy fish loads into fishing vessels, and offloading [8, 47].

Fisherfolks mostly work under harsh conditions of either extreme hot or cold weather. Working under hot weather conditions exposes the fisherfolks to sun radiation from the sun thereby causing skin burn. According to Kennedy et al*.* [48] and Coups *et al*. [49], exposure to sun rays causes skin cancer. Working under extremely cold condition on rainy days could result into respiratory problems such

Since artisanal fishery is attributed with the use of obnoxious fishing methods such as the use of chemicals and explosives, water bodies are both polluted and destroyed thereby affecting artisanal fishing. According to their findings, Oyediran *et al.* [50] identified flood disasters, physical injuries, stings and bites, cuts and wounds, and leach attack as the most common occupational health hazards in artisanal fish production. According to them, considerable income and man-days are lost as a result of occupational health hazards. Udolisa *et al.* [9] also researched into the occupational and health hazards in Nigerian coastal fisheries while using the mixed method of data collection. The authors summarized that coastal artisanal fisheries in Nigeria is associated with body injuries such as cuts, fish bites, fire

Fish processing is a phase/stage in the fish value chain associated with fish and fish products between the time of harvest and the time of delivering the final product to the consumer [51]. Fish processing includes smoking, chilling and freezing, canning, and the production of other value-added products [23–24, 52–53]. Apart from minimizing postharvest losses of fish, fish processing adds to the nutritive

Various hazards have been reported in fish processing industry which ranges from redness/swelling of the eye (which is the commonest) to mechanical and electrical accidents, bacterial and parasitic infections, noise induced hearing loss, allergic respiratory diseases and stress related health problems. Processors and other workers in the fish processing industry are susceptible to many hazards while doing their work [26]. Following the review of previous literatures [23], occupational hazards in fish processing are discussed under physical, chemical, biological,

Physical hazards in fish processing include minor cuts and scrapes resulting from the use of knives and other sharp tools, falls caused by slippery floors, burns, hypertension, eye disease, stings from fish spines arising when one is handling fish without the use of appropriate safety devices, whitlow resulting from bacterial or fungal infection of the tip of one's finger and/or toe, exposure to heat and cold leading to headache, sneezing and/or coughing, eye injury such as redness of the eye, burns, head injury, and bruising [54]. Redness of the eye results when the eye have direct contact with the smoke especially during smoking or frying fish with local/ traditional kilns that make use of fuel woods thereby leading to the eye surface being red [23]. It is associated with itching, mucus discharge, pain or even blurred vision. According to Norwegian Labor Inspection Authority [55], sprain and fracture could be caused by slippery floors and stairs when carrying loads and materials while processing fish. Although Udolisa *et al*. [9] noted that injuries from minor cuts and scrapes due to their non-fatal nature does not lead to prolonged loss of work, it is important to treat cuts and wounds so as not to expose them to infections. Stings from fish can sometimes be poisonous and cause severe pains especially when

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94205*

as sneezing and coughing.

injuries, and foundering.

value of the fish [54].

These result into musculoskeletal injuries [10].

**6.3 Occupational hazards in fish processing**

ergonomic, and psychosocial hazards.

exposed to tetanus infection [23].

#### *Occupational Health Hazards Associated with Nigerian Fisheries DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94205*

*Occupational Wellbeing*

and night-time work and offshore operations [42].

**6.1 Occupational hazards in aquaculture**

common cause of asthma.

hazards to fishers.

occupational hazards in Nigeria. Where available, data are mostly not disaggregated by subsectors. More importantly, there is dearth of information on occupational hazards associated with the fisheries industry. Apart from the general hazards associated with the agriculture sector, workers in the fishery subsector are exposed to other numerous hazards related to water impoundments, transportation, shift

According to Erondu and Anyanwu [24], hazards in aquaculture can be classified into physical, chemical and biological. Physical risk factors in the aquaculture industry include injuries such as stings from fish spines, cuts, sprains, fractures, asthma and rhinitis, snake bites, crab crawling and bites from fish as well as mechanical injuries associated with laboratories. Physical hazards in the aquacul-

The use of locally fabricated equipment/machines in most of the feedmills in Nigeria exposes the workers to excessive noise which results in loss of hearing and mental fatigue. Some fish species such as *Clarias gariepinus, Protopterus aethiopicus, Barbus intermedius, Oreochromis niloticus, Baringoensis* and *Lado cylindricus* have fins which can prick fish farmers and their workers if not handled with care [26]. According to Dorooshi [43], Catfish species have strong pectoral fins with spines which are capable of pricking fish farmers as well as sharp teeth used in biting workers during sorting and harvesting in the aquaculture industry. The biting and pricking caused by fish spines and sharp teeth could lead to injuries which are mainly non-fatal but according to Olaoye [26], can lead to amputation of fingers if exposed to viral and bacterial infections. Cuts resulting from the use of sharp objects such as knives and oyster shell are additional causes of injuries [24]. Erondu and Anyanwu [24] also noted that needle stick injury could result among hatchery workers. Aquaculture workers in the feedmill are also prone to asthma caused by dusts from the mixture of different food particles including flour. According to Karkkainen [44], dust released from flour and animal feedmill is the second most

Aquaculture workers are also exposed to chemical hazards as a result of inorganic fertilizers, lime, pesticides and formaldehyde in fish ponds; acute and chronic pollution of water ways; flocculants, and disinfectants. The biological hazards in

Like the aquaculture component, the artisanal fishery is also inherently associated with numerous hazards. In fact, fishing seems to be riskier than aquaculture. According to Oyediran *et al*. [45], fishers are vulnerable due to depleting stock arising from over fishing and excessive pressures on available resources, environmental degradation due to flooding, deforestation and menace of water hyacinth. Industrial activities such as oil spillage, canalization, construction of hydroelectric dams also destabilize ecosystems and fishing activities thereby posing serious occupational

Just like with the workers in the aquaculture industry, fisherfolks in the artisanal

fishery sector are exposed to injuries caused by bites and pricks from sharp fish spines and fins [9, 45]. Additionally, most if not all the fishermen in Nigeria still makes use of hook and line or longline. The fisherfolks can also sustain injuries when trying to remove the hooks from harvested fish and when attaching baits onto the hooks [46]. The tasks of the workers in artisanal fishery include repetitive

aquaculture include parasitic infestation and pathogenic infections.

**6.2 Occupational hazards in artisanal fishing**

ture industry could mainly be in form of noise, injuries and asthma [24].

**22**

lifting and pulling of heavy fish loads into fishing vessels, and offloading [8, 47]. These result into musculoskeletal injuries [10].

Fisherfolks mostly work under harsh conditions of either extreme hot or cold weather. Working under hot weather conditions exposes the fisherfolks to sun radiation from the sun thereby causing skin burn. According to Kennedy et al*.* [48] and Coups *et al*. [49], exposure to sun rays causes skin cancer. Working under extremely cold condition on rainy days could result into respiratory problems such as sneezing and coughing.

Since artisanal fishery is attributed with the use of obnoxious fishing methods such as the use of chemicals and explosives, water bodies are both polluted and destroyed thereby affecting artisanal fishing. According to their findings, Oyediran *et al.* [50] identified flood disasters, physical injuries, stings and bites, cuts and wounds, and leach attack as the most common occupational health hazards in artisanal fish production. According to them, considerable income and man-days are lost as a result of occupational health hazards. Udolisa *et al.* [9] also researched into the occupational and health hazards in Nigerian coastal fisheries while using the mixed method of data collection. The authors summarized that coastal artisanal fisheries in Nigeria is associated with body injuries such as cuts, fish bites, fire injuries, and foundering.

#### **6.3 Occupational hazards in fish processing**

Fish processing is a phase/stage in the fish value chain associated with fish and fish products between the time of harvest and the time of delivering the final product to the consumer [51]. Fish processing includes smoking, chilling and freezing, canning, and the production of other value-added products [23–24, 52–53]. Apart from minimizing postharvest losses of fish, fish processing adds to the nutritive value of the fish [54].

Various hazards have been reported in fish processing industry which ranges from redness/swelling of the eye (which is the commonest) to mechanical and electrical accidents, bacterial and parasitic infections, noise induced hearing loss, allergic respiratory diseases and stress related health problems. Processors and other workers in the fish processing industry are susceptible to many hazards while doing their work [26]. Following the review of previous literatures [23], occupational hazards in fish processing are discussed under physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic, and psychosocial hazards.

Physical hazards in fish processing include minor cuts and scrapes resulting from the use of knives and other sharp tools, falls caused by slippery floors, burns, hypertension, eye disease, stings from fish spines arising when one is handling fish without the use of appropriate safety devices, whitlow resulting from bacterial or fungal infection of the tip of one's finger and/or toe, exposure to heat and cold leading to headache, sneezing and/or coughing, eye injury such as redness of the eye, burns, head injury, and bruising [54]. Redness of the eye results when the eye have direct contact with the smoke especially during smoking or frying fish with local/ traditional kilns that make use of fuel woods thereby leading to the eye surface being red [23]. It is associated with itching, mucus discharge, pain or even blurred vision.

According to Norwegian Labor Inspection Authority [55], sprain and fracture could be caused by slippery floors and stairs when carrying loads and materials while processing fish. Although Udolisa *et al*. [9] noted that injuries from minor cuts and scrapes due to their non-fatal nature does not lead to prolonged loss of work, it is important to treat cuts and wounds so as not to expose them to infections. Stings from fish can sometimes be poisonous and cause severe pains especially when exposed to tetanus infection [23].

Handling of fish in preparation for processing involves the dipping of hands in cold water even on rainy days for a long time resulting in respiratory irritation such as sneezing and coughing, blanching and sores in the hands which could lead to whitlow on the tips of the fingers and at times, toes [23]. According to authors [26, 56–57], whitlow is a serious fungal or bacterial infection which is very painful and can result to amputation of the finger, toe or nail. Headache, fatigue and general weakness of the body could also be the consequences under the sun, in extreme heat or with cold water for too long.

In Nigeria, fish processing is characterized with low level of mechanization which involves the use of fuel woods for smoking and/or frying of fish [51, 58]. The implication includes that the fish processors and their workers spend reasonably long duration (mostly from morning till night) in the open under the radiation from sunlight. Since smoking is the commonest method of processing fish in Nigeria [39, 51], the fish processors are highly exposed to smoke fire/naked flame of extremely high temperature which has adverse effect on the health of the fish processors [59]. The report of Adei *et al.* [59] submitted that work-related injuries and diseases resulted in the loss of 7% of the total annual income of the fish processors in 2016.Noise and/or vibration is another important physical hazards associated with fish processing as fish processors are frequently exposed to noise and vibrations at landing sites. This has the tendency to cause either temporary or permanent hearing impairment depending on the level of exposure [9].

Biological hazards that fish processors are exposed to especially while harvesting fish from ponds without wearing protective clothing include parasites (leeches, nematodes, cestodes) and pathogenic infections such as *Vibrio vulnificus* [59]*.* According to Kolndadacha *et al.* [60], infectious diseases caused by virus, fungi, bacteria and even protozoa can be transmitted by farmers as a result of handling fish or eating improperly cooked fish.

The chemical hazards associated with fish processing include principally the inhalation of smoke which can cause asthma and other respiratory ailments. Fish processors could also be exposed to smoke particles that contain potential or confirmed carcinogens such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons – PAHs [61]. The use of disinfectants such as formalin and Gamalin 20 also poses health hazards to consumers of fish because of residual effect [23]. Ergonomic hazards associated with fish processing include internal injuries of the liver, spleen, stomach, colon, pancreas and blood vessels which can be caused by motor vehicle accidents, blunt trauma or penetrating injuries [62]. Broken bone/dislocation, back strain and sprain are additional ergonomic hazards faced by fish processors.

In fish processing, psychosocial hazards result from prolonged work and mental demand. According to the review made by Mshelia *et al.* [23], extra hours of work might put fish processors at a greater risk of depression. Handling an insane amount of workload lately is definitely an act of inching towards depression which gives room for the occurrence of other hazards. Studies have suggested the symptoms of prolonged work to include appetite loss, disturbed sleep, constantly sulking, muscle fatigue, loss of energy, indecisiveness, and poor concentration at work [63]. The mental demand is the potent force in achievement as the attitude of the mind affects the expression of the face, determines action, changes our physical condition and regulates our lives [64].

An empirical evidence of hazards associated with fish processing was provided through a study by Olaoye *et al.* [54], whose findings revealed that the working condition of artisanal fish processors was generally poor as majority of the fish processors reported that they worked frequently with poorly designed equipment, poorly maintained facilities, poorly constructed equipment, under constrained neck posture, and with poor hand tools. The most common category of the hazards

**25**

of Oyo State, Nigeria.

**7. Conclusions**

authors recommend that:

associated risks and hazards;

*Occupational Health Hazards Associated with Nigerian Fisheries*

**Occupational hazards Artisanal** 

associated with fish smoking, according to Olaoye *et al.* [54] is the chemical hazards (exposure to smoke, fumes and gases). From one of the studies of Dhakal and Nayak [65], musculoskeletal symptoms were reportedly experienced by majority of the fish processors, and that musculoskeletal problems were promoted by faulty body posture, repetitive activity, and poor condition of the work environment. To Ibrahim *et al*. [66], the major occupational hazards among fish processors in Nassarawa State, Nigeria were redness and/or swelling of the eye. In supporting this report, Olopade [67] reported skin rashes and redness of the eye as the major occupational hazards among small scale women fish processors around Asejire Dam

*Summary of occupational hazards in artisanal fishing, aquaculture and fish processing.*

**fishing**

Noise/vibration Common Common Common Stings/bites from fish Common Common Common Cuts from knives and other sharp objects Not common Common Common

Asthma Not common Common Common Musculoskeletal injuries Common Common Common Skin cancer Common Not common Common Redness of eye Not common Not common Common Respiratory problems (sneezing, coughing) Common Common Common Skin burns Not common Not common Common Chemical hazards Common Common Common Biological hazards Common Common Not common Psychosocial hazards Common Common Common

**Aquaculture Fish** 

Common Not common Not common

**processing**

Occupational hazards common in artisanal fisheries, aquaculture and fish processing were compared in terms of prevalence as summarized in **Table 1**.

Review of literature on occupational hazards associated with fisheries has shown that fisheries like other components of agriculture is a very risky venture which can lead to severe injuries and eventual death if workers' health is not protected and promoted within the industry. It further indicated that although the different value chains are affected by different hazards at varying levels depending on level of exposure and scale of operation as well as the adherence to safety in the workplace, the fisheries industry is vulnerable to physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic and psychosocial hazards. Occupational hazards generally have negative effects on the level of production of fish, revenue from fisheries, and loss of man-days. The

1.Awareness should be raised among workers and employees in the fisheries industry on occupational safety and health. The awareness should focus on the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94205*

Wounds from fishing gears (longlines, hook and

line)

**Table 1.**

*Occupational Health Hazards Associated with Nigerian Fisheries DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94205*


#### **Table 1.**

*Occupational Wellbeing*

extreme heat or with cold water for too long.

hearing impairment depending on the level of exposure [9].

are additional ergonomic hazards faced by fish processors.

fish or eating improperly cooked fish.

Handling of fish in preparation for processing involves the dipping of hands in cold water even on rainy days for a long time resulting in respiratory irritation such as sneezing and coughing, blanching and sores in the hands which could lead to whitlow on the tips of the fingers and at times, toes [23]. According to authors [26, 56–57], whitlow is a serious fungal or bacterial infection which is very painful and can result to amputation of the finger, toe or nail. Headache, fatigue and general weakness of the body could also be the consequences under the sun, in

In Nigeria, fish processing is characterized with low level of mechanization which involves the use of fuel woods for smoking and/or frying of fish [51, 58]. The implication includes that the fish processors and their workers spend reasonably long duration (mostly from morning till night) in the open under the radiation from sunlight. Since smoking is the commonest method of processing fish in Nigeria [39, 51], the fish processors are highly exposed to smoke fire/naked flame of extremely high temperature which has adverse effect on the health of the fish processors [59]. The report of Adei *et al.* [59] submitted that work-related injuries and diseases resulted in the loss of 7% of the total annual income of the fish processors in 2016.Noise and/or vibration is another important physical hazards associated with fish processing as fish processors are frequently exposed to noise and vibrations at landing sites. This has the tendency to cause either temporary or permanent

Biological hazards that fish processors are exposed to especially while harvesting

fish from ponds without wearing protective clothing include parasites (leeches, nematodes, cestodes) and pathogenic infections such as *Vibrio vulnificus* [59]*.* According to Kolndadacha *et al.* [60], infectious diseases caused by virus, fungi, bacteria and even protozoa can be transmitted by farmers as a result of handling

The chemical hazards associated with fish processing include principally the inhalation of smoke which can cause asthma and other respiratory ailments. Fish processors could also be exposed to smoke particles that contain potential or confirmed carcinogens such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons – PAHs [61]. The use of disinfectants such as formalin and Gamalin 20 also poses health hazards to consumers of fish because of residual effect [23]. Ergonomic hazards associated with fish processing include internal injuries of the liver, spleen, stomach, colon, pancreas and blood vessels which can be caused by motor vehicle accidents, blunt trauma or penetrating injuries [62]. Broken bone/dislocation, back strain and sprain

In fish processing, psychosocial hazards result from prolonged work and mental demand. According to the review made by Mshelia *et al.* [23], extra hours of work might put fish processors at a greater risk of depression. Handling an insane amount of workload lately is definitely an act of inching towards depression which gives room for the occurrence of other hazards. Studies have suggested the symptoms of prolonged work to include appetite loss, disturbed sleep, constantly sulking, muscle fatigue, loss of energy, indecisiveness, and poor concentration at work [63]. The mental demand is the potent force in achievement as the attitude of the mind affects the expression of the face, determines action, changes our physical condition and

An empirical evidence of hazards associated with fish processing was provided through a study by Olaoye *et al.* [54], whose findings revealed that the working condition of artisanal fish processors was generally poor as majority of the fish processors reported that they worked frequently with poorly designed equipment, poorly maintained facilities, poorly constructed equipment, under constrained neck posture, and with poor hand tools. The most common category of the hazards

**24**

regulates our lives [64].

*Summary of occupational hazards in artisanal fishing, aquaculture and fish processing.*

associated with fish smoking, according to Olaoye *et al.* [54] is the chemical hazards (exposure to smoke, fumes and gases). From one of the studies of Dhakal and Nayak [65], musculoskeletal symptoms were reportedly experienced by majority of the fish processors, and that musculoskeletal problems were promoted by faulty body posture, repetitive activity, and poor condition of the work environment.

To Ibrahim *et al*. [66], the major occupational hazards among fish processors in Nassarawa State, Nigeria were redness and/or swelling of the eye. In supporting this report, Olopade [67] reported skin rashes and redness of the eye as the major occupational hazards among small scale women fish processors around Asejire Dam of Oyo State, Nigeria.

Occupational hazards common in artisanal fisheries, aquaculture and fish processing were compared in terms of prevalence as summarized in **Table 1**.

#### **7. Conclusions**

Review of literature on occupational hazards associated with fisheries has shown that fisheries like other components of agriculture is a very risky venture which can lead to severe injuries and eventual death if workers' health is not protected and promoted within the industry. It further indicated that although the different value chains are affected by different hazards at varying levels depending on level of exposure and scale of operation as well as the adherence to safety in the workplace, the fisheries industry is vulnerable to physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic and psychosocial hazards. Occupational hazards generally have negative effects on the level of production of fish, revenue from fisheries, and loss of man-days. The authors recommend that:

1.Awareness should be raised among workers and employees in the fisheries industry on occupational safety and health. The awareness should focus on the associated risks and hazards;

