We are IntechOpen, the world's leading publisher of Open Access books Built by scientists, for scientists

5,300+

Open access books available

132,000+

International authors and editors

156M+

Downloads

156 Countries delivered to Our authors are among the

Top 1% most cited scientists

12.2% Contributors from top 500 universities

Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI)

## Interested in publishing with us? Contact book.department@intechopen.com

Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected. For more information visit www.intechopen.com

## IntechOpen Book Series Infectious Diseases Volume 8

Dr. Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales received his MD from Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, and his MSc in Protozoology/ Parasitology from Universidad de Los Andes, Trujillo, Venezuela. He received his Diploma in Tropical Medicine & Hygiene (DTM&H) from Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru, and the University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama, USA. He also holds a DipEd. Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is a fellow

of the Royal Society for Tropical Medicine & Hygiene (FRSTMH), London, United Kingdom; of the Faculty of Travel Medicine (FFTM) of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow (RCPSG), Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom; of the American College of Epidemiology (FACE), USA; and of the International Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (FISAC). He has a HonDSc from Universidad Privada Franz Tamayo (UniFranz), Cochabamba, Bolivia. He is also the president of the Travel Medicine Committee and Pan American Infectious Diseases Association, and the vice president of the Colombian Infectious Diseases Association (2019–2021). He is a Member of the Council (2020-2026), International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). He is a senior researcher of Colciencias (2015– 2021), and a professor at the Fundación Universitaria Autónoma de las Américas, Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia, and the Universidad Cientifica del Sur, Lima, Peru. He is an external professor for the Master in Research of Tropical Medicine and International Health, University of Barcelona, Spain, and a visiting professor at multiple national and international universities.

**Editor of Volume 8: Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales** Grupo de Investigación Biomedicina, Faculty of Medicine, Fundación Universitaria Autónoma de las Américas, Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia

**Book Series Editor: Shailendra K. Saxena** King George's Medical University

## Scope of the Series

Contents

**Section 1**

Emerging Ecosocial Challenges

*Tomas Orduna and José A. Suárez*

Elimination Efforts

Malaria Elimination

*and James K. Tibenderana*

**Section 2**

*by Chukwudi Michael Egbuche*

**Preface XIII**

Advances in Diagnosis **1**

**Chapter 1 3**

**Chapter 2 15**

**Chapter 3 39**

Epidemiology and Surveillance **55**

**Chapter 4 57**

**Chapter 5 71**

Introductory Chapter: Malaria Elimination - A Challenge with Multiple

*Lucia E. Alvarado-Arnez, Carlos Franco-Paredes, Juan-Carlos Navarro,*

*by Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales, Jaime A. Cardona-Ospina, D. Katterine Bonilla-Aldana, Luis Andrés Salas-Matta, Wilmer E. Villamil-Gómez, Juan Pablo Escalera-Antezana,*

Point-of-Care Strategies Applied to Malaria Diagnosis

*Angelina Moraes Silva and Dhelio Batista Pereira*

*by Arantxa Roca-Feltrer, Ann-Sophie Stratil* 

*by Alexandre Dias Tavares Costa, Anna Caroline Campos Aguiar,* 

Prompt and Accurate Diagnosis, A Veritable Tool in Malaria

Malaria Elimination: The Role and Value of Sero-Surveillance *by Kingsley Badu, Amma Aboagyewa Larbi and Kwadwo Boampong*

The Role of Adaptive Surveillance as a Core Intervention to Achieve

The series will give a most comprehensive overview of recent trends in various infectious diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification), as well as general concepts of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology and etiology to current clinical recommendations in management of infectious diseases, highlighting the ongoing issues, recent advances, with future directions in diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is very important for safeguarding human race from more loss of resources and economies due to pathogens.

## Contents



**Section 4**

**III**

*by Francis S.O. Ugwu*

Prevention, Vector Control and Vaccines **261**

**Chapter 14 263**

**Chapter 15 285**

Herding and Stampeding: The Albatross of Mosquito/Malaria Control

T Cell-Based Vaccines: Hope for Malaria Elimination

*by Nikunj Tandel and Sarat K. Dalai*


**Chapter 6 83**

**Chapter 7 97**

**Chapter 8 119**

Policy and Prevention **131**

**Chapter 9 133**

**Chapter 10 159**

**Chapter 11 187**

**Chapter 12 195**

**Chapter 13 223**

Increased Trends of *P. vivax* in Sub-Saharan Africa: What Does it Mean

*by Mary Aigbiremo Oboh, Mamadou Ndiath, Olumide Ajibola,* 

*by Abhichandan Das, Upasana Pathak, Sanchaita Rajkhowa* 

Epidemic in the Democratic of Republic of Congo

*Jean Paul Mbikayi Muya and Michèle Dramaix*

New Challenges in Malaria Elimination *by Susanta Kumar Ghosh and Chaitali Ghosh*

*by Isaac K. Quaye and Larysa Aleksenko*

*Yaw A. Afrane, Daniel A. Janies and Eugenia Lo*

*by Liwang Cui, Awtum Brashear, Lynette Menezes* 

*Plasmodium falciparum*: Experimental and Theoretical Approaches

Malaria Lethality in Children under 5 Years of Age and Study of Risk Factors in MbujiMayi Paediatric Environment, a Neglected Deadly

*by Félicien Ilunga-Ilunga, Alain Levêque, Vévé Mbuyi Kanyinda,* 

Elimination of *Plasmodium vivax* Malaria: Problems and Solutions

*Plasmodium vivax* and *Plasmodium ovale* in the Malaria Elimination

Progress in Parasite Genomics and Its Application to Current Challenges

*by Cheikh Cambel Dieng, Colby T. Ford, Jennifer Huynh, Linda E. Amoah,* 

Using an Educational Training Module to Increase Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices of Malaria among Medicine Vendors in Yobe, Nigeria *by Yahaya Mohammed Katagum, Hayati Binti Kadir Shahar, Faisal Bin Ibrahim, Anisah Baharom and Rafee Baharudin*

*Kolapo Oyebola and Alfred Amambua-Ngwa*

for Malaria Elimination?

in Last 20 Years

**Section 3**

*and John Adams*

Agenda in Africa

in Malaria Control

**II**

*and Anupam Nath Jha*

Preface

Malaria is one of the most important tropical diseases in the history of the world. This vector-borne disease has been a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in tropical countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Like most tropical diseases, this parasitic disease is strongly associated with environmental and social conditions along with other factors whose improvement leads to a reduction in the disease. This effect has been observed in multiple countries where the development and control of the disease have resulted in the reduction and outright elimination of malaria, as evidenced in El Salvador and Argentina [1–16]. Conversely, adverse or poor environmental and social conditions may trigger reemergence, persistence, and an increase in diseases like malaria, as is the unfortunate situation in Venezuela. This once rich country is now the worst economy of South America and is witnessing the reemergence of multiple vector-borne diseases, especially malaria, as well as vaccine-preventable diseases such as measles, diphtheria, pertussis, and yellow fever, among others

Keeping these issues in mind, this book presents research and clinical topics related to malaria elimination in the world. The book's fifteen chapters are organized in four major sections: "Advances in Diagnosis"; "Epidemiology and Surveillance"; "Policy and Prevention"; and "Prevention, Vector Control and

Commissioning of this book by IntechOpen is related in part to my long commitment to vector-borne, zoonotic, and neglected tropical diseases. I am co-chair of the Working Group on Zoonoses of the International Society for Chemotherapy (WGZ-ISC), as well as of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses and Travel Medicine of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (Asociación Colombiana de Infectología; ACIN). Since January 2016, I have also been the chair of the Colombian Collaborative Network of Research on Zika (Red Colombiana de Colaboración en Zika; RECOLZIKA). RECOLZIKA has contributed in many ways to the research on Zika in Colombia and other countries in Latin America, including research on congenital Zika syndrome and Guillain-Barré syndrome, among other clinical consequences of this arbovi-

I have been involved in tropical diseases for the last two decades, including not only malaria but also leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, and dengue, and since 2014, chikungunya and emerging arboviruses, such as Zika and Mayaro. Since moving from Venezuela to Colombia in 2011, I have been involved in research of tropical diseases in Risaralda. Part of all this is a clear reflection of the work impulse at the Public Health and Infection Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, directed by Dr. Guillermo Javier Lagos-Grisales. Dr. Lagos-Grisales is not just a partner, a colleague, and a friend,

[17–20].

Vaccines."

ral disease.
