**1. Introduction**

#### **1.1 EVs characteristics**

The release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is a long-known phenomenon widely reported, mainly in eukaryotes [1–4]. Archaea and Bacteria also release EVs, making their occurrence an evolutionally conserved feature among all three kingdoms [5]. They can be referred as membrane vesicles, microvesicles, ectosomes, exosomes, apoptotic bodies, outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), and others, depending on their origin and characteristics [5, 6]. The study of these particles is of great interest, as they are considered a mechanism of cell-free intercellular communication and *trans* kingdom interactions [7]. They are composed of a lipid bilayer and range from 20 to 1000 nm. They carry several bioactive molecules, such as proteins, lipids, metabolites, and nucleic acids, and were shown to modulate the metabolism and physiology of local or distant target cells [8]. Recently, the study of bacterial EVs has gained attention since they can affect pathogen-host interactions and contribute to bacterial pathogenesis.
