**Funding**

*Type 2 Diabetes - From Pathophysiology to Cyber Systems*

of ethylene concentrations.

complications.

**7. Conclusions**

gas detection.

diabetes.

ammonia in respiration.

Breath ethylene concentrations in subjects with T2DM was found in higher level compared with healthy subjects. Breath ethylene is considered a marker of oxidative stress, being an end-product of LP, caused by the attack of free radicals on polyunsaturated fatty acids. The damage related to free radical's action increase and a direct measurement of the damage can be achieved by quantitative determination

Ammonia is a biomarker of protein metabolism, and at subjects with T2DM,

In subjects with T2DM by measuring the percentage of HbA1c, clinicians are able to get an overall picture of the average blood sugar levels have been for the past 2–3 months. Through our measurements, the diabetics present a high level of glycated hemoglobin HbA1c. An increased level of HbA1c reflect a poor metabolic

The relation between level of ammonia and ethylene in the exhaled breath and T2DM could be explained by the inadequate insulin control with disease progression by development of complications such as oxidative stress, inflammatory syndrome, and hypertension. The studies show a relation between hyperglycemia, oxidative stress and inflammation coexist in pathological processes but also that hyperglycemia and free radicals increase the oxidative stress which will then

Future studies are needed to understand the relationship between them and the

Real-time breath ethylene and ammonia monitoring in subjects with type-2

This paper has presented accurate measurement of breath ethylene and ammonia concentrations and the results obtained in comparison with the blood samples analysis have demonstrated the suitability of the experimental PA system for trace

This study shows a high level of oxidative stress in people with diabetes through a high level of glycated hemoglobin HbA1c, and high concentrations of ethylene and

Our study suggests that sensitive, noninvasive, real-time analysis of oxidative stress, using ethylene and ammonia as breath biomarkers, distinguishes healthy subjects from those with type 2 diabetes and controlled by uncontrolled

The breath analysis may also bring opportunities in molecular monitoring for

Despite these advances, there is a continuing need for miniaturized devices, in addition to a precise and easy to use instrument, which should provide a quick

Further research is therefore required to expand the applicability of breath

control of the patients with diabetes in uncontrolled T2DM [102–106].

activate the inflammatory processes [97, 107].

diabetes using a CO2LPAS system was realized.

other research fields by using an LPAS system.

response, preferably in real time.

analysis in clinical diagnosis.

importance of breath ammonia and ethylene biomarkers.

insulin deprivation is associated with an increase in amino acids and by an accelerated protein catabolism. Moreover, we found that breath ethylene and ammonia concentrations are higher in T2DM subjects that present hypertension and/or inflammatory syndrome than in those without complications. It is known that T2DM lead to complications like kidney failure, heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, but there is a lack of information of ammonia level in subjects with T2DM and the relationship between ammonia level and diabetes

**160**

This work was supported by Romanian Ministry of Education and Research, under Romanian National Nucleu Program LAPLAS VI – contract n. 16 N/2019.
