**4. Effects of essential oils as antifungal agents**

Some EOs demonstrate a broad range of natural fungicidal effects against post-harvest pathogens, especially because of their bioactivity in the vapor phase for storage applications [54]. However, more time is needed for vaporphase bioactivity effect, possible absorption into the food material needed to be considered [55]. Antifungal activity might be affected by the targeted fungal physiological activity [56].

The reported effective compounds against food-borne fungi, including *Aspergillus niger*; *A. flavus;* and *A. parasiticus* is carvacrol and thymol [57]. Waterdistilled EO from leaves and flowers of *Micromeria nubigena* H.B.K. (Lamiaceae) also showed anti-fungal properties [58]. Essential oils from thymol at 500 μg/ml concentration and at 1.0% and 100 μg/ml concentrations; cinnamic aldehyde and eugenol extracted from cinnamon and clove at 1.0% and 100 μg/ml concentrations also showed anti-fungal properties [59]. *Aspergillus parasiticus* growth and Aflatoxins production has been inhibited by *Thymus vulgaris* and *Citrus aurantifolia*. On the other hand *Mentha spicata* L., *Foeniculum miller*, *Azadirachta indica* A. Juss, *Conium maculatum*, and *Artemisia dracunculus* has only inhibited the fungal growth. While *Carum carvi* L. has controlled aflatoxin production without effect on the fungal growth [34]. Linalool and methyl chavicol and vanillin extracted from sweet basil and vanilla at 2000 μg/ml concentration has the same effect on aflatoxin production [59].

Hydro-distilled EOs of stems, leaves (at vegetative and flowering stages) and flowers of *Eugenia chlorophylla* O. Berg. (Myrtaceae) and various extracts of thyme, were active against molds and yeasts [59–61], respectively. Oleoresin extracted from cinnamon and clove inhibited mycotoxin-producing *Aspergillus* and *Penicillium* species at 2.0% w/v, 300 μg/ml concentrations [59].

Higher levels of phenolic compounds in thyme and clove showed antifungal effects. Phenolic compounds, such as allyl isothiocyanate and citralon in mustard and lemongrass, have been more effective as volatiles [62]; however, in EOs such as marjoram oil, they have been effectively antifungal in a matrix with mainly hydrocarbons [56].
