We are IntechOpen, the world's leading publisher of Open Access books Built by scientists, for scientists

4,900+

Open access books available

123,000+

140M+

Downloads

International authors and editors

151 Countries delivered to Our authors are among the

Top 1%

most cited scientists

12.2%

Contributors from top 500 universities

Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI)

## Interested in publishing with us? Contact book.department@intechopen.com

Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected. For more information visit www.intechopen.com

## Meet the editor

Dr. Sandro Misciagna was born in 1969. He received a degree in medicine in 1995 and in neurology in 1999 from Catholic University, Rome. From 1993 to 1995 he worked at a research laboratory studying cerebellar functions of mice; from 1994 to 2003 he studied cognitive and behavioural disorders; and from 2001 to 2003 he taught neuropsychology, neurology, and cognitive rehabilitation. In 2003 he obtained a PhD in Neuroscience with

a thesis on the behavioural and cognitive profile of frontotemporal dementia. As a clinician, he has worked in neurological, neuro-rehabilitative, and neuropsychiatric clinics. Since November 2016 he has worked in the neurological department of Belcolle Hospital, Viterbo. His interests include epilepsy and neurophysiology.

Contents

**Section 1**

Disorder *by Işık Görker*

**Section 2**

*by Maria Tzouriadou*

*by Misciagna Sandro*

Foundation Year *by Diane Montgomery*

*and Jocelyn Ching-Yan Kwok*

of Thinking in Fraction Learning

*by Suprih Widodo and Trisno Ikhwanudin*

**Preface XI**

of Learning Disabilities **1**

**Chapter 1 3**

**Chapter 2 17**

**Chapter 3 29**

Differential Diagnosis of Common Learning Disabilities **41**

**Chapter 4 43**

**Chapter 5 63**

**Chapter 6 77**

General Definition, Epidemiology and Neurobiological Bases

Concepts and Ambiguities in the Field of Learning Disabilities

The Prevalence and Gender Differences in Specific Learning

Identifying and Remediating Dyslexia in Kindergarten and the

The Heterogeneity of Reading-Related Difficulties in Chinese

Students with Mathematics Learning Disabilities and Their Ways

*by Connie Suk-Han Ho, Edmond Hong-Kei Cheung* 

Neural Correlates in Learning Disabilities

## Contents



Preface

Learning disabilities (LDs) consist of impairment in one or more cognitive domains such as written or spoken expression, reading, math, information processing, and memory. Individuals with LDs have lower than expected measured intelligence for their age. LDs negatively affect children, their families, and ultimately society. It is important to note that there is not a universal consensus regarding the definition

According to the United States Office of Education (1977), the term "specific learning disability" means a disorder in one or more basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Such terms do not include children who have LDs that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, of intellectual disability, of emotional

disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

According to the National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (1997), "learning disabilities" is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical skills.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) defines "specific learning disability" as an impairment in one or more of the following cognitive domains: understanding or using written or spoken language, math, information processing, memory, or reading, including dyslexia, orthographic impairment (inability to memorize words), and hyperlexia (comprehension difficulties). The IDEA also includes in the definition of LDs conditions such as developmental aphasia, perceptual disabilities, brain injury, and minimal brain dysfunction.

Finally, the American Psychiatric Association (2013) defines "learning disorders"

as specific disorders of reading, writing expression, or mathematics skills that are lower than expected for the individual's age, measured intelligence, and

LDs affect approximately 10 percent of children in the United States. Of these children, about 40 percent have learning disabilities in language, reading, math

Language or speech impairment affects about 18.5 percent of American children. Dyslexia is the most common disability, affecting about 80 percent. Children with intellectual disability (7.4 percent) also have comorbidity with learning and

Other cognitive deficits, such as memory problems, attentional deficits, and difficulty managing social interactions are not typically considered LDs.

age-appropriate education level.

information processing, or memory.

emotional disturbances.

of LDs.
