Assessment of Speech and Language-Based Learning Disabilities

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

[15] Capovilla AGS, Joly MCRA,

Raad AJ. Estratégias de leitura e desempenho em escrita no início da alfabetização. Psicologia Escolar e Educacional. 2004;**8**(2):189-197. DOI: 10.1590/S1413-85572004000200007

Ferracini F, Caparrotti NB, Carvalho MR,

[16] Nunes DRP, Walter EC. Processos de leitura em educandos com autismo: um estudo de revisão. Revista Brasileira de Educação Especial, Marília;**22,** 

[17] Corso HV, Sperb TM, Jou GI, Salles JF. Metacognição e funções executivas: relações entre os conceitos e implicações para a aprendizagem. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa. 2013;**29**(1):21-29. DOI: 10.1590/ S0102-37722013000100004

[18] Pellicano E. Links between theory of mind and executive function in young children with autism: Clues to developmental primacy. Developmental Psychology. 2007;**43**(4):974-990. DOI: 10.1037/0012 1649.43.4.974

[19] Meyer LKC. A Compreensão de leitura e a Teoria da Mente em crianças com autismo. Pouso Alegre. 2018:190f

[20] Massaro DW, Bosseler A. Read my lips: The importance of the face in a computer-animated tutor for vocabulary learning by children with autism. Autism. 2006;**10**(5):495-510. DOI: 10.1177/1362361306066599

**2016**(4):619-632

**128**

**131**

**Chapter 10**

*Maria Rontou*

**1. Introduction**

**Abstract**

Contradictions around

Inter-collegial Collaboration

Assessment for Pupils with Dyslexia

in Greek State Secondary Schools

This chapter discusses the issue of inter-collegial collaboration regarding differentiated assessment and marking for students with dyslexia in two Greek state secondary schools. Activity theory is used to analyse the contradictions that arise around the issue of differentiated assessment for pupils with dyslexia from data collected from interviews with headteachers, teachers, pupils and parents and field notes from observation across two schools. The analysis demonstrates that contradictions are created when participants try to achieve their goals for differentiation by the lack of staff meetings and collaboration between colleagues in the same school. The findings suggest the necessity of a staff meeting in the beginning of the school year regarding students with dyslexia requiring support and differentiation

or the introduction of a list of pupils with dyslexia and their profiles.

that all teachers communicate regarding students with dyslexia.

assessment, contradictions, secondary schools

**Keywords:** pupils with dyslexia, inter-collegial collaboration, differentiated

This chapter discusses the issue of inter-collegial collaboration regarding differentiated assessment and marking for students with dyslexia in two Greek state secondary schools. Collaboration between colleagues is necessary for dyslexia provision. Mackay suggests that portraits on all pupils with specific learning difficulties including individual teaching and learning strategies should be available to all staff [1]. The introduction of student profiles was an example of a successful initiative taken by SENCOs in Hunter-Carsch study [2]. SEN directories and student profiles were introduced in one school in order to increase the effectiveness of communication between SEN staff and curriculum subject teachers. Pollock and Waller also mention the difficulty of special needs teachers to communicate with all subject teachers about individual students [3]. They suggest that a list of pupils requiring support circulates regularly emphasizing their particular needs. They also suggest

Regarding Differentiated

### **Chapter 10**

## Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment for Pupils with Dyslexia in Greek State Secondary Schools

*Maria Rontou*

### **Abstract**

This chapter discusses the issue of inter-collegial collaboration regarding differentiated assessment and marking for students with dyslexia in two Greek state secondary schools. Activity theory is used to analyse the contradictions that arise around the issue of differentiated assessment for pupils with dyslexia from data collected from interviews with headteachers, teachers, pupils and parents and field notes from observation across two schools. The analysis demonstrates that contradictions are created when participants try to achieve their goals for differentiation by the lack of staff meetings and collaboration between colleagues in the same school. The findings suggest the necessity of a staff meeting in the beginning of the school year regarding students with dyslexia requiring support and differentiation or the introduction of a list of pupils with dyslexia and their profiles.

**Keywords:** pupils with dyslexia, inter-collegial collaboration, differentiated assessment, contradictions, secondary schools

### **1. Introduction**

This chapter discusses the issue of inter-collegial collaboration regarding differentiated assessment and marking for students with dyslexia in two Greek state secondary schools. Collaboration between colleagues is necessary for dyslexia provision. Mackay suggests that portraits on all pupils with specific learning difficulties including individual teaching and learning strategies should be available to all staff [1]. The introduction of student profiles was an example of a successful initiative taken by SENCOs in Hunter-Carsch study [2]. SEN directories and student profiles were introduced in one school in order to increase the effectiveness of communication between SEN staff and curriculum subject teachers. Pollock and Waller also mention the difficulty of special needs teachers to communicate with all subject teachers about individual students [3]. They suggest that a list of pupils requiring support circulates regularly emphasizing their particular needs. They also suggest that all teachers communicate regarding students with dyslexia.

As far as the Greek context is concerned, Arapogianni reported lack of contact and collaboration of teachers with other professionals [4]. Lappas also reported lack of communication and collaboration between learning support teachers and mainstream teachers in Greek primary schools because of the lack of responsibility of the headteachers for the provision for specific learning difficulties, which lay only with the learning support teachers [5]. In my study, I used similar methods (semistructured interviews) to investigate if inter-collegial communication is effective from the perspective of parents, pupils and teachers and headteachers but not learning support teachers and policy agents as Lappas [5] did. Furthermore, my study was carried out in secondary schools as opposed to primary schools in Lappas [5].

#### **1.1 Theoretical framework**

A theoretical framework was needed for this study that explores human learning within organizational systems in a collective way. Activity theory and the work of Engestrom provided one such framework [6]. Sociocultural activity theory was initiated by Vygotsky when he tried to explain the learning process by arguing that learning enables people to think or do something beyond their capability and this is done in a historical, cultural and social context, with one or more people [7, 8]. Vygotsky believed that human activity happens when the subjects, those whose actions are analysed, resolve a shared problem, an 'object', by using 'tools' to achieve a goal [9]. Engeström [6] describes how the current understanding of activity theory has evolved through three generations of research. The first generation contributed to activity theory the idea of 'mediation', which was represented in Vygotsky's [8] triangular model (**Figure 1**) linking the subject and the object through mediating artefacts [6].

In the second generation, which was developed from Leont'ev's writing [6, 10, 11], Engeström expanded the triangular representation of an activity system to enable the examination of activity systems at an organizational level as opposed to a focus on the individual actors operating with tools [12]. This expansion of the Vygotskian triangle represents the social or organizational elements in an activity system through the addition of the elements of community, rules and division of labour (see **Figure 2**).

Activity theory was selected as a theoretical framework for the data collection and analysis of this study because it allowed the inclusion of different groups of participants and the investigation of the relationship between them. The second principle of activity theory, multi-voicedness, was useful for this study as it allowed the investigation of multiple points of view on the same issue, that of the EFL teachers, the students, the parents and the Ministry of Education [6].

**133**

teachers [12].

**Figure 2.**

*Second generation of activity theory.*

**1.2 Methodology**

*1.2.1 Methods*

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment…*

Therefore, the subjects of learning of the activity system in School 1, the school where the study took place, are English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher 1 and one student with dyslexia, George (see **Figure 2**). A possible object of learning, that is, what the subjects are working on, is differentiated assessment [12]. The goal in an activity system is the result of the 'creative effort' that can be met when the problems are resolved [13]. A possible goal in this study

The community representing the wider sociocultural influences includes the context of the activity, that is, the people who are concerned with the same object: the headteacher of the school, the other students and teachers, the Local Education Authority (LEA) and the Ministry of Education [12, 14]. Therefore, the activity is a collective one and not an individual action of the teacher only or the students only [6]. The division of labour in this study refers to the division of tasks between the EFL teacher, the headteacher and student. The rules are the principles regulating the actions of the participants and they can be both written and unwritten, for example, the national policies on dyslexia and their interpretations by the headteacher of the school as well as the routines and professional practices of the

Since activity theory is deeply contextual and studies specific local practices, it is often linked with the use of case study (e.g. [6, 15, 16]) that takes context and its details into account [17]. An appropriate design for this study using activity theory as a theoretical framework was a case study. A case study was suitable for this study as it aimed to go into sufficient detail and explore the complexities of dyslexia provision and multiple sources were necessary for the collection of data [17].

The study included multiple methods for triangulation purposes, which is a characteristic of case studies [18]: semi-structured and unstructured ethnographic

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

is the inclusion of students with dyslexia.

**Figure 1.** *The principal relationship in an activity system.*

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

carried out in secondary schools as opposed to primary schools in Lappas [5].

A theoretical framework was needed for this study that explores human learning within organizational systems in a collective way. Activity theory and the work of Engestrom provided one such framework [6]. Sociocultural activity theory was initiated by Vygotsky when he tried to explain the learning process by arguing that learning enables people to think or do something beyond their capability and this is done in a historical, cultural and social context, with one or more people [7, 8]. Vygotsky believed that human activity happens when the subjects, those whose actions are analysed, resolve a shared problem, an 'object', by using 'tools' to achieve a goal [9]. Engeström [6] describes how the current understanding of activity theory has evolved through three generations of research. The first generation contributed to activity theory the idea of 'mediation', which was represented in Vygotsky's [8] triangular model (**Figure 1**) linking the subject and the object through mediating artefacts [6]. In the second generation, which was developed from Leont'ev's writing [6, 10, 11], Engeström expanded the triangular representation of an activity system to enable the examination of activity systems at an organizational level as opposed to a focus on the individual actors operating with tools [12]. This expansion of the Vygotskian triangle represents the social or organizational elements in an activity system through the addition of the elements of community, rules and division of labour

Activity theory was selected as a theoretical framework for the data collection and analysis of this study because it allowed the inclusion of different groups of participants and the investigation of the relationship between them. The second principle of activity theory, multi-voicedness, was useful for this study as it allowed the investigation of multiple points of view on the same issue, that of the EFL

teachers, the students, the parents and the Ministry of Education [6].

**1.1 Theoretical framework**

(see **Figure 2**).

As far as the Greek context is concerned, Arapogianni reported lack of contact and collaboration of teachers with other professionals [4]. Lappas also reported lack of communication and collaboration between learning support teachers and mainstream teachers in Greek primary schools because of the lack of responsibility of the headteachers for the provision for specific learning difficulties, which lay only with the learning support teachers [5]. In my study, I used similar methods (semistructured interviews) to investigate if inter-collegial communication is effective from the perspective of parents, pupils and teachers and headteachers but not learning support teachers and policy agents as Lappas [5] did. Furthermore, my study was

**132**

**Figure 1.**

*The principal relationship in an activity system.*

*Second generation of activity theory.*

Therefore, the subjects of learning of the activity system in School 1, the school where the study took place, are English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher 1 and one student with dyslexia, George (see **Figure 2**). A possible object of learning, that is, what the subjects are working on, is differentiated assessment [12]. The goal in an activity system is the result of the 'creative effort' that can be met when the problems are resolved [13]. A possible goal in this study is the inclusion of students with dyslexia.

The community representing the wider sociocultural influences includes the context of the activity, that is, the people who are concerned with the same object: the headteacher of the school, the other students and teachers, the Local Education Authority (LEA) and the Ministry of Education [12, 14]. Therefore, the activity is a collective one and not an individual action of the teacher only or the students only [6].

The division of labour in this study refers to the division of tasks between the EFL teacher, the headteacher and student. The rules are the principles regulating the actions of the participants and they can be both written and unwritten, for example, the national policies on dyslexia and their interpretations by the headteacher of the school as well as the routines and professional practices of the teachers [12].

Since activity theory is deeply contextual and studies specific local practices, it is often linked with the use of case study (e.g. [6, 15, 16]) that takes context and its details into account [17]. An appropriate design for this study using activity theory as a theoretical framework was a case study. A case study was suitable for this study as it aimed to go into sufficient detail and explore the complexities of dyslexia provision and multiple sources were necessary for the collection of data [17].

#### **1.2 Methodology**

#### *1.2.1 Methods*

The study included multiple methods for triangulation purposes, which is a characteristic of case studies [18]: semi-structured and unstructured ethnographic interviews with two EFL teachers, one teacher of Greek, two headteachers, one student with dyslexia and his parents and lesson observation with field notes and digital audio recording of EFL lessons.

The interviews with participants were carried out in the Greek language and they were transcribed and were translated into English. This process involved construction of meaning and interpretations by the transcriber and translator [19]. One problem was that the interviews were in spoken form transcribed in the Greek language, which had to be translated in written form in the English language. This created a problem of equivalence.

The case studies in this paper are ethnographic because this study had a longitudinal element as it included the researcher's contact with the participants in schools and their houses over a long period of time [20]. The researcher spent 13 weeks collecting data with School 1 participants and 16 weeks collecting data with School 2 participants. The researcher also kept contact with EFL teacher 2 and attended seminars with her the year after the study.

The data were analysed using activity theory in order to investigate the perspective of the different groups of participants and the relationship between them as well as the relationship between the participants and the tools, the rules, the community and the division of labour and how these influence the achievement of participants' goals. The analysis focused on patterns in teachers', students' and parents' needs as well as on the contradictions in the achievement of the participants' goals. Contradictions are tensions or dilemmas that arise from the processes within and between the elements of the activity system and become the object of collaborative learning [9]. Therefore, the aim of the analysis is to identify the contradictions that appear when the teachers, students and parents try to work on their objects as well as the factors that created these contradictions. Contradictions between elements of the activity system are indicated in the figures by lightningshaped arrows [16].

#### *1.2.2 Context and participants*

The data for this study come from two state secondary schools in Athens, School 1 and School 2. School 1 was an upper secondary school while School 2 was a lower secondary school. The data used in this paper from School 1 involved an EFL teacher, a headteacher, a student with dyslexia, George and his parents. George was 17 years old and attended the second year of senior high school. He was diagnosed with dyslexia at the age of 14. He attended EFL lessons up to B class at a language school. EFL teacher 1 had 19 years of teaching experience, 6 out of which were at the state sector. The data used in this chapter from School 2 involved an EFL teacher and a headteacher. EFL teacher 2 had 19 years of teaching experience, 8 of which were at the state sector.

The selection of schools was guided by convenience, that is, the accessibility of schools and the availability of individuals in them due to professional contacts [21, 22]. The researcher was also informed by the headteacher that there were students with dyslexia in the school. The EFL teachers that participated in the study were teachers who had pupils with dyslexia in their classes and who agreed to participate in the study after being informed about its aims and procedure.

The criterion for choosing students was a dyslexia diagnosis and their parents' informed consent to participate in the study. In order not to identify the school and the participants, pseudonyms were used for the students and the teachers' names were replaced with codes like EFL teacher 2, headteacher 2, mother 1 and father 1 [23].

**135**

Services:

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment…*

The researcher was not a teacher at the schools in which the research was conducted but was a teacher permanently employed by the Greek Ministry of Education working in another LEA. Although she was not an employee in the two schools, the researcher was part of the same culture, had gone through the same educational system, had grown up and went to school in the same area as the first

I next investigate whether teachers in School 1 collaborate with each other for dyslexia issues. I explore the issue from the perspective of the parents, the student,

George's parents were especially unhappy with the lack of information to teachers about the students with dyslexia in their classes. George's father complained that when he went to the school the year before the research was carried out to talk to the teachers, he was told that George had not informed teachers about his 'diagnosis'

*F1 he felt ... something with the teachers, I had gone two or three times. When I tell [teachers] 'he has [dyslexia]', 'he hasn't told me' eh how hasn't he told you? If George is expelled for five days don't teachers tell each other? That is don't you* 

Furthermore, George's father felt disappointed the year before the study took place when he saw that George's diagnosis was the first on the pile when the teacher

As a result of not being informed, some teachers refused to differentiate testing

*Mo1 not only did they not know that there was a problem that is, … when we went George was finishing the first four months and they hadn't even gone to the trouble* 

Last year, the history teacher refused to examine George orally and the same happened this year also with the theoretical subjects of Principle of Economic Theory and Principles of Management and Administration of Business and

*F1 … and last year when the teacher of Greek opened the folder the paper [diagnosis] that we had taken that he has a problem was on top so how come they* 

the headteacher, the EFL teacher and the teacher of Greek of School 1.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

**2.1 The parents' perspective in School 1**

Extract 1. Interview with George's parents.

*F1 ... last year was his worst year at school*

*M teachers don't collaborate with each other*

of Greek opened the folder in front of him: Extract 2. Interview with George's parents.

*F1 yes this is my problem, that is, I went nuts last year.*

for George, for example, they refused to examine him orally:

Extract 3. Interview with George's parents.

*of telling him 'come to tell us [the answers] orally'*

*M it was the worst yes*

*notice this problem?*

*not know?*

**2. Findings**

(Extract 1):

school and had lived in the area of the second school.

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

The researcher was not a teacher at the schools in which the research was conducted but was a teacher permanently employed by the Greek Ministry of Education working in another LEA. Although she was not an employee in the two schools, the researcher was part of the same culture, had gone through the same educational system, had grown up and went to school in the same area as the first school and had lived in the area of the second school.

#### **2. Findings**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

digital audio recording of EFL lessons.

created a problem of equivalence.

shaped arrows [16].

were at the state sector.

*1.2.2 Context and participants*

seminars with her the year after the study.

interviews with two EFL teachers, one teacher of Greek, two headteachers, one student with dyslexia and his parents and lesson observation with field notes and

The interviews with participants were carried out in the Greek language and they were transcribed and were translated into English. This process involved construction of meaning and interpretations by the transcriber and translator [19]. One problem was that the interviews were in spoken form transcribed in the Greek language, which had to be translated in written form in the English language. This

The case studies in this paper are ethnographic because this study had a longitudinal element as it included the researcher's contact with the participants in schools and their houses over a long period of time [20]. The researcher spent 13 weeks collecting data with School 1 participants and 16 weeks collecting data with School 2 participants. The researcher also kept contact with EFL teacher 2 and attended

The data were analysed using activity theory in order to investigate the perspec-

The data for this study come from two state secondary schools in Athens, School 1 and School 2. School 1 was an upper secondary school while School 2 was a lower secondary school. The data used in this paper from School 1 involved an EFL teacher, a headteacher, a student with dyslexia, George and his parents. George was 17 years old and attended the second year of senior high school. He was diagnosed with dyslexia at the age of 14. He attended EFL lessons up to B class at a language school. EFL teacher 1 had 19 years of teaching experience, 6 out of which were at the state sector. The data used in this chapter from School 2 involved an EFL teacher and a headteacher. EFL teacher 2 had 19 years of teaching experience, 8 of which

The selection of schools was guided by convenience, that is, the accessibility of schools and the availability of individuals in them due to professional contacts [21, 22]. The researcher was also informed by the headteacher that there were students with dyslexia in the school. The EFL teachers that participated in the study were teachers who had pupils with dyslexia in their classes and who agreed to participate in the

The criterion for choosing students was a dyslexia diagnosis and their parents' informed consent to participate in the study. In order not to identify the school and the participants, pseudonyms were used for the students and the teachers' names were replaced with codes like EFL teacher 2, headteacher 2, mother 1 and

study after being informed about its aims and procedure.

tive of the different groups of participants and the relationship between them as well as the relationship between the participants and the tools, the rules, the community and the division of labour and how these influence the achievement of participants' goals. The analysis focused on patterns in teachers', students' and parents' needs as well as on the contradictions in the achievement of the participants' goals. Contradictions are tensions or dilemmas that arise from the processes within and between the elements of the activity system and become the object of collaborative learning [9]. Therefore, the aim of the analysis is to identify the contradictions that appear when the teachers, students and parents try to work on their objects as well as the factors that created these contradictions. Contradictions between elements of the activity system are indicated in the figures by lightning-

**134**

father 1 [23].

#### **2.1 The parents' perspective in School 1**

I next investigate whether teachers in School 1 collaborate with each other for dyslexia issues. I explore the issue from the perspective of the parents, the student, the headteacher, the EFL teacher and the teacher of Greek of School 1.

George's parents were especially unhappy with the lack of information to teachers about the students with dyslexia in their classes. George's father complained that when he went to the school the year before the research was carried out to talk to the teachers, he was told that George had not informed teachers about his 'diagnosis' (Extract 1):

Extract 1. Interview with George's parents.

*F1 ... last year was his worst year at school M it was the worst yes F1 he felt ... something with the teachers, I had gone two or three times. When I tell [teachers] 'he has [dyslexia]', 'he hasn't told me' eh how hasn't he told you? If George is expelled for five days don't teachers tell each other? That is don't you notice this problem? M teachers don't collaborate with each other F1 yes this is my problem, that is, I went nuts last year.*

Furthermore, George's father felt disappointed the year before the study took place when he saw that George's diagnosis was the first on the pile when the teacher of Greek opened the folder in front of him:

Extract 2. Interview with George's parents.

*F1 … and last year when the teacher of Greek opened the folder the paper [diagnosis] that we had taken that he has a problem was on top so how come they not know?*

As a result of not being informed, some teachers refused to differentiate testing for George, for example, they refused to examine him orally: Extract 3. Interview with George's parents.

*Mo1 not only did they not know that there was a problem that is, … when we went George was finishing the first four months and they hadn't even gone to the trouble of telling him 'come to tell us [the answers] orally'*

Last year, the history teacher refused to examine George orally and the same happened this year also with the theoretical subjects of Principle of Economic Theory and Principles of Management and Administration of Business and Services:

Extract 4. Interview with George's parents.

*F1 Last year while he was writing history and he says 'can I say it orally?' because George will make a mistake, 'it doesn't matter George', she says, why doesn't it matter? Mo1 It doesn't matt- George she says, 'instead of 18 you get 15', 'why did I get 15?' 'Because there is no clear meaning'... 'I can tell you orally', 'eh now [how can we do it] M When did this happen? Mo1 Now now, this has happened now as well M With teachers of Greek? Mo1 I can't remember if it happened with a teacher of Greek, it has happened with a theoretical subject that you could say it orally that is. In economics and in business management it has happened sometime.*

George's and his parents' object in the activity system in **Figure 3** during the year before the research was carried out was to inform George's teachers about his diagnosis. Their goal was to make sure teachers differentiated their teaching and assessment for George. The teachers are not in the subject position as I cannot know if they wanted to be informed or not considering at least two of them were not willing to examine George orally. There was a contradiction in the teachers' not being informed about and not using the tool of George's diagnostic report, which made the object and the goal difficult to meet. This contradiction could have been resolved by either the parents going to the school at the end of the first 4-month period or the student telling the teachers about his diagnosis after getting his exam result. The goal of differentiated assessment and marking was not achieved with the history teacher last year even after she was informed about his diagnosis by George (Extract 4).

#### **2.2 George's perspective for the current year**

Because of his past year's experiences, George decided to inform the teachers of the subjects for which he would have to take exams for entering university about his dyslexia from the beginning of this school year as he wanted to be given good grades in these subjects (Extract 5, lines 340–341). It is interesting though that George informed only the specialization subject teachers about his dyslexia and not the general education subject teachers such as the EFL teacher and a teacher of Greek whom I interviewed because he did not care about these subjects. His parents also mentioned this (Extract 5, lines 336–337).

However, it seems that last year's situation is being repeated this year as two teachers, the teachers of Development of Applications in Programming and Principles of Management and Administration of Business and Services, have refused to examine George orally or at least to differentiate their marking in exams although they were told that he had difficulty expressing his thoughts in written form and he wanted to be examined orally (Extract 5).

Extract 5. Interview with George's parents.

*Μ But he went and told them himself in specialization subjects Μo1 In specialization Μ Teachers of the rest of the subjects didn't know Μo1 Yes yes yes 336 F1 But he doesn't care Μo1 We said this that he doesn't care at all for the general education subjects 338 but where he cared ... he went alone*

**137**

**Figure 3.**

*George's object and goal for previous year.*

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment…*

*340 Μo1 And he said from the start 'I have dysgrafia, I want you to pay attention*

The activity system of School 1 in terms of George's object for the current year (informed specialization teachers) is presented in **Figure 4**. Second generation of activity theory [6] is applied to analyse this theme as both George and his current teachers belong to the same institution and the same community with the same rules. George's object was to be taught by specialization teachers who were informed about his dyslexia and differentiate his assessment and marking of his paper. He knew from previous experience that his specialization subjects' teachers would not be informed about his dyslexia in the beginning of the year. For this reason, he informed them about it although it was not his responsibility to do so. George's behaviour was innovative; he tried to solve the problem in the activity system on his own, subverting the rules of the activity system of School 1, the usual practices that require the headteacher to inform teachers about students' diagnoses rather than the students themselves. George's innovative behaviour led to the partial achievement of his goal, which was differentiation in assessment and marking, as two teachers still refused to differentiate their marking. I showed that George's parents and George would have liked to have informed teachers on students' diagnoses in order to have the provision he deserves but this was not

I next explore whether headteacher 1 informed teachers about the students with dyslexia in School 1 and how a teacher from the lower secondary school informed

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

*339 Μ Αh he went*

*341 to it'*

always the case.

**2.3 Professionals' perspectives in School 1**

EFL teacher 2 from the upper secondary school (School 1).

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

*339 Μ Αh he went 340 Μo1 And he said from the start 'I have dysgrafia, I want you to pay attention 341 to it'*

The activity system of School 1 in terms of George's object for the current year (informed specialization teachers) is presented in **Figure 4**. Second generation of activity theory [6] is applied to analyse this theme as both George and his current teachers belong to the same institution and the same community with the same rules. George's object was to be taught by specialization teachers who were informed about his dyslexia and differentiate his assessment and marking of his paper. He knew from previous experience that his specialization subjects' teachers would not be informed about his dyslexia in the beginning of the year. For this reason, he informed them about it although it was not his responsibility to do so. George's behaviour was innovative; he tried to solve the problem in the activity system on his own, subverting the rules of the activity system of School 1, the usual practices that require the headteacher to inform teachers about students' diagnoses rather than the students themselves. George's innovative behaviour led to the partial achievement of his goal, which was differentiation in assessment and marking, as two teachers still refused to differentiate their marking. I showed that George's parents and George would have liked to have informed teachers on students' diagnoses in order to have the provision he deserves but this was not always the case.

#### **2.3 Professionals' perspectives in School 1**

I next explore whether headteacher 1 informed teachers about the students with dyslexia in School 1 and how a teacher from the lower secondary school informed EFL teacher 2 from the upper secondary school (School 1).

**Figure 3.** *George's object and goal for previous year.*

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

*F1 Last year while he was writing history and he says 'can I say it orally?' because George will make a mistake, 'it doesn't matter George', she says, why doesn't it* 

*Mo1 It doesn't matt- George she says, 'instead of 18 you get 15', 'why did I get 15?' 'Because there is no clear meaning'... 'I can tell you orally', 'eh now [how can we do it]*

*Mo1 I can't remember if it happened with a teacher of Greek, it has happened with a theoretical subject that you could say it orally that is. In economics and in* 

George's and his parents' object in the activity system in **Figure 3** during the year before the research was carried out was to inform George's teachers about his diagnosis. Their goal was to make sure teachers differentiated their teaching and assessment for George. The teachers are not in the subject position as I cannot know if they wanted to be informed or not considering at least two of them were not willing to examine George orally. There was a contradiction in the teachers' not being informed about and not using the tool of George's diagnostic report, which made the object and the goal difficult to meet. This contradiction could have been resolved by either the parents going to the school at the end of the first 4-month period or the student telling the teachers about his diagnosis after getting his exam result. The goal of differentiated assessment and marking was not achieved with the history teacher last year even after she was informed about his diagnosis by George

Because of his past year's experiences, George decided to inform the teachers of the subjects for which he would have to take exams for entering university about his dyslexia from the beginning of this school year as he wanted to be given good grades in these subjects (Extract 5, lines 340–341). It is interesting though that George informed only the specialization subject teachers about his dyslexia and not the general education subject teachers such as the EFL teacher and a teacher of Greek whom I interviewed because he did not care about these subjects. His parents also

However, it seems that last year's situation is being repeated this year as two teachers, the teachers of Development of Applications in Programming and Principles of Management and Administration of Business and Services, have refused to examine George orally or at least to differentiate their marking in exams although they were told that he had difficulty expressing his thoughts in written

*337 Μo1 We said this that he doesn't care at all for the general education subjects*

Extract 4. Interview with George's parents.

*Mo1 Now now, this has happened now as well*

*business management it has happened sometime.*

**2.2 George's perspective for the current year**

mentioned this (Extract 5, lines 336–337).

*333 Μo1 In specialization*

*335 Μo1 Yes yes yes 336 F1 But he doesn't care*

form and he wanted to be examined orally (Extract 5). Extract 5. Interview with George's parents.

*334 Μ Teachers of the rest of the subjects didn't know*

*338 but where he cared ... he went alone*

*332 Μ But he went and told them himself in specialization subjects*

*matter?*

(Extract 4).

*M When did this happen?*

*M With teachers of Greek?*

**136**

#### **Figure 4.**

*Informed specialization teachers.*

When I started the study in School 1, the headteacher told me that the teachers who have students with dyslexia in their classes are always informed about the students with dyslexia and the children are supported:

Extract 6. Interview with HT1.

*M Have all the teachers been informed?*

*HT1 Yes, always when a student comes, when such a student exists the teachers who teach the specific class are informed and this child is helped because of this problem*

This interview gave me the impression that the headteacher talked generally about what is done in schools regarding dyslexia, not what happened in his school. I came to this conclusion because when I met the EFL teacher a month earlier she was not informed by the headteacher about this issue but by a teacher of Greek from the lower secondary school in the same building. This is what I wrote in my field notes about this:

Extract 7. Field notes.

*She [the EFL teacher] wasn't informed by the headteacher about the fact that these students have dyslexia because both she and the headteacher came to the school this year. A teacher of Greek from the lower secondary school told her about these students because she had taught them at lower secondary school.*

At an organizational level, there is no collaborative mechanism between the lower secondary and upper secondary school to exchange information on students with dyslexia. At an individual level, the teacher of Greek from the lower secondary school (subjects, **Figure 5**) gave information on the student with dyslexia (George) to the EFL teacher in the upper secondary school in order to facilitate my study. She gave the information that the EFL teacher (subject) needed to receive in order to differentiate her teaching. In this way, she subverted the rules of professional practice, which require that the headteacher informs teachers about students with dyslexia (contradiction). The teacher of Greek offered the EFL teacher a 'what artifact' that she could use to achieve the goal of differentiated teaching.

**139**

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment…*

This artefact influenced the community in School 1, that is, the headteacher and possibly other teachers in School 1. When my research started, the teacher of Greek from the lower secondary school informed EFL teacher 1. EFL teacher 1 probably searched for students' diagnostic reports. She must have asked the headteacher to give her the reports or tell her who the students with dyslexia were since she mentioned to me the other two students with a diagnosis of dyslexia during the study. She mentioned a boy in January (*there is another boy who is supposed to have* 

*T1 ... there are students like I said, a female student there is in the other class, who,* 

When I talked to the teacher of Greek of George's class in December she was not

*She [the teacher of Greek] didn't know that George had a diagnosis, she hasn't seen his writing yet as they haven't written an exam yet and it is the first year that she* 

This suggests that in the beginning of the year there was no appropriate staff meeting or no other effective way of informing teachers on students with dyslexia. When I asked the EFL teacher later during the study, in January, if she collaborates with the headteacher about dyslexia issues, she said that she does in order for the headteacher to inform her about students with dyslexia. However, he does not

In **Figure 6**, the activity system of School 1 is presented. The learning object for EFL teacher 1 and the teacher of Greek is to receive information on students with

*while she has a paper [diagnosis], I don't see her facing this problem.*

*teaches his class. She didn't happen to see his file with his report either.*

tell her how to examine them because he probably does not know either:

*T1 Look… I collaborate so that they tell me first of all who they are …*

*T1 No there isn't such a thing, because who knows? Who knows?*

*[dyslexia]…* Interview with T1) and a girl in February:

*Teacher of Greek and EFL teacher 1 exchanging information.*

aware of George's diagnosis of dyslexia either:

Extract 10. Interview with teacher 1.

*M Do you collaborate with the headteacher?*

*M Has he told you what to do in exams?*

Extract 8. Interview with T1.

**Figure 5.**

Extract 9. Field notes.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

When I started the study in School 1, the headteacher told me that the teachers who have students with dyslexia in their classes are always informed about the

*HT1 Yes, always when a student comes, when such a student exists the teachers who teach the specific class are informed and this child is helped because of this problem*

This interview gave me the impression that the headteacher talked generally about what is done in schools regarding dyslexia, not what happened in his school. I came to this conclusion because when I met the EFL teacher a month earlier she was not informed by the headteacher about this issue but by a teacher of Greek from the lower secondary school in the same building. This is what I wrote in my field

*She [the EFL teacher] wasn't informed by the headteacher about the fact that these students have dyslexia because both she and the headteacher came to the school this year. A teacher of Greek from the lower secondary school told her about these* 

At an organizational level, there is no collaborative mechanism between the lower secondary and upper secondary school to exchange information on students with dyslexia. At an individual level, the teacher of Greek from the lower secondary school (subjects, **Figure 5**) gave information on the student with dyslexia (George) to the EFL teacher in the upper secondary school in order to facilitate my study. She gave the information that the EFL teacher (subject) needed to receive in order to differentiate her teaching. In this way, she subverted the rules of professional practice, which require that the headteacher informs teachers about students with dyslexia (contradiction). The teacher of Greek offered the EFL teacher a 'what artifact' that she could use to achieve the goal of differentiated teaching.

*students because she had taught them at lower secondary school.*

students with dyslexia and the children are supported:

*M Have all the teachers been informed?*

Extract 6. Interview with HT1.

*Informed specialization teachers.*

notes about this:

**Figure 4.**

Extract 7. Field notes.

**138**

*Teacher of Greek and EFL teacher 1 exchanging information.*

This artefact influenced the community in School 1, that is, the headteacher and possibly other teachers in School 1. When my research started, the teacher of Greek from the lower secondary school informed EFL teacher 1. EFL teacher 1 probably searched for students' diagnostic reports. She must have asked the headteacher to give her the reports or tell her who the students with dyslexia were since she mentioned to me the other two students with a diagnosis of dyslexia during the study. She mentioned a boy in January (*there is another boy who is supposed to have [dyslexia]…* Interview with T1) and a girl in February:

Extract 8. Interview with T1.

*T1 ... there are students like I said, a female student there is in the other class, who, while she has a paper [diagnosis], I don't see her facing this problem.*

When I talked to the teacher of Greek of George's class in December she was not aware of George's diagnosis of dyslexia either: Extract 9. Field notes.

*She [the teacher of Greek] didn't know that George had a diagnosis, she hasn't seen his writing yet as they haven't written an exam yet and it is the first year that she teaches his class. She didn't happen to see his file with his report either.*

This suggests that in the beginning of the year there was no appropriate staff meeting or no other effective way of informing teachers on students with dyslexia.

When I asked the EFL teacher later during the study, in January, if she collaborates with the headteacher about dyslexia issues, she said that she does in order for the headteacher to inform her about students with dyslexia. However, he does not tell her how to examine them because he probably does not know either:

Extract 10. Interview with teacher 1.

*M Do you collaborate with the headteacher? T1 Look… I collaborate so that they tell me first of all who they are … M Has he told you what to do in exams? T1 No there isn't such a thing, because who knows? Who knows?*

In **Figure 6**, the activity system of School 1 is presented. The learning object for EFL teacher 1 and the teacher of Greek is to receive information on students with

**Figure 6.**

*Headteacher 1-EFL teacher 1 collaboration.*

dyslexia and on how she can examine them. The headteacher's object is to inform teachers in his school about the students with dyslexia. However, it seems that the he did not inform teachers at the beginning of the year (September–October). Therefore, his object was not met by him but by the junior high school teacher who informed the EFL teacher about George's diagnosis. It is possible that headteacher 1 and EFL teacher 1 collaborated in the middle of the school year regarding the diagnostic reports since EFL teacher 1 seemed to know about them as I mentioned before.

In this section, I showed that in School 1 EFL teacher 1 and a teacher of Greek would have liked to be informed by the headteacher on the students with dyslexia but this did not happen in the beginning of the school year. EFL teacher 1 was informed by a teacher of Greek from the lower secondary school instead.

#### **2.4 Collaboration between EFL teacher and teachers of Greek in School 1**

Next, I discuss the collaboration between EFL teacher 1 and the teachers of Greek in School 1 around the examination of students with dyslexia.

EFL teacher 1 admitted that she does not collaborate with teachers of Greek of the same school as she believes that in Greek subjects the oral examination is much easier than in EFL even if the student with dyslexia is weak in the subject in which s/he is examined:

Extract 11. Interview with T1.

*M And with the teachers of Greek? You said you haven't talked to them. T1 I haven't talked to them because, look, they deal with Greek. The oral examination is much easier. How can I examine him orally in a foreign language? That is, it is as if I am asking someone who doesn't speak Greek to be examined orally in* 

**141**

**Figure 7.**

*Information on George's learning.*

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment…*

*Greek. In what can I examine him exactly? I talk to him let's say and he doesn't* 

The second generation of activity system is used for this theme as both EFL teacher 1 and the teacher of Greek belong to the same institution (School 1) and therefore the same community. The EFL teacher's object (object in **Figure 7**) was to have information on how they learn better and what difficulties they face and her

The teacher of Greek who taught George's class wanted to be informed on the students with dyslexia in her class (object) but this did not happen in the beginning of the school year (Extract 9). She was also interested in examining students orally

*Therefore, there is a systemic contradiction in the activity system of School 1 (Figure 7) in the lack of an appropriate tool (how artifact) for the information of teachers on dyslexia issues and the establishment of collaboration among them.*

Therefore, there is a systemic contradiction in the activity system of School 1 (**Figure 7**) in the lack of an appropriate tool (how artifact) for the information of teachers on dyslexia issues and the establishment of collaboration among them.

Headteacher 2 told me that she informs teachers about dyslexia issues, on

*HT2 we give ... information to teachers around the problem and the dyslexia* 

It seems that headteacher 2 did inform the staff in her school about the above issues as EFL teacher 2 was fully informed about the students with dyslexia when

goal was to examine the students with dyslexia like George orally (goal).

(goal) when I told her that George wanted to be examined orally:

dyslexia diagnoses in the school and on the relevant guidelines:

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

*[talk back].*

Extract 12. Field notes.

**2.5 Inter-collegial collaboration in School 2**

*certificate as well as the relevant guidelines.*

Extract 13. Interview with HT2.

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

*Greek. In what can I examine him exactly? I talk to him let's say and he doesn't [talk back].*

The second generation of activity system is used for this theme as both EFL teacher 1 and the teacher of Greek belong to the same institution (School 1) and therefore the same community. The EFL teacher's object (object in **Figure 7**) was to have information on how they learn better and what difficulties they face and her goal was to examine the students with dyslexia like George orally (goal).

The teacher of Greek who taught George's class wanted to be informed on the students with dyslexia in her class (object) but this did not happen in the beginning of the school year (Extract 9). She was also interested in examining students orally (goal) when I told her that George wanted to be examined orally:

Extract 12. Field notes.

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

dyslexia and on how she can examine them. The headteacher's object is to inform teachers in his school about the students with dyslexia. However, it seems that the he did not inform teachers at the beginning of the year (September–October). Therefore, his object was not met by him but by the junior high school teacher who informed the EFL teacher about George's diagnosis. It is possible that headteacher 1 and EFL teacher 1 collaborated in the middle of the school year regarding the diagnostic reports since EFL teacher 1 seemed to know about them as I men-

In this section, I showed that in School 1 EFL teacher 1 and a teacher of Greek would have liked to be informed by the headteacher on the students with dyslexia but this did not happen in the beginning of the school year. EFL teacher 1 was informed by a teacher of Greek from the lower secondary school instead.

**2.4 Collaboration between EFL teacher and teachers of Greek in School 1**

*M And with the teachers of Greek? You said you haven't talked to them.*

Greek in School 1 around the examination of students with dyslexia.

Next, I discuss the collaboration between EFL teacher 1 and the teachers of

EFL teacher 1 admitted that she does not collaborate with teachers of Greek of the same school as she believes that in Greek subjects the oral examination is much easier than in EFL even if the student with dyslexia is weak in the subject in which

*T1 I haven't talked to them because, look, they deal with Greek. The oral examination is much easier. How can I examine him orally in a foreign language? That is, it is as if I am asking someone who doesn't speak Greek to be examined orally in* 

**140**

**Figure 6.**

tioned before.

s/he is examined:

Extract 11. Interview with T1.

*Headteacher 1-EFL teacher 1 collaboration.*

*Therefore, there is a systemic contradiction in the activity system of School 1 (Figure 7) in the lack of an appropriate tool (how artifact) for the information of teachers on dyslexia issues and the establishment of collaboration among them.*

Therefore, there is a systemic contradiction in the activity system of School 1 (**Figure 7**) in the lack of an appropriate tool (how artifact) for the information of teachers on dyslexia issues and the establishment of collaboration among them.

#### **2.5 Inter-collegial collaboration in School 2**

Headteacher 2 told me that she informs teachers about dyslexia issues, on dyslexia diagnoses in the school and on the relevant guidelines: Extract 13. Interview with HT2.

*HT2 we give ... information to teachers around the problem and the dyslexia certificate as well as the relevant guidelines.*

It seems that headteacher 2 did inform the staff in her school about the above issues as EFL teacher 2 was fully informed about the students with dyslexia when

**Figure 7.** *Information on George's learning.*

I first discussed the issue with her. EFL teacher 2 was also informed about the Education Ministry's guidelines regarding students with dyslexia. Therefore, headteacher 2's object of informing the teachers about students with dyslexia diagnoses and about the guidelines was achieved (**Figure 8**).

However, EFL teacher 2 was not aware of School 2's collaboration with the diagnostic centres that headteacher 2 told me about. This suggests that headteacher 2 has not informed EFL teacher 2 on the issue, which means that her object of informing teachers was partially met.

I also asked EFL teacher 2 if she collaborates with teachers of Greek in her school and she replied that when a teacher in the school suspects that a student has dyslexia s/he discusses it with the other teachers (Extract 14, lines 384–385). She asks what

**Figure 8.**

*Information from headteacher 2 to teachers.*

**143**

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment…*

*384 T2 When someone suspects there is an issue s/he discusses it with the 385 other colleagues to see if something is going on. If an issue arises, of*

*387 M To see what the others do, how the student behaves in their lesson and*

In **Figure 9**, EFL teacher 2's and teachers' of Greek object of collaboration on dyslexia issues is met. Furthermore, in School 2, headteacher 2 effectively informs teachers about students' diagnoses and the guidelines from the Ministry of

In this chapter, data related to the themes of collaboration across schools and inter-collegial collaboration were analysed. The analysis showed that the collaboration of colleagues in the same school was not effective in School 1, which influenced dyslexia provision offered by the EFL teachers and other teachers. On the other hand, collaboration of colleagues in the same school was more effective in School 2. Therefore, second generation of activity theory was used to the extent that the data allowed its use and it was demonstrated by the analysis that inter-organizational learning and boundary crossing did not take place in my study. This happened because my study is not an intervention study that aims to bring professionals from

This study demonstrated that a 'how artifact' is needed in order for the contradiction of the lack of communication between colleagues to be resolved. A staff meeting is necessary in secondary schools in the beginning of the school year in which headteachers inform teachers on the students' with dyslexia diagnoses. Regular staff meetings need to be organized during the school year in order for teachers of the same school to exchange information on students' with dyslexia difficulties, behavioural problems and progress and the teaching techniques they use. According to Mackay and Hunter-Carsch and Pollock and Waller, portraits or profiles on all pupils with specific learning difficulties need to be available to all

I would like to thank the teachers, the parents and the students who participated

in this study and the University of Birmingham for funding this study.

other teachers do in their classes only if she has a serious problem and if the student

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

Extract 14. Interview with T2.

*386 course we discuss it*

*388 such.*

Education.

**3. Conclusion**

staff in schools [1–3].

**Acknowledgements**

*390 M Mmm.*

cannot follow the lesson at all (lines 389–391).

*389 T2 Only if I have a serious problem.*

*383 M Is there collaboration with teachers of Greek ... ?*

*391 T2 And I see that a child can't follow the lesson at all ...*

different backgrounds together to work on a common object.

**Figure 9.**

*Collaboration of EFL teacher 2 with teachers of Greek.*

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

other teachers do in their classes only if she has a serious problem and if the student cannot follow the lesson at all (lines 389–391).

Extract 14. Interview with T2.

*383 M Is there collaboration with teachers of Greek ... ? 384 T2 When someone suspects there is an issue s/he discusses it with the 385 other colleagues to see if something is going on. If an issue arises, of 386 course we discuss it 387 M To see what the others do, how the student behaves in their lesson and 388 such. 389 T2 Only if I have a serious problem. 390 M Mmm. 391 T2 And I see that a child can't follow the lesson at all ...*

In **Figure 9**, EFL teacher 2's and teachers' of Greek object of collaboration on dyslexia issues is met. Furthermore, in School 2, headteacher 2 effectively informs teachers about students' diagnoses and the guidelines from the Ministry of Education.

#### **3. Conclusion**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

I first discussed the issue with her. EFL teacher 2 was also informed about the Education Ministry's guidelines regarding students with dyslexia. Therefore, headteacher 2's object of informing the teachers about students with dyslexia diagnoses

However, EFL teacher 2 was not aware of School 2's collaboration with the diagnostic centres that headteacher 2 told me about. This suggests that headteacher 2 has not informed EFL teacher 2 on the issue, which means that her object of

I also asked EFL teacher 2 if she collaborates with teachers of Greek in her school and she replied that when a teacher in the school suspects that a student has dyslexia s/he discusses it with the other teachers (Extract 14, lines 384–385). She asks what

and about the guidelines was achieved (**Figure 8**).

informing teachers was partially met.

**142**

**Figure 9.**

**Figure 8.**

*Information from headteacher 2 to teachers.*

*Collaboration of EFL teacher 2 with teachers of Greek.*

In this chapter, data related to the themes of collaboration across schools and inter-collegial collaboration were analysed. The analysis showed that the collaboration of colleagues in the same school was not effective in School 1, which influenced dyslexia provision offered by the EFL teachers and other teachers. On the other hand, collaboration of colleagues in the same school was more effective in School 2. Therefore, second generation of activity theory was used to the extent that the data allowed its use and it was demonstrated by the analysis that inter-organizational learning and boundary crossing did not take place in my study. This happened because my study is not an intervention study that aims to bring professionals from different backgrounds together to work on a common object.

This study demonstrated that a 'how artifact' is needed in order for the contradiction of the lack of communication between colleagues to be resolved. A staff meeting is necessary in secondary schools in the beginning of the school year in which headteachers inform teachers on the students' with dyslexia diagnoses. Regular staff meetings need to be organized during the school year in order for teachers of the same school to exchange information on students' with dyslexia difficulties, behavioural problems and progress and the teaching techniques they use. According to Mackay and Hunter-Carsch and Pollock and Waller, portraits or profiles on all pupils with specific learning difficulties need to be available to all staff in schools [1–3].

#### **Acknowledgements**

I would like to thank the teachers, the parents and the students who participated in this study and the University of Birmingham for funding this study.

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

#### **Author details**

Maria Rontou Hellenic Open University, Loutraki, Greece

\*Address all correspondence to: mariarontou720@hotmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**145**

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment…*

Child Language Teaching and Therapy.

2008;**24**(2):173-192

Moscow; 1981

[10] Leont'ev AN. Activity, Consciousness, and Personality. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall; 1978

[11] Leont'ev AN. Problems of the Development of the Mind. Progress:

[12] Daniels H. Activity theory, discourse and Bernstein. Educational

[13] Davydov VV. The content and unsolved problems of activity

University Press; 1999. pp. 39-51

Review. 2004;**56**(2):133-145

Press; 1999

[15] Engestrom Y, Engestrom R, Vahaaho T. When the centre does not hold: The importance of knotworking. In: Chaiklin S, Hedegaard M, Jensen U, editors. Activity Theory and Social Practice. Aarhus: Aarhus University

[16] Engestrom Y. Innovative learning in work teams: Analysing cycles of knowledge creation in practice. In: Engestrom Y, Miettinen R,

Punamaki RL, editors. Perspectives on Activity Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1999. pp. 377-404

[17] Denscombe M. The Good Research Guide for Small-Scale Social Research Projects. 2nd ed. Maidenhead: Open

[18] Robson C. Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and

University Press; 2003

theory. In: Engestrom Y, Miettinen R, Punamaki RL, editors. Perspectives on Activity Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge

[14] Leadbetter J. The role of mediating artefacts in the work of educational psychologists during consultative conversations in schools. Educational

Review. 2004;**56**(2):121-132

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

[1] Mackay N. The case for dyslexiafriendly schools. In: Reid G, Fawcett A, editors. Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice. London: Whurr;

[2] Hunter-Carsch M. Learning support in the secondary school: Needs analysis and provision for dyslexic students. In: Hunter-Carsch M, Herrington M, editors. Dyslexia and Effective Learning in Secondary and Tertiary Education. London: Whurr Publishers; 2001.

[3] Pollock J, Waller E. Day-to-Day Dyslexia in the Classroom. London:

[4] Arapogianni A. Investigating the Approaches that Teachers in Greece Use to Meet the Needs of Children with Dyslexia in Secondary Schools. Birmingham: University of

[5] Lappas N. Specific Learning Difficulties in Scotland and Greece: Perceptions and Provision [unpublished PhD thesis]. Stirling: University of

[6] Engestrom Y. Expansive learning

[7] Vygotsky LS. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge: Harvard

[8] Vygotsky LS. Thought and Language.

Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1987

[9] Martin D. A new paradigm to inform inter-professional learning for integrating speech and language provision into secondary schools: A socio-cultural activity theory approach.

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Stirling; 1997

*Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91922*

#### **References**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

**144**

**Author details**

Hellenic Open University, Loutraki, Greece

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: mariarontou720@hotmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Maria Rontou

[1] Mackay N. The case for dyslexiafriendly schools. In: Reid G, Fawcett A, editors. Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice. London: Whurr; 2004

[2] Hunter-Carsch M. Learning support in the secondary school: Needs analysis and provision for dyslexic students. In: Hunter-Carsch M, Herrington M, editors. Dyslexia and Effective Learning in Secondary and Tertiary Education. London: Whurr Publishers; 2001. pp. 12-37

[3] Pollock J, Waller E. Day-to-Day Dyslexia in the Classroom. London: Routledge; 1994

[4] Arapogianni A. Investigating the Approaches that Teachers in Greece Use to Meet the Needs of Children with Dyslexia in Secondary Schools. Birmingham: University of Birmingham; 2004

[5] Lappas N. Specific Learning Difficulties in Scotland and Greece: Perceptions and Provision [unpublished PhD thesis]. Stirling: University of Stirling; 1997

[6] Engestrom Y. Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualization. Journal of Education and Work. 2001;**14**(1):133-156

[7] Vygotsky LS. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 1978

[8] Vygotsky LS. Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1987

[9] Martin D. A new paradigm to inform inter-professional learning for integrating speech and language provision into secondary schools: A socio-cultural activity theory approach. Child Language Teaching and Therapy. 2008;**24**(2):173-192

[10] Leont'ev AN. Activity, Consciousness, and Personality. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall; 1978

[11] Leont'ev AN. Problems of the Development of the Mind. Progress: Moscow; 1981

[12] Daniels H. Activity theory, discourse and Bernstein. Educational Review. 2004;**56**(2):121-132

[13] Davydov VV. The content and unsolved problems of activity theory. In: Engestrom Y, Miettinen R, Punamaki RL, editors. Perspectives on Activity Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1999. pp. 39-51

[14] Leadbetter J. The role of mediating artefacts in the work of educational psychologists during consultative conversations in schools. Educational Review. 2004;**56**(2):133-145

[15] Engestrom Y, Engestrom R, Vahaaho T. When the centre does not hold: The importance of knotworking. In: Chaiklin S, Hedegaard M, Jensen U, editors. Activity Theory and Social Practice. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press; 1999

[16] Engestrom Y. Innovative learning in work teams: Analysing cycles of knowledge creation in practice. In: Engestrom Y, Miettinen R, Punamaki RL, editors. Perspectives on Activity Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1999. pp. 377-404

[17] Denscombe M. The Good Research Guide for Small-Scale Social Research Projects. 2nd ed. Maidenhead: Open University Press; 2003

[18] Robson C. Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and

**147**

**Chapter 11**

**Abstract**

ing process.

**1. Introduction**

writing process, special education

The Child with Learning

A Study of Case

*Edgardo Domitilo Gerardo Morales*

Difficulties and His Writing:

The purpose of this paper is to present one child with learning difficulties writing process in multigrade rural elementary school in México. It presents Alejandro's case. This boy lives in a rural area. He shows special educational needs about

learning. He never had specialized attention because he lives in a marginalized rural area. He was integrated into regular school, but he faced some learning difficulties. He was always considered as a student who did not learn. He has coursed 2 years of preschool and 1 year of elementary school. Therefore, this text describes how child writes a list of words with and without image as support. Analysis consists to identify the child's conceptualizations about writing, his ways of approaching, and difficulties or mistakes he makes. The results show that Alejandro identifies letters and number by using pseudo-letters and conventional letter. These letters are in an unconventional position. There is no relationship grapheme and phoneme yet, and he uses different writing rules. We consider his mistakes as indicators of the learn-

One of the purposes of Mexican education system is that students acquire conventional writing during first grades in elementary school [1]. This purpose consists of students to understand the alphabetical code, its meaning, and functionality. In

The elementary school teacher teaches a heterogeneous group of children [1, 2]. Some students show different acquisition levels of the writing. This is due to literacy environment that the family and society provide. Thus, some children have had great opportunities to interact with reading and writing practices than others. Therefore, some students do not learn the alphabetical principle of writing at the end of the scholar year. They show characteristics of initial or intermediate acquisition level of the writing. In this way, it is difficult for children to acquire writing at

In addition, there may be children with learning difficulties in the classroom. Department of Special Education teaches some children. Students with special educational needs show more difficulties to learn than their classmates [3].

**Keywords:** writing difficulties, learning difficulties, writing learning,

the same time, at the term indicated by educational system or teachers.

this way, they can integrate into a discursive community.

Practitioner-Researchers. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell; 2002

[19] Marshall C, Rossman GB. Designing Qualitative Research. London: Sage; 1995

[20] Brewer JD. Ethnography. Buckingham: Open University Press; 2000

[21] Cohen L, Manion L, Morrison M. Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge; 2007

[22] Fine GA, Shulman D. Lies from the field: Ethical issues in organizational ethnography. In: Ybema S, Yanow D, Wells H, Kamsteeg F, editors. Organizational Ethnography: Studying the Complexities of Everyday Life. London: Sage; 2009. pp. 177-195

[23] Delamont S. Fieldwork in Educational Settings: Methods, Pitfalls and Perspectives. London: Routledge; 2002

#### **Chapter 11**

## The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case

*Edgardo Domitilo Gerardo Morales*

#### **Abstract**

The purpose of this paper is to present one child with learning difficulties writing process in multigrade rural elementary school in México. It presents Alejandro's case. This boy lives in a rural area. He shows special educational needs about learning. He never had specialized attention because he lives in a marginalized rural area. He was integrated into regular school, but he faced some learning difficulties. He was always considered as a student who did not learn. He has coursed 2 years of preschool and 1 year of elementary school. Therefore, this text describes how child writes a list of words with and without image as support. Analysis consists to identify the child's conceptualizations about writing, his ways of approaching, and difficulties or mistakes he makes. The results show that Alejandro identifies letters and number by using pseudo-letters and conventional letter. These letters are in an unconventional position. There is no relationship grapheme and phoneme yet, and he uses different writing rules. We consider his mistakes as indicators of the learning process.

**Keywords:** writing difficulties, learning difficulties, writing learning, writing process, special education

#### **1. Introduction**

One of the purposes of Mexican education system is that students acquire conventional writing during first grades in elementary school [1]. This purpose consists of students to understand the alphabetical code, its meaning, and functionality. In this way, they can integrate into a discursive community.

The elementary school teacher teaches a heterogeneous group of children [1, 2]. Some students show different acquisition levels of the writing. This is due to literacy environment that the family and society provide. Thus, some children have had great opportunities to interact with reading and writing practices than others. Therefore, some students do not learn the alphabetical principle of writing at the end of the scholar year. They show characteristics of initial or intermediate acquisition level of the writing. In this way, it is difficult for children to acquire writing at the same time, at the term indicated by educational system or teachers.

In addition, there may be children with learning difficulties in the classroom. Department of Special Education teaches some children. Students with special educational needs show more difficulties to learn than their classmates [3].

**146**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

Practitioner-Researchers. 2nd ed.

[19] Marshall C, Rossman GB. Designing Qualitative Research. London: Sage;

Oxford: Blackwell; 2002

[20] Brewer JD. Ethnography.

ethnography. In: Ybema S,

[23] Delamont S. Fieldwork in

Buckingham: Open University Press;

[21] Cohen L, Manion L, Morrison M. Research Methods in Education. London:

[22] Fine GA, Shulman D. Lies from the field: Ethical issues in organizational

Yanow D, Wells H, Kamsteeg F, editors. Organizational Ethnography: Studying the Complexities of Everyday Life. London: Sage; 2009. pp. 177-195

Educational Settings: Methods, Pitfalls and Perspectives. London: Routledge;

1995

2000

2002

Routledge; 2007

They require more resources to achieve the educational objectives. These authors point out that special educational needs are relative. These needs arise between students' personal characteristics and their environment. Therefore, any child may have special educational needs, even if he/she does not have any physical disability. However, some students with learning difficulties do not have a complete assessment about their special educational needs. On the one hand, their school is far from urban areas; on the other hand, there are not enough teachers of special education for every school. In consequence, school teachers do not know their students' educational needs and teach in the same way. Thereby, students with learning difficulties do not have the necessary support in the classroom.

Learning difficulties of writing may be identified easily. Children with special educational needs do not learn the alphabetical principle of writing easily; that is, they do not relate phoneme with grapheme. Therefore, children show their conceptualizations about writing in different ways. Sometimes, teachers censor their students' written productions because they do not write in a conventional way. Children with special educational needs are stigmatized in the classroom. They are considered as less favored. At the end of the scholar year, children do not pass.

Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to present one child with special educational needs writing process in a Mexican multigrade rural school. This text describes how the child writes a list of words with and without image as support. Analysis consists to identify the child's conceptualizations about writing [4], his ways of approaching, and difficulties or mistakes he makes. These mistakes are the indicators of learning process [5].

This paper presents Alejandro's case. This boy lives in a rural area. He shows special educational needs about learning. He never had specialized attention because he lives in a marginalized rural area. He was integrated into regular school, but he faced some learning difficulties. He was always considered as a student who does not learn. Therefore, this text describes Alejandro's writing, what he does after 2 years of preschool and 1 year of elementary school.

#### **2. Children with learning difficulties and their diagnosis**

According to the National Institute for the Evaluation of Education [6], Mexican education system provides basic education (preschool, elementary, and secondary school) for students with special educational needs. There are two types of special attention: Center of Multiple Attention (CAM, in Spanish) and Units of Service and Support to Regular Education (USAER, in Spanish). In the first one, children with special educational needs go to this Center. These children receive attention according to basic education and their educational needs. In the second, specialized teachers on special education go to school and provide support to students. These teachers provide information to school teachers too. In this way, there is educational equity and inclusion in Mexican school [7].

Mexican education system proposes the psycho-pedagogical assessment to identifying students with special educational needs [3]. Teacher identifies student with more difficulties. Specialized teacher applies several predetermined tests individually. This assessment is organized as follows:

1.**Physical appearance**: Teacher describes the child's physical characteristics. These features indicate the type of food the student eats, care his or her person, the parents' attention, among other elements.

**149**

*The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case*

2.**Behavior observed during the assessment**: In this section, the teacher should record the conditions in which the assessment was carried out: child's attitude,

3.**Child's development history**: This section presents conditions in which pregnancy developed, physical development (ages in which child held his/her head, sat, crawled, walked, etc.), language development (verbal response to sounds and voices, age in which said his/her first words and phrases, etc.), family (characteristics of their family and social environment, frequent activities, etc.), hetero-family history (vision, hearing, etc.), medical history (health conditions, diseases, etc.), and scholar history (age at which he/she started

a.It refers to student's general aspects: intellectual area (information processing, attention, memory, understanding, etc.), motor development area (functional skills to move, take objects, position of his/her body, etc.), communicative-linguistic area (phonological, semantic, syntactic and pragmatic levels), adaptation and social interaction area (the child's skills to initiate or maintain relationships with others), and emotional area (the way of perceiving the world and people). In each one, it mentions the instruments he suggests, although there is not enough information about them [3].

b.The second aspect is the curricular competence level. Teacher identifies what the student is capable of doing in relation to established purposes

c.The third aspect is about the learning style and motivation to learn. It presents physical-environmental conditions where the child works, their interests, level attention, strategies to solve a task, and the incentives he

d.The fourth aspect is information about the student's environment:

Psycho-pedagogical assessment allows to identify children's general educational needs. In this way, the school teacher could have information about the students' difficulties. However, it is a general assessment. It contains several aspects and does

Therefore, this paper does not propose a new assessment. It consists of presenting one child's writing difficulties, his ways of conceptualizing writing, and some

Since 1993, Mexican system education has tried to offer special education services to students with special educational needs in basic education [8]. The first step was to promote the integration of these children in regular education classrooms. However, only insertion of the student in the school was achieved. Therefore, the

**3. Students with learning difficulties and their scholar integration**

factors of the school, family, and social context that influence the child's

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

school, type of school, difficulties, etc.).

4.**Present condition**: In this, there are four aspects:

and contents by official curriculum.

receives.

learning.

not go deeper into one.

mistakes he gets to make.

behavior, and interest.

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

difficulties do not have the necessary support in the classroom.

year, children do not pass.

indicators of learning process [5].

2 years of preschool and 1 year of elementary school.

equity and inclusion in Mexican school [7].

individually. This assessment is organized as follows:

person, the parents' attention, among other elements.

**2. Children with learning difficulties and their diagnosis**

They require more resources to achieve the educational objectives. These authors point out that special educational needs are relative. These needs arise between students' personal characteristics and their environment. Therefore, any child may have special educational needs, even if he/she does not have any physical disability. However, some students with learning difficulties do not have a complete assessment about their special educational needs. On the one hand, their school is far from urban areas; on the other hand, there are not enough teachers of special education for every school. In consequence, school teachers do not know their students' educational needs and teach in the same way. Thereby, students with learning

Learning difficulties of writing may be identified easily. Children with special educational needs do not learn the alphabetical principle of writing easily; that is, they do not relate phoneme with grapheme. Therefore, children show their conceptualizations about writing in different ways. Sometimes, teachers censor their students' written productions because they do not write in a conventional way. Children with special educational needs are stigmatized in the classroom. They are considered as less favored. At the end of the scholar

Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to present one child with special educational needs writing process in a Mexican multigrade rural school. This text describes how the child writes a list of words with and without image as support. Analysis consists to identify the child's conceptualizations about writing [4], his ways of approaching, and difficulties or mistakes he makes. These mistakes are the

This paper presents Alejandro's case. This boy lives in a rural area. He shows special educational needs about learning. He never had specialized attention because he lives in a marginalized rural area. He was integrated into regular school, but he faced some learning difficulties. He was always considered as a student who does not learn. Therefore, this text describes Alejandro's writing, what he does after

According to the National Institute for the Evaluation of Education [6], Mexican education system provides basic education (preschool, elementary, and secondary school) for students with special educational needs. There are two types of special attention: Center of Multiple Attention (CAM, in Spanish) and Units of Service and Support to Regular Education (USAER, in Spanish). In the first one, children with special educational needs go to this Center. These children receive attention according to basic education and their educational needs. In the second, specialized teachers on special education go to school and provide support to students. These teachers provide information to school teachers too. In this way, there is educational

Mexican education system proposes the psycho-pedagogical assessment to identifying students with special educational needs [3]. Teacher identifies student with more difficulties. Specialized teacher applies several predetermined tests

1.**Physical appearance**: Teacher describes the child's physical characteristics. These features indicate the type of food the student eats, care his or her

**148**

	- a.It refers to student's general aspects: intellectual area (information processing, attention, memory, understanding, etc.), motor development area (functional skills to move, take objects, position of his/her body, etc.), communicative-linguistic area (phonological, semantic, syntactic and pragmatic levels), adaptation and social interaction area (the child's skills to initiate or maintain relationships with others), and emotional area (the way of perceiving the world and people). In each one, it mentions the instruments he suggests, although there is not enough information about them [3].
	- b.The second aspect is the curricular competence level. Teacher identifies what the student is capable of doing in relation to established purposes and contents by official curriculum.
	- c.The third aspect is about the learning style and motivation to learn. It presents physical-environmental conditions where the child works, their interests, level attention, strategies to solve a task, and the incentives he receives.
	- d.The fourth aspect is information about the student's environment: factors of the school, family, and social context that influence the child's learning.

Psycho-pedagogical assessment allows to identify children's general educational needs. In this way, the school teacher could have information about the students' difficulties. However, it is a general assessment. It contains several aspects and does not go deeper into one.

Therefore, this paper does not propose a new assessment. It consists of presenting one child's writing difficulties, his ways of conceptualizing writing, and some mistakes he gets to make.

#### **3. Students with learning difficulties and their scholar integration**

Since 1993, Mexican system education has tried to offer special education services to students with special educational needs in basic education [8]. The first step was to promote the integration of these children in regular education classrooms. However, only insertion of the student in the school was achieved. Therefore, the

system of education searched for mechanisms to provide advice to teacher. In this way, student with learning difficulties can be attended at the same time in the classroom [8].

Educational integration has been directly associated with attention of students with learning difficulties, with or without physical disabilities [8]. However, this process implies a change in the school. For this, it is necessary to provide information and to create awareness to the educational community, permanent updating of teachers, joint work between teacher, family, and specialized teachers.

At present, Mexican education system looks at educational integration as process in which every student with learning difficulties is supported individually [9]. Adapting the curriculum to the child is the purpose of educational integration.

Curricular adequacy is one of the actions to support students with learning difficulties [10, 11]. This is an individualized curriculum proposal. Its purpose is to attend the students' special educational needs [3]. At present, Mexican education system indicates that there should be a curricular flexibility to promote learning processes. However, it is important to consider what the child knows about particular knowledge.

Regarding the subject of the acquisition of written language, it is necessary to know how the children build their knowledge about written. It is not possible to make a curricular adequacy if teachers do not have enough information about their students. However, children are considered as knowledge builders. Therefore, there are learning difficulties at the process.

#### **4. Alejandro's case**

This section presents Alejandro's personal information. We met him when we visited to his school for other research purposes. We focused on him because the boy was silent in class. He was always in a corner of the work table and did not do the activities. For this, we talked with his teacher and his mother to know more about him.

Alejandro is a student of an elementary multigrade rural school. He was 7 years old at the time of the study. He was in the second grade of the elementary school. His school is located in the region of the "Great Mountains" of the state of Veracruz, Mexico. It is a rural area, marginalized. To get to this town from the municipal head, it is necessary to take a rural taxi for half an hour. Then, you have to walk on a dirt road for approximately 50 min.

Alejandro's family is integrated by six people. He is the third of the four sons. He lives with his parents. His house is made of wood. His father works in the field: farming of corn, beans, and raising of sheep. His mother is a housewife and also works in the field. They have a low economic income. Therefore, they receive a scholarship. One of his older brothers also showed learning difficulties at school. His mother says both children have a learning problem. But, they do not have any money for attending their sons' learning difficulties. In addition, there are no special institutes near their house.

The boy has always shown learning difficulties. He went to preschool for 2 years. However, he did not develop the necessary skills at this level. At classes, this child was silent, without speaking. Preschool teachers believed that he was mute. Nevertheless, at scholar recess, he talked with his classmates. Alejandro was slow to communicate with words in the classroom.

When he started elementary school, Alejandro continued to show learning difficulties. At classes, he was silent too. He just watched what his classmates did. He did not do anything in the class. He took his notebook out of his backpack and just made some lines. Occasionally, he talked with his classmates. When the teacher asked him

**151**

*The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case*

something, Alejandro did not answer. He looked down and did not answer. He just

When Alejandro was in second grade, he did different activities than his classmates. His teacher drew some drawings for him and he painted these drawings. Other occasions, the teacher wrote some letters for him to paint. The child did every exercise during several hours. He did not finish his exercises quickly. Sometimes he

Although Alejandro requires specialized attention, he has not received it. He has not had a full psycho-pedagogical assessment at school by specialized teachers. His school does not have these teachers. Also, the child was not submitted to neurological structural examination or neurophysiological studies to exclude an organic origin of his learning difficulties. His parents do not have enough financial resources to do this type of study for him. In addition, one specialized institution that can do this type of study for free is in Mexico City. It is so far from child's house. It would be expensive for the child's parents. Therefore, he is only attended as a

For this reason, this paper is interested in the boy's writing process. This is because Alejandro coursed 2 years of preschool and 1 year of elementary school; however, he does not show a conventional writing yet. In this way, it is interesting to

The purpose of this paper is to know the child's ways to approach writing spontaneously and his knowledge about the writing system. For this, the author used a clinical interview. He took into account the research interview guide "Analysis of

The clinical interview was conducted individually. We explored four points, but

Interviewer took the child to the library room at school. There were no other students. First, the interviewer gave the child a sheet and asked to write his name. Alejandro wrote his name during long time. Interviewer only asked what it says there. He answered his name: "Alejandro." Next, the interviewer asked the child to write some letters and numbers he knew. Alejandro wrote them. The interviewer asked about every letter and number. The child answered "letter" or "number," and

1.*To write words*: The interviewer asked the child to write a group of words from the same semantic field in Spanish (because Alejandro is from Mexico) and one sentence. Order of words was from highest to lowest number of syllables. In this case, interviewer used semantic field of animals. Therefore, he used following words: GATO (cat), MARIPOSA (butterfly), CABALLO (horse), PERRO (dog), and PEZ (fish). The sentence was: EL GATO BEBE LECHE (The cat drinks milk). The interviewer questioned every written word. He asked the

child to show with his finger how he says in every written production.

Interviewer used the following image cards: horse-bird and giraffe-worm (**Figure 1**). Every pair of cards represents a large animal and a small animal.

2.*To write for image*: This task was divided into two parts. The first analyzed the

analyze his conceptualizations about writing and difficulties he experiences.

Disturbances in the Learning Process of Reading and Writing" [12].

Next, the two writing tasks were the following:

size and second analyzed the number.

we only present two in this text: to write words and to write for image.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

painted some drawings during 2 h.

regular school student.

**5. Methodology**

its name.

ducked his head and stayed for several minutes.

#### *The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

something, Alejandro did not answer. He looked down and did not answer. He just ducked his head and stayed for several minutes.

When Alejandro was in second grade, he did different activities than his classmates. His teacher drew some drawings for him and he painted these drawings. Other occasions, the teacher wrote some letters for him to paint. The child did every exercise during several hours. He did not finish his exercises quickly. Sometimes he painted some drawings during 2 h.

Although Alejandro requires specialized attention, he has not received it. He has not had a full psycho-pedagogical assessment at school by specialized teachers. His school does not have these teachers. Also, the child was not submitted to neurological structural examination or neurophysiological studies to exclude an organic origin of his learning difficulties. His parents do not have enough financial resources to do this type of study for him. In addition, one specialized institution that can do this type of study for free is in Mexico City. It is so far from child's house. It would be expensive for the child's parents. Therefore, he is only attended as a regular school student.

For this reason, this paper is interested in the boy's writing process. This is because Alejandro coursed 2 years of preschool and 1 year of elementary school; however, he does not show a conventional writing yet. In this way, it is interesting to analyze his conceptualizations about writing and difficulties he experiences.

#### **5. Methodology**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

teachers, joint work between teacher, family, and specialized teachers.

classroom [8].

lar knowledge.

**4. Alejandro's case**

road for approximately 50 min.

special institutes near their house.

communicate with words in the classroom.

are learning difficulties at the process.

system of education searched for mechanisms to provide advice to teacher. In this way, student with learning difficulties can be attended at the same time in the

Educational integration has been directly associated with attention of students with learning difficulties, with or without physical disabilities [8]. However, this process implies a change in the school. For this, it is necessary to provide information and to create awareness to the educational community, permanent updating of

At present, Mexican education system looks at educational integration as process

Regarding the subject of the acquisition of written language, it is necessary to know how the children build their knowledge about written. It is not possible to make a curricular adequacy if teachers do not have enough information about their students. However, children are considered as knowledge builders. Therefore, there

This section presents Alejandro's personal information. We met him when we visited to his school for other research purposes. We focused on him because the boy was silent in class. He was always in a corner of the work table and did not do the activities. For this, we talked with his teacher and his mother to know more about him. Alejandro is a student of an elementary multigrade rural school. He was 7 years old at the time of the study. He was in the second grade of the elementary school. His school is located in the region of the "Great Mountains" of the state of Veracruz, Mexico. It is a rural area, marginalized. To get to this town from the municipal head, it is necessary to take a rural taxi for half an hour. Then, you have to walk on a dirt

Alejandro's family is integrated by six people. He is the third of the four sons. He lives with his parents. His house is made of wood. His father works in the field: farming of corn, beans, and raising of sheep. His mother is a housewife and also works in the field. They have a low economic income. Therefore, they receive a scholarship. One of his older brothers also showed learning difficulties at school. His mother says both children have a learning problem. But, they do not have any money for attending their sons' learning difficulties. In addition, there are no

The boy has always shown learning difficulties. He went to preschool for 2 years. However, he did not develop the necessary skills at this level. At classes, this child was silent, without speaking. Preschool teachers believed that he was mute. Nevertheless, at scholar recess, he talked with his classmates. Alejandro was slow to

When he started elementary school, Alejandro continued to show learning difficulties. At classes, he was silent too. He just watched what his classmates did. He did not do anything in the class. He took his notebook out of his backpack and just made some lines. Occasionally, he talked with his classmates. When the teacher asked him

in which every student with learning difficulties is supported individually [9]. Adapting the curriculum to the child is the purpose of educational integration. Curricular adequacy is one of the actions to support students with learning difficulties [10, 11]. This is an individualized curriculum proposal. Its purpose is to attend the students' special educational needs [3]. At present, Mexican education system indicates that there should be a curricular flexibility to promote learning processes. However, it is important to consider what the child knows about particu-

**150**

The purpose of this paper is to know the child's ways to approach writing spontaneously and his knowledge about the writing system. For this, the author used a clinical interview. He took into account the research interview guide "Analysis of Disturbances in the Learning Process of Reading and Writing" [12].

The clinical interview was conducted individually. We explored four points, but we only present two in this text: to write words and to write for image.

Interviewer took the child to the library room at school. There were no other students. First, the interviewer gave the child a sheet and asked to write his name. Alejandro wrote his name during long time. Interviewer only asked what it says there. He answered his name: "Alejandro." Next, the interviewer asked the child to write some letters and numbers he knew. Alejandro wrote them. The interviewer asked about every letter and number. The child answered "letter" or "number," and its name.

Next, the two writing tasks were the following:


Interviewer used the following image cards: horse-bird and giraffe-worm (**Figure 1**). Every pair of cards represents a large animal and a small animal.

**Figure 1.** *Cards with large and small animals.*

**Figure 2.** *Cards for singular and plural.*

The purpose of this first task was to explore how the child writes when he looks at two images of animals with different size. The animal names have three syllables in Spanish: CA-BA-LLO (horse), PA-JA-RO (bird), etc. In this way, we can see how the child writes.

The interviewer used the following pair of cards for second task (**Figure 2**).

First card shows one animal (singular) and the second shows some animals (plural). In this way, we search to explore how the child produces his writings when he observes one or more objects, if there are similarities or differences to write.

The interviewer asked what was in every card. Next, he asked the child to write something. Alejandro wrote something in every picture. Afterward, the interviewer asked the child to read every word that he wrote. Child pointed with his finger what he wrote.

After, the interview was transcribed for analysis. We read the transcription. The author analyzed every written production. He identified the child's conceptualizations about writing. He compared the written production and what the child said. In this way, the analysis did not only consist to identify the level of writing development. This text describes the child's writing, the ways in which he conceptualizes the writing, the difficulties he experienced to write, and his interpretations about writing.

**153**

**Figure 3.** *Alejandro's name.*

*The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case*

classmates write a conventional way, but he does not.

the writing of words; and the third part is writing for picture.

**6.1 Alejandro writes his name and some letters and numbers**

This section describes Alejandro's writing process. As we already mentioned, Alejandro is 7 years old and he studies in the second grade of the elementary school. His teacher says the child should have a conventional writing, because he has already coursed 1 year of elementary school, but it is not like that. Most of his

We organized this section in three parts. The first part presents how Alejandro wrote his name and how he identifies letters and numbers; the second part refers to

The first part of the task consisted of Alejandro writing his name and some letters and numbers he knows. His name was requested for two reasons. The first reason is to identify the sheet, because the interviewer interviewed other children in the same school. Also, it was necessary to identify every written productions of the group of students. The second reason was to observe the way he wrote his name and

The interviewer asked the child to write his name at the top of the sheet. When the interviewer said the instructions, Alejandro was thoughtful during a long time. He was not pressed or interrupted. He did not do anything for several seconds. The child looked at the sheet and looked at everywhere. After time, he took the pencil

The interviewer looked at Alejandro's writing. He asked if something was lacking. The interviewer was sure that Alejandro knew his name and his writing was not complete. However, Alejandro was thoughtful, and looked at the sheet for a long time. The interviewer asked if his name was already complete. The child answered "no." The interviewer asked the child if he remembered his name. Alejandro denied

Alejandro has built the notion of his name. We believe that he has had some opportunities to write his name. Perhaps, his teacher has asked him to write his name on his notebooks, as part of scholar work in the classroom. We observed that Alejandro used letters with conventional sound value. This is because he wrote three initial letters of his name: ALJ (Alejandro). The first two letters correspond to the beginning of his name. Then, he omits "E" (ALE-), and writes "J" (ALJ). However, Alejandro mentions that he does not remember the others. This may show that he has memorized his name, but at that moment he failed to remember the others, or,

Subsequently, the interviewer asked Alejandro to write some letters and numbers he knew. The sequence was: a letter, a number, a letter, another letter, and number. In every Alejandro' writing, the interviewer asked the child what he wrote.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

how he identified letters and numbers.

these letters are what he remembers.

and wrote the following on the sheet (**Figure 3**).

with his head. So, they continued with another task.

In this way, Alejandro wrote the following (**Figure 4**).

**6. Alejandro's writing**

### **6. Alejandro's writing**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

The purpose of this first task was to explore how the child writes when he looks at two images of animals with different size. The animal names have three syllables in Spanish: CA-BA-LLO (horse), PA-JA-RO (bird), etc. In this way, we can see how

The interviewer used the following pair of cards for second task (**Figure 2**). First card shows one animal (singular) and the second shows some animals (plural). In this way, we search to explore how the child produces his writings when he observes one or more objects, if there are similarities or differences to write. The interviewer asked what was in every card. Next, he asked the child to write something. Alejandro wrote something in every picture. Afterward, the interviewer asked the child to read every word that he wrote. Child pointed with his finger what

After, the interview was transcribed for analysis. We read the transcription. The author analyzed every written production. He identified the child's conceptualizations about writing. He compared the written production and what the child said. In this way, the analysis did not only consist to identify the level of writing development. This text describes the child's writing, the ways in which he conceptualizes the writing, the difficulties he experienced to write, and his interpretations about writing.

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he wrote.

the child writes.

*Cards for singular and plural.*

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 1.**

*Cards with large and small animals.*

This section describes Alejandro's writing process. As we already mentioned, Alejandro is 7 years old and he studies in the second grade of the elementary school. His teacher says the child should have a conventional writing, because he has already coursed 1 year of elementary school, but it is not like that. Most of his classmates write a conventional way, but he does not.

We organized this section in three parts. The first part presents how Alejandro wrote his name and how he identifies letters and numbers; the second part refers to the writing of words; and the third part is writing for picture.

#### **6.1 Alejandro writes his name and some letters and numbers**

The first part of the task consisted of Alejandro writing his name and some letters and numbers he knows. His name was requested for two reasons. The first reason is to identify the sheet, because the interviewer interviewed other children in the same school. Also, it was necessary to identify every written productions of the group of students. The second reason was to observe the way he wrote his name and how he identified letters and numbers.

The interviewer asked the child to write his name at the top of the sheet. When the interviewer said the instructions, Alejandro was thoughtful during a long time. He was not pressed or interrupted. He did not do anything for several seconds. The child looked at the sheet and looked at everywhere. After time, he took the pencil and wrote the following on the sheet (**Figure 3**).

The interviewer looked at Alejandro's writing. He asked if something was lacking. The interviewer was sure that Alejandro knew his name and his writing was not complete. However, Alejandro was thoughtful, and looked at the sheet for a long time. The interviewer asked if his name was already complete. The child answered "no." The interviewer asked the child if he remembered his name. Alejandro denied with his head. So, they continued with another task.

Alejandro has built the notion of his name. We believe that he has had some opportunities to write his name. Perhaps, his teacher has asked him to write his name on his notebooks, as part of scholar work in the classroom. We observed that Alejandro used letters with conventional sound value. This is because he wrote three initial letters of his name: ALJ (Alejandro). The first two letters correspond to the beginning of his name. Then, he omits "E" (ALE-), and writes "J" (ALJ). However, Alejandro mentions that he does not remember the others. This may show that he has memorized his name, but at that moment he failed to remember the others, or, these letters are what he remembers.

Subsequently, the interviewer asked Alejandro to write some letters and numbers he knew. The sequence was: a letter, a number, a letter, another letter, and number. In every Alejandro' writing, the interviewer asked the child what he wrote. In this way, Alejandro wrote the following (**Figure 4**).

**Figure 3.** *Alejandro's name.*

**Figure 4.** *Letters and numbers written by Alejandro.*

For this task, Alejandro wrote for a long time. He did not hurry to write. He looked at sheet and wrote. The child looked at the interviewer, looked at the sheet again and after a few seconds he wrote. The interviewer asked about every letter or number.

We can observe that Alejandro differentiates between letter and number. He wrote correctly in every indication. That is, when the interviewer asked him to write a letter or number, he did so, respectively. In this way, Alejandro knows what he needs to write a word and what is not, what is for reading and what is not.

Also, we can observe that the child shows a limited repertoire of letters. He did not write consonants. He used only vowels: A (capital and lower) and E (lower). It shows us that he differentiates between capital and lower letter. Also, he identifies what vowels and letters are because the child answered which they were when the interviewer asked about them.

#### **6.2 Writing words from the same semantic field**

Asking the child to write words spontaneously is a way to know what he knows or has built about the writing system [12]. Although we know Alejandro presents learning difficulties and has not consolidated a conventional writing, it is necessary to ask him to write some words. This is for observing and analyzing what he is capable of writing, what knowledge he has built, as well as the difficulties he experiences.

The next picture presents what Alejandro wrote (**Figure 5**). We wrote the conventional form in Spanish next to every word. We wrote these words in English in the parentheses too.

At the beginning of the interview, Alejandro did not want to do the task. He was silent for several seconds. He did not write anything. He looked at the sheet and the window. The interviewer insisted several times and suspended the recording to encourage the child to write. Alejandro mentioned he could not write, because he did not know the letters and so he would not do it. However, the interviewer insisted him. After several minutes, Alejandro took the pencil and started to write.

Alejandro wrote every word for 1 or 2 min. He required more seconds or minutes sometimes. He looked at the sheet and his around. He was in silence and looking at the sheet other times. We identified that he needs time to write. This shows that he feels insecure and does not know something for writing. He feels insecure because he was afraid of being wrong and that he was punished by the interviewer for it. It may be that in class he is penalized when he makes a mistake. There is ignorance because he does not know some letters, and he has a low repertoire of the writing system. Thus, Alejandro needs to think about writing and look for representing it. Therefore, this is why the child needs more time to write.

We identified that the child does not establish a phoneme-grapheme relationship. He only shows with his finger from left to right when he read every word. He does not establish a relationship with the letters he used. In each word, there is no correspondence with the number of letters. The child also does not establish a constant because there is variation in number and variety of letters sometimes.

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*The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case*

Alejandro used letters unrelated to the conventional writing of the words. For example, when he wrote GATO (cat), Alejandro used the following letters: inpnAS. It is possible to identify that no letter corresponds to the word. Perhaps, Alejandro wrote those letters because they are recognized or remembered by him. Alejandro shows a limited repertoire of conventional letters. This is observed when he uses four vowels: A, E, I, O. The child used these vowels less frequently. There is one vowel in every word at least. When Alejandro wrote PEZ (fish), he used two vowels. We observed that he writes these vowels at the beginning or end of the word. However, we do not know why he places them that way. Maybe this is a

There is qualitative and quantitative differentiation in Alejandro's writing. That is, he did not write any words in the same way. All the words written by him are different. Every word has different number and variety of letters. When two words

When Alejandro wrote MARIPOSA (butterfly), he used five letters. The number of letters is less than what he used for GATO (cat). Maybe he wrote that because the interviewer said "butterfly is a small animal." This is because the cat is bigger than the butterfly. Therefore, it may be possible that he used lesser letters for butterfly. In Spanish, PERRO (dog) contains five letters. Alejandro wrote five letters. In this case, Alejandro's writing corresponds to the necessary number of letters. However, it seems that there is no writing rules for him. This is for two reasons: first, because there is no correspondence with the animal size. Horse is larger than dog and Alejandro required lesser letters for horse than for dog. Second, CABALLO (horse) is composed by three syllables and PERRO (dog) by two. Alejandro used more letters to represent two syllables. In addition, it is observed that there is a pseudo-letter. It looks like an inverted F, as well as D and B, horizontally.

When Alejandro wrote PEZ (fish), the interviewer first asked how many letters

he needed to write that word. The child did not answer. Interviewer asked for this again and student said that he did not know. Then, interviewer said to write PEZ (fish). For several minutes, Alejandro just looked the sheet and did not say anything. The interviewer questioned several times, but he did not answer. After

contain the same number of letter, they contain different letters.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

differentiating principle by him.

*List of words written by Alejandro.*

**Figure 5.**

*The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

**Figure 5.** *List of words written by Alejandro.*

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

For this task, Alejandro wrote for a long time. He did not hurry to write. He looked at sheet and wrote. The child looked at the interviewer, looked at the sheet again and after a few seconds he wrote. The interviewer asked about every letter or

We can observe that Alejandro differentiates between letter and number. He wrote correctly in every indication. That is, when the interviewer asked him to write a letter or number, he did so, respectively. In this way, Alejandro knows what he needs to write a word and what is not, what is for reading and what is not.

Also, we can observe that the child shows a limited repertoire of letters. He did not write consonants. He used only vowels: A (capital and lower) and E (lower). It shows us that he differentiates between capital and lower letter. Also, he identifies what vowels and letters are because the child answered which they were when the

Asking the child to write words spontaneously is a way to know what he knows or has built about the writing system [12]. Although we know Alejandro presents learning difficulties and has not consolidated a conventional writing, it is necessary to ask him to write some words. This is for observing and analyzing what he is capable of writing, what knowledge he has built, as well as the difficulties he experiences. The next picture presents what Alejandro wrote (**Figure 5**). We wrote the conventional form in Spanish next to every word. We wrote these words in English

At the beginning of the interview, Alejandro did not want to do the task. He was silent for several seconds. He did not write anything. He looked at the sheet and the window. The interviewer insisted several times and suspended the recording to encourage the child to write. Alejandro mentioned he could not write, because he did not know the letters and so he would not do it. However, the interviewer insisted him. After several minutes, Alejandro took the pencil and started to write. Alejandro wrote every word for 1 or 2 min. He required more seconds or minutes sometimes. He looked at the sheet and his around. He was in silence and looking at the sheet other times. We identified that he needs time to write. This shows that he feels insecure and does not know something for writing. He feels insecure because he was afraid of being wrong and that he was punished by the interviewer for it. It may be that in class he is penalized when he makes a mistake. There is ignorance because he does not know some letters, and he has a low repertoire of the writing system. Thus, Alejandro needs to think about writing and look for representing it.

We identified that the child does not establish a phoneme-grapheme relationship. He only shows with his finger from left to right when he read every word. He does not establish a relationship with the letters he used. In each word, there is no correspondence with the number of letters. The child also does not establish a constant because there is variation in number and variety of letters sometimes.

**154**

number.

**Figure 4.**

interviewer asked about them.

*Letters and numbers written by Alejandro.*

in the parentheses too.

**6.2 Writing words from the same semantic field**

Therefore, this is why the child needs more time to write.

Alejandro used letters unrelated to the conventional writing of the words. For example, when he wrote GATO (cat), Alejandro used the following letters: inpnAS. It is possible to identify that no letter corresponds to the word. Perhaps, Alejandro wrote those letters because they are recognized or remembered by him.

Alejandro shows a limited repertoire of conventional letters. This is observed when he uses four vowels: A, E, I, O. The child used these vowels less frequently. There is one vowel in every word at least. When Alejandro wrote PEZ (fish), he used two vowels. We observed that he writes these vowels at the beginning or end of the word. However, we do not know why he places them that way. Maybe this is a differentiating principle by him.

There is qualitative and quantitative differentiation in Alejandro's writing. That is, he did not write any words in the same way. All the words written by him are different. Every word has different number and variety of letters. When two words contain the same number of letter, they contain different letters.

When Alejandro wrote MARIPOSA (butterfly), he used five letters. The number of letters is less than what he used for GATO (cat). Maybe he wrote that because the interviewer said "butterfly is a small animal." This is because the cat is bigger than the butterfly. Therefore, it may be possible that he used lesser letters for butterfly.

In Spanish, PERRO (dog) contains five letters. Alejandro wrote five letters. In this case, Alejandro's writing corresponds to the necessary number of letters. However, it seems that there is no writing rules for him. This is for two reasons: first, because there is no correspondence with the animal size. Horse is larger than dog and Alejandro required lesser letters for horse than for dog. Second, CABALLO (horse) is composed by three syllables and PERRO (dog) by two. Alejandro used more letters to represent two syllables. In addition, it is observed that there is a pseudo-letter. It looks like an inverted F, as well as D and B, horizontally.

When Alejandro wrote PEZ (fish), the interviewer first asked how many letters he needed to write that word. The child did not answer. Interviewer asked for this again and student said that he did not know. Then, interviewer said to write PEZ (fish). For several minutes, Alejandro just looked the sheet and did not say anything. The interviewer questioned several times, but he did not answer. After

several minutes, Alejandro wrote: E. The interviewer asked the child if he has finished. He denied with his head. After 1 min, he started to write. We observed that his writing contains six letters. Capital letters are predominated.

Alejandro used inverted letters in three words. They may be considered as pseudo-letters. However, if we observe carefully they are similar to conventional letters. The child has written them in different positions: inverted.

May be there is a writing rule by Alejandro. His words have a minimum of four letters and a maximum of six letters. This rule has been established by him. There is no relation to the length of orality or the object it represents.

We can identify that Alejandro shows a primitive writing [4]. He is still in writing system learning process. The phoneticization process is not present yet. The child has not achieved this level yet. He only uses letters without a conventional sound value. There is no correspondence to phoneme-grapheme, and he uses pseudo-letters sometimes.

#### **6.3 To write for image**

Write for image allows us to know what happens when the child writes something in front of an image [12]. It is identified if there is the same rules used by the child, number of letters, or if there is any change when he writes a new word. It may happen that the length of the words is related to the size of the image or the number of objects presented. In this way, we can identify the child's knowledge and difficulties when he writes some words.

#### *6.3.1 The image size variable*

The first task is about observing how the child writes when he is in front of two different sized images. That is, we want to identify if the image size influences on his writings. Therefore, two pairs of cards were presented to Alejandro. Every pair of cards contained two animals, one small and one large. The interviewer asked Alejandro to write the name on each one (**Figure 6**).

Based on the writing produced by Alejandro, we mentioned the following:

Alejandro delimits his space to write. When he wrote for first pair of words, the child drew a wide rectangle and he made an oval and several squares for the second pair of words. The child wrote some letters to fill those drawn spaces. It seems that Alejandro's rule is to fill the space and not only represent the word.

When Alejandro writes the words, we identified that he presents difficulty in the conventional directionality of writing. He wrote most of words from left to right (conventional directionality), but he wrote some words from right to left (no conventional). For example, the child started to write the second word on the left.

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**Figure 7.**

(**Figure 8**).

following (**Figure 9**).

*Alejandro reads "caballo" (horse).*

*The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case*

He wrote seven letters. He looked at the sheet for some seconds. After, he continued to write other letters on the right. He wrote and completed the space he had left,

Alejandro shows two ways to write: left–right (conventional) and right–left (no conventional). When he wrote the last word, the child wrote one letter under another. There was no limited space on the sheet. Alejandro wrote it there. The child

When we compared Alejandro's writings, we identified that the number of letters used by him does not correspond to the image size. Although the images were present and he looked them when he wrote, the child took into account other rules to write. The six names of animals had three syllables in Spanish and Alejandro used nine letters for CABALLO (horse) and eleven for PÁJARO (bird). The letters used by him are similar to the conventional ones. However, these are in different positions. There are no phonetic correspondences with the words. The child shows a primitive writing. Alejandro has not started the level of relation between phoneme and grapheme yet. We can believe that the boy wrote some letters to cover the space on the sheet. Alejandro takes into account the card size instead of the image size. After writing a list of words, the interviewer asked Alejandro to read and point out every word he wrote. The purpose of this task is to observe how the child relates his writing to the sound length of the word. When Alejandro read CABALLO

Alejandro reads every word and points out what he reads. In this way, he justifies what he has written. In the previous example, Alejandro reads the first syllable and points out the first letter, second syllable with the second letter. At this moment, he gets in conflict when he tries to read the third syllable. It would correspond to the third letter. However, "there are more letters than he needs." When he reads the word, he shows the beginning of phoneticization: relation between one syllable with one letter. This is the syllabic writing principle [4]. Nevertheless, he has written more letters. Therefore, Alejandro says "o" in the other letters. In this way, we can point out that Alejandro justifies every letters and there is a correspondence

When Alejandro reads the second word, the child pointed out as follows

When interviewer showed the next pair of cards, Alejandro wrote as

Alejandro makes a different correspondence syllable-letter than the first word. Although his writing was in two ways, his reading is only one direction: from left to right. The first syllable is related to first three letters he wrote. The second syllable is related to the fourth letter. But, he faces the same problem as in the previous word: "there are many letters." So he justifies the other letters as follows. He reads the third syllable in relation to the sixth and seventh letter. And, reads "o" for the other letters.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

has not learned the writing directionality.

(horse), he pointed out as follows (**Figure 7**).

between what he reads and what he writes.

from right to left.

**Figure 6.** *Horse and bird writing.*

#### *The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

several minutes, Alejandro wrote: E. The interviewer asked the child if he has finished. He denied with his head. After 1 min, he started to write. We observed

Alejandro used inverted letters in three words. They may be considered as pseudo-letters. However, if we observe carefully they are similar to conventional

We can identify that Alejandro shows a primitive writing [4]. He is still in writing system learning process. The phoneticization process is not present yet. The child has not achieved this level yet. He only uses letters without a conventional sound value. There is no correspondence to phoneme-grapheme, and he uses

Write for image allows us to know what happens when the child writes something in front of an image [12]. It is identified if there is the same rules used by the child, number of letters, or if there is any change when he writes a new word. It may happen that the length of the words is related to the size of the image or the number of objects presented. In this way, we can identify the child's knowledge and difficul-

The first task is about observing how the child writes when he is in front of two different sized images. That is, we want to identify if the image size influences on his writings. Therefore, two pairs of cards were presented to Alejandro. Every pair of cards contained two animals, one small and one large. The interviewer asked

Based on the writing produced by Alejandro, we mentioned the following: Alejandro delimits his space to write. When he wrote for first pair of words, the child drew a wide rectangle and he made an oval and several squares for the second pair of words. The child wrote some letters to fill those drawn spaces. It seems that

When Alejandro writes the words, we identified that he presents difficulty in the conventional directionality of writing. He wrote most of words from left to right (conventional directionality), but he wrote some words from right to left (no conventional). For example, the child started to write the second word on the left.

Alejandro's rule is to fill the space and not only represent the word.

May be there is a writing rule by Alejandro. His words have a minimum of four letters and a maximum of six letters. This rule has been established by him. There is

that his writing contains six letters. Capital letters are predominated.

letters. The child has written them in different positions: inverted.

no relation to the length of orality or the object it represents.

pseudo-letters sometimes.

ties when he writes some words.

Alejandro to write the name on each one (**Figure 6**).

*6.3.1 The image size variable*

**6.3 To write for image**

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**Figure 6.**

*Horse and bird writing.*

He wrote seven letters. He looked at the sheet for some seconds. After, he continued to write other letters on the right. He wrote and completed the space he had left, from right to left.

Alejandro shows two ways to write: left–right (conventional) and right–left (no conventional). When he wrote the last word, the child wrote one letter under another. There was no limited space on the sheet. Alejandro wrote it there. The child has not learned the writing directionality.

When we compared Alejandro's writings, we identified that the number of letters used by him does not correspond to the image size. Although the images were present and he looked them when he wrote, the child took into account other rules to write. The six names of animals had three syllables in Spanish and Alejandro used nine letters for CABALLO (horse) and eleven for PÁJARO (bird). The letters used by him are similar to the conventional ones. However, these are in different positions. There are no phonetic correspondences with the words. The child shows a primitive writing. Alejandro has not started the level of relation between phoneme and grapheme yet. We can believe that the boy wrote some letters to cover the space on the sheet. Alejandro takes into account the card size instead of the image size.

After writing a list of words, the interviewer asked Alejandro to read and point out every word he wrote. The purpose of this task is to observe how the child relates his writing to the sound length of the word. When Alejandro read CABALLO (horse), he pointed out as follows (**Figure 7**).

Alejandro reads every word and points out what he reads. In this way, he justifies what he has written. In the previous example, Alejandro reads the first syllable and points out the first letter, second syllable with the second letter. At this moment, he gets in conflict when he tries to read the third syllable. It would correspond to the third letter. However, "there are more letters than he needs." When he reads the word, he shows the beginning of phoneticization: relation between one syllable with one letter. This is the syllabic writing principle [4]. Nevertheless, he has written more letters. Therefore, Alejandro says "o" in the other letters. In this way, we can point out that Alejandro justifies every letters and there is a correspondence between what he reads and what he writes.

When Alejandro reads the second word, the child pointed out as follows (**Figure 8**).

Alejandro makes a different correspondence syllable-letter than the first word. Although his writing was in two ways, his reading is only one direction: from left to right. The first syllable is related to first three letters he wrote. The second syllable is related to the fourth letter. But, he faces the same problem as in the previous word: "there are many letters." So he justifies the other letters as follows. He reads the third syllable in relation to the sixth and seventh letter. And, reads "o" for the other letters.

When interviewer showed the next pair of cards, Alejandro wrote as following (**Figure 9**).

**Figure 7.** *Alejandro reads "caballo" (horse).*

**Figure 8.**

*Alejandro reads "pájaro" (bird).*

**Figure 9.**

*Giraffe and worm writing by Alejandro.*

**Figure 10.** *Giraffe writing.*

When the interviewer shows the pair of cards to Alejandro, the child said "It's a zebra." So, the interviewer said "It's a giraffe and it's a worm" and pointed out every card. The interviewer asked Alejandro to write the name of every animal. First, the child draws a rectangle across the width of the sheet. Next, he started to write on the left side inside the rectangle. He said the first syllable "JI" while writing the first letter. After, he said "ra," he wrote a hyphen. Then, he said "e" and wrote another letter. At that moment, he looked at the sheet and filled the space he left with some letters (**Figure 10**).

Alejandro shows different rules of writing. These rules are not the same as previous. He delimited the space to write and filled the space with some letters. The child tries to relate the syllable with one letter, but he writes others. There is a limited repertoire of letters too. In this case, it seems that he used the same letters: C capital and lower letter, A capital and lower letter, and O. We believe that he uses hyphens to separate every letter. However, when he wrote the first hyphen, it reads the second syllable. We do not know why he reads there. Alejandro had tried to use conventional letters. He uses signs without sound value. In addition, there is no relation phoneme and grapheme.

When Alejandro wrote GUSANO (worm), he drew a rectangle and divided it into three small squares. Then, he drew other squares below the previous ones. After, he began to write some letters inside the squares, as seen in the following picture (**Figure 11**).

Alejandro used other rules to write. They are different than the previous. Alejandro has written one or two letters into every box. At the end, he writes some letters under the last box. There is no correspondence between what he reads and writes. There are also no fixed rules of writing for him. Rather, it is intuited that he draws the boxes to delimit his space to write.

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direction).

**Figure 11.** *Worm writing.*

**Figure 12.**

**Figure 13.**

*Cards with one cat and four cats.*

objects in the card.

*The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

*6.3.2 Singular and plural writing*

*Alejandro writes GATO (cat).*

wrote the following (**Figure 13**).

showed Alejandro the following images (**Figure 12**).

if this influences the directionality of Alejandro's writing.

The next task consists to write singular and plural. For this, the interviewer

Alejandro drew an oval for first card. This oval is on the left half of the sheet. He

Next, the interviewer asked Alejandro to write for the second card, in plural. For this, Alejandro draws another oval from the middle of the sheet, on the right side. The child did not do anything for 1 h 30 min. After this time, he wrote some different letters inside the oval (**Figure 14**). He wrote from right to left (unconventional

Alejandro wrote in the opposite conventional direction: from right to left. He tried to cover the delimited space by him. His letters are similar to the conventional ones. Also, there are differences between the first and the second word. He used lesser letters for first word than the second. That is, there are lesser letters for singular and more letters for plural. Perhaps, the child took into account the number of

The writing directionality may have been influenced by the image of the animals: cats look at the left side. Alejandro could have thought he was going to write from right to left, as well as images of the cards. Therefore, it is necessary to research how he writes when objects look at the right side. In this way, we can know *The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

**Figure 11.** *Worm writing.*

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

When the interviewer shows the pair of cards to Alejandro, the child said "It's a zebra." So, the interviewer said "It's a giraffe and it's a worm" and pointed out every card. The interviewer asked Alejandro to write the name of every animal. First, the child draws a rectangle across the width of the sheet. Next, he started to write on the left side inside the rectangle. He said the first syllable "JI" while writing the first letter. After, he said "ra," he wrote a hyphen. Then, he said "e" and wrote another letter. At that moment, he looked at the sheet and filled the space he left with some

Alejandro shows different rules of writing. These rules are not the same as previous. He delimited the space to write and filled the space with some letters. The child tries to relate the syllable with one letter, but he writes others. There is a limited repertoire of letters too. In this case, it seems that he used the same letters: C capital and lower letter, A capital and lower letter, and O. We believe that he uses hyphens to separate every letter. However, when he wrote the first hyphen, it reads the second syllable. We do not know why he reads there. Alejandro had tried to use conventional letters. He uses signs without sound value. In addition, there is no

When Alejandro wrote GUSANO (worm), he drew a rectangle and divided it into three small squares. Then, he drew other squares below the previous ones. After, he began to write some letters inside the squares, as seen in the following

Alejandro used other rules to write. They are different than the previous. Alejandro has written one or two letters into every box. At the end, he writes some letters under the last box. There is no correspondence between what he reads and writes. There are also no fixed rules of writing for him. Rather, it is intuited that he

**158**

**Figure 10.** *Giraffe writing.*

**Figure 9.**

**Figure 8.**

*Alejandro reads "pájaro" (bird).*

*Giraffe and worm writing by Alejandro.*

letters (**Figure 10**).

picture (**Figure 11**).

relation phoneme and grapheme.

draws the boxes to delimit his space to write.

#### **Figure 12.** *Cards with one cat and four cats.*

**Figure 13.** *Alejandro writes GATO (cat).*

#### *6.3.2 Singular and plural writing*

The next task consists to write singular and plural. For this, the interviewer showed Alejandro the following images (**Figure 12**).

Alejandro drew an oval for first card. This oval is on the left half of the sheet. He wrote the following (**Figure 13**).

Next, the interviewer asked Alejandro to write for the second card, in plural. For this, Alejandro draws another oval from the middle of the sheet, on the right side. The child did not do anything for 1 h 30 min. After this time, he wrote some different letters inside the oval (**Figure 14**). He wrote from right to left (unconventional direction).

Alejandro wrote in the opposite conventional direction: from right to left. He tried to cover the delimited space by him. His letters are similar to the conventional ones. Also, there are differences between the first and the second word. He used lesser letters for first word than the second. That is, there are lesser letters for singular and more letters for plural. Perhaps, the child took into account the number of objects in the card.

The writing directionality may have been influenced by the image of the animals: cats look at the left side. Alejandro could have thought he was going to write from right to left, as well as images of the cards. Therefore, it is necessary to research how he writes when objects look at the right side. In this way, we can know if this influences the directionality of Alejandro's writing.

#### **Figure 14.**

*Alejandro writes GATOS (cats).*

#### **Figure 15.**

*Cards with one rabbit and three rabbits.*

#### **Figure 16.**

*Alejandro writes CONEJO (rabbit).*

#### **Figure 17.**

*Alejandro writes CONEJOS (rabbits).*

With the next pair of images (**Figure 15**), the interviewer asked Alejandro to write CONEJO (rabbit) and CONEJOS (rabbits).

Alejandro draws a rectangle in the middle of the sheet for the first card (rabbit). He said "cone" (rab-) and wrote the first letter on the left of the sheet. Then, he said "jo" (bit) and wrote the second letter. He said "jo" again and wrote the third letter. He was thoughtful for some seconds. He started to write other letters. His writing is as follows (**Figure 16**).

At the beginning, Alejandro tries to relate the syllables of the word with first two letters. However, he justifies the other letters when he read the word. There is no exact correspondence between the syllable and the letter. As well as his writing is to fill the space he delimited.

Alejandro takes into account other rules for plural writing. He drew a rectangle across the width of the sheet. Starting on the left, he said "CO" and wrote one letter. Then, he said "NE" and drew a vertical line. After, he said "JO" and wrote other letters. His writing is as follows (**Figure 17**).

Alejandro writes both words differently. He reads CONEJO (rabbit) for first word and CONEJOS (rabbits) for the second. Both words are different from each other. But, he wrote them with different rules. This is confusing for us because there

**161**

their learning needs.

*The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case*

child tried to represent every object, although he did not explain it.

are vertical lines between every two letters in the second word. We believe that the

In summary, Alejandro shows different writings. He used pseudo-letters and conventional letter. These letters are in unconventional positions. There is no relationship between grapheme and phoneme yet; and, he uses different writing rules.

We described Alejandro's writing process. According to this description, we can

Alejandro is a student of an elementary regular school. He presents learning difficulties. He could not write "correctly." However, he did not have a full assessment by specialized teachers. His school is so far from urban areas and his parents could not take him to a special institution. Therefore, he has not received special support. Also, there is not a favorable literacy environment in his home. His teacher teaches him like his classmates. Usually, he has been marginalized and stigmatized because

We focused on Alejandro because he was a child who was always distracted in class. We did not want to show his writing mistakes as negative aspects, but as part of his learning process. Errors are indicators of a process [5]. They inform the person's skills. They allow to identify the knowledge that is being used [13]. In this

Alejandro showed some knowledge and also some difficulties to write. The child identifies and distinguishes letters and numbers. We do not know if he conceptualizes their use in every one. When he wrote, he shows his knowledge: letters are for

The writing directionality is a difficulty for Alejandro. He writes from left to right and also from right to left. We do not know why he did that. We did not research his reasons. But, it is important to know if there are any factors that influ-

The student does not establish a phoneme-grapheme relationship yet. He is still in an initial level to writing acquisition. He uses conventional letters and pseudoletters to write. There are no fixed rules to write: number and variety of letters. However, we observed student's thought about writing. He justifies his writings

There is still a limited repertoire of letters. He used a few letters of the alphabet. Therefore, Alejandro needs to interact with different texts, rather than teaching him letter by letter. Even if "he does not know those letters." In this way, he is going to

Time he takes to write is an important element for us. He refused to write for several minutes at the beginning. After, he wrote during 1 or 2 min every word. As we mentioned previously, we believe that Alejandro did not feel sure to do the task. Perhaps, he thought that the interviewer is going to penalize for his writing "incorrectly." He felt unable to write. Therefore, it is important that children's mistakes are not censored in the classroom. Mistakes let us to know the child's knowledge and

We considered that class work was not favorable for Alejandro. He painted letters, drawings, among others. These were to keep him busy. Therefore, it is important for the child to participate in reading and writing practices. In this way, he can be integrated into the scholar activities and is not segregated by his classmates. About children with learning difficulties, it is important that these children write as they believe. Do not censor their writings. They are not considered as

way, errors can be considered as elements with a didactic value.

when he reads them and invents letters to represent some words.

appropriate other elements and resources of the writing system.

reading, because he did not use any number in the words.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

**7. Conclusions**

note the following:

"he does not know or work in class."

ence the child to write like this.

#### *The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

are vertical lines between every two letters in the second word. We believe that the child tried to represent every object, although he did not explain it.

In summary, Alejandro shows different writings. He used pseudo-letters and conventional letter. These letters are in unconventional positions. There is no relationship between grapheme and phoneme yet; and, he uses different writing rules.

#### **7. Conclusions**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

With the next pair of images (**Figure 15**), the interviewer asked Alejandro to

Alejandro draws a rectangle in the middle of the sheet for the first card (rabbit). He said "cone" (rab-) and wrote the first letter on the left of the sheet. Then, he said "jo" (bit) and wrote the second letter. He said "jo" again and wrote the third letter. He was thoughtful for some seconds. He started to write other letters. His writing is

At the beginning, Alejandro tries to relate the syllables of the word with first two letters. However, he justifies the other letters when he read the word. There is no exact correspondence between the syllable and the letter. As well as his writing is to

Alejandro takes into account other rules for plural writing. He drew a rectangle across the width of the sheet. Starting on the left, he said "CO" and wrote one letter. Then, he said "NE" and drew a vertical line. After, he said "JO" and wrote other

Alejandro writes both words differently. He reads CONEJO (rabbit) for first word and CONEJOS (rabbits) for the second. Both words are different from each other. But, he wrote them with different rules. This is confusing for us because there

write CONEJO (rabbit) and CONEJOS (rabbits).

letters. His writing is as follows (**Figure 17**).

as follows (**Figure 16**).

**Figure 14.**

**Figure 15.**

**Figure 16.**

**Figure 17.**

*Alejandro writes GATOS (cats).*

*Cards with one rabbit and three rabbits.*

*Alejandro writes CONEJO (rabbit).*

*Alejandro writes CONEJOS (rabbits).*

fill the space he delimited.

**160**

We described Alejandro's writing process. According to this description, we can note the following:

Alejandro is a student of an elementary regular school. He presents learning difficulties. He could not write "correctly." However, he did not have a full assessment by specialized teachers. His school is so far from urban areas and his parents could not take him to a special institution. Therefore, he has not received special support. Also, there is not a favorable literacy environment in his home. His teacher teaches him like his classmates. Usually, he has been marginalized and stigmatized because "he does not know or work in class."

We focused on Alejandro because he was a child who was always distracted in class. We did not want to show his writing mistakes as negative aspects, but as part of his learning process. Errors are indicators of a process [5]. They inform the person's skills. They allow to identify the knowledge that is being used [13]. In this way, errors can be considered as elements with a didactic value.

Alejandro showed some knowledge and also some difficulties to write. The child identifies and distinguishes letters and numbers. We do not know if he conceptualizes their use in every one. When he wrote, he shows his knowledge: letters are for reading, because he did not use any number in the words.

The writing directionality is a difficulty for Alejandro. He writes from left to right and also from right to left. We do not know why he did that. We did not research his reasons. But, it is important to know if there are any factors that influence the child to write like this.

The student does not establish a phoneme-grapheme relationship yet. He is still in an initial level to writing acquisition. He uses conventional letters and pseudoletters to write. There are no fixed rules to write: number and variety of letters. However, we observed student's thought about writing. He justifies his writings when he reads them and invents letters to represent some words.

There is still a limited repertoire of letters. He used a few letters of the alphabet. Therefore, Alejandro needs to interact with different texts, rather than teaching him letter by letter. Even if "he does not know those letters." In this way, he is going to appropriate other elements and resources of the writing system.

Time he takes to write is an important element for us. He refused to write for several minutes at the beginning. After, he wrote during 1 or 2 min every word. As we mentioned previously, we believe that Alejandro did not feel sure to do the task. Perhaps, he thought that the interviewer is going to penalize for his writing "incorrectly." He felt unable to write. Therefore, it is important that children's mistakes are not censored in the classroom. Mistakes let us to know the child's knowledge and their learning needs.

We considered that class work was not favorable for Alejandro. He painted letters, drawings, among others. These were to keep him busy. Therefore, it is important for the child to participate in reading and writing practices. In this way, he can be integrated into the scholar activities and is not segregated by his classmates.

About children with learning difficulties, it is important that these children write as they believe. Do not censor their writings. They are not considered as

people incapable. It is necessary to consider that learning is a slow process. Those children will require more time than their classmates.

Special education plays an important role in Mexico. However, rather than attending to the student with learning difficulties in isolation, it is necessary that the teacher should be provided with information and the presence of specialized teachers in the classroom. In this way, the student with learning difficulties can be integrated into class, scholar activities, and reading and writing practices.

We presented Alejandro's writing process in this paper. Although he was considered as a child with learning difficulties, we identified he shows some difficulties, but he knows some elements of the writing system too.

### **Acknowledgements**

I thank Alejandro, his parents, and his teacher for the information they provided to me about him.

### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

### **Author details**

Edgardo Domitilo Gerardo Morales Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, National Autonomous University of Mexico, México City, México

\*Address all correspondence to: edogemo@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**163**

*The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case*

Severas de Aprendizaje, Conducta o Comunicación. México, DF: Secretaria

de Educación Pública; 2018

ISBN 968-9082-33-7

[10] Durán M. Las Adecuaciones Curriculares Individuales: Hacia la Equidad en Educación Especial. México: Secretaría de Educación Pública; 2016.

[11] CONAFE. Discapacidad Intelectual. Guía Didáctica Para la Inclusión en Educación Inicial y Básica. México: Secretaria de Educación Pública; 2010

[12] Ferreiro E, Gómez M. Análisis de las Perturbaciones en el Proceso de Aprendizaje de la Lecto-Escritura. Fascículo 1. México: SEP-DGEE; 1982

[13] Vaca J. Así Leen (Textos) los Niños. Textos Universitarios. México: Universidad Veracruzana; 2006. ISBN:

968-834-753-1

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

[2] SEP. Propuesta Educativa Multigrado 2005. México: Secretaria de Educación

[3] García-Cedillo E, Escalante I, Escandón M, Fernández L, Mustre A, Puga I. La Integración Educativa en el Aula Regular. Principios, Finalidades y Estrategias. México: Secretaría de Educación Pública; 2000. ISBN:

[4] Ferreiro E, Teberosky A. Los Sistemas de Escritura en el Desarrollo del Niño. México, D.F.: Editorial Siglo XXI; 1979. ISBN 968-23-1578-6

[5] Dolz J, Gagnon R, Vuillet Y. Production écrite et Difficultés D'apprentisage. Genève: Carnets des Sciences de L'education. Université de Genéve; 2011. ISBN: 2-940195-44-7

[6] INEE. Panorama Educativo de México. Indicadores del Sistema Educativo Nacional 2017. Educación Básica y Media Superior. México: Instituto Nacional para la Evaluación de

[7] SEP. Modelo Educativo: Equidad e Inclusión. México: Secretaria de Educación Pública; 2017. ISBN:

[8] SEP. Orientaciones Generales Para el Funcionamiento de los Servicios de Educación Especial. México: Secretaria de Educación Pública; 2016. ISBN:

[9] SEP. Estrategia de Equidad e Inclusión en la Educación Básica: Para Alumnos con Discapacidad, Aptitudes Sobresalientes y Dificultades

[1] SEP. Aprendizajes Clave Para la Educación Integral. Plan y Programas de Estudio Para la Educación Básica. México, D.F.: Secretaria de Educación Pública; 2017. ISBN: 970-57-0000-1

**References**

Pública; 2005

978-607-8279-18-0

la Educación; 2018

978-607-97644-4-9

970-57-0016-8

*The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing: A Study of Case DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89194*

#### **References**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

integrated into class, scholar activities, and reading and writing practices.

children will require more time than their classmates.

but he knows some elements of the writing system too.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

to me about him.

**Author details**

México City, México

Edgardo Domitilo Gerardo Morales

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: edogemo@gmail.com

people incapable. It is necessary to consider that learning is a slow process. Those

Special education plays an important role in Mexico. However, rather than attending to the student with learning difficulties in isolation, it is necessary that the teacher should be provided with information and the presence of specialized teachers in the classroom. In this way, the student with learning difficulties can be

We presented Alejandro's writing process in this paper. Although he was considered as a child with learning difficulties, we identified he shows some difficulties,

I thank Alejandro, his parents, and his teacher for the information they provided

Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, National Autonomous University of Mexico,

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

**162**

[1] SEP. Aprendizajes Clave Para la Educación Integral. Plan y Programas de Estudio Para la Educación Básica. México, D.F.: Secretaria de Educación Pública; 2017. ISBN: 970-57-0000-1

[2] SEP. Propuesta Educativa Multigrado 2005. México: Secretaria de Educación Pública; 2005

[3] García-Cedillo E, Escalante I, Escandón M, Fernández L, Mustre A, Puga I. La Integración Educativa en el Aula Regular. Principios, Finalidades y Estrategias. México: Secretaría de Educación Pública; 2000. ISBN: 978-607-8279-18-0

[4] Ferreiro E, Teberosky A. Los Sistemas de Escritura en el Desarrollo del Niño. México, D.F.: Editorial Siglo XXI; 1979. ISBN 968-23-1578-6

[5] Dolz J, Gagnon R, Vuillet Y. Production écrite et Difficultés D'apprentisage. Genève: Carnets des Sciences de L'education. Université de Genéve; 2011. ISBN: 2-940195-44-7

[6] INEE. Panorama Educativo de México. Indicadores del Sistema Educativo Nacional 2017. Educación Básica y Media Superior. México: Instituto Nacional para la Evaluación de la Educación; 2018

[7] SEP. Modelo Educativo: Equidad e Inclusión. México: Secretaria de Educación Pública; 2017. ISBN: 978-607-97644-4-9

[8] SEP. Orientaciones Generales Para el Funcionamiento de los Servicios de Educación Especial. México: Secretaria de Educación Pública; 2016. ISBN: 970-57-0016-8

[9] SEP. Estrategia de Equidad e Inclusión en la Educación Básica: Para Alumnos con Discapacidad, Aptitudes Sobresalientes y Dificultades Severas de Aprendizaje, Conducta o Comunicación. México, DF: Secretaria de Educación Pública; 2018

[10] Durán M. Las Adecuaciones Curriculares Individuales: Hacia la Equidad en Educación Especial. México: Secretaría de Educación Pública; 2016. ISBN 968-9082-33-7

[11] CONAFE. Discapacidad Intelectual. Guía Didáctica Para la Inclusión en Educación Inicial y Básica. México: Secretaria de Educación Pública; 2010

[12] Ferreiro E, Gómez M. Análisis de las Perturbaciones en el Proceso de Aprendizaje de la Lecto-Escritura. Fascículo 1. México: SEP-DGEE; 1982

[13] Vaca J. Así Leen (Textos) los Niños. Textos Universitarios. México: Universidad Veracruzana; 2006. ISBN: 968-834-753-1

**165**

Section 5

Strategy of Interventions

in Learning Disabilities

### Section 5

## Strategy of Interventions in Learning Disabilities

**167**

communities.

**Chapter 12**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

*Rakgadi Grace Malapela* 

*and Gloria Thupayagale-Tshweneagae*

Transition Possibilities for

Disabilities into Adulthood

Adolescents with Intellectual

Transition possibilities for adolescents with intellectual disabilities into adulthood remain a complex issue and often neglected by the healthcare system and non-healthcare system. Given the responsibilities and roles that the healthcare system, nonhealthcare system and families have to fulfil to address the transition possibility issue, the lack of knowledge, skills and resources negatively impacts on the transition possibility. In favour of situating adolescents with intellectual disabilities into adulthood, the provision and development of working skills need to be prioritised. Transition possibilities are to be considered to all adolescents with intellectual disabilities.

**Keywords:** adolescents, adulthood, intellectual disabilities, transition and possibility

Adolescence is a time of transition, involving multidimensional changes, namely biological, psychological and social [1]. These changes occur simultaneously and at different paces for each adolescent. Extant literature reports that the world is home to 1.2 billion adolescents aged between 10 and 19 years. Transition for adolescents is not only biological, but it also includes emotional transition [2]. The United Nations statistics has reported that there are more than 600 million people with disability and that 80 million live in Africa. There is also an estimation that more than 300,000 adolescents have intellectual disabilities. Majority of adolescents with intellectual disabilities (IDs) adolescents would be excluded from acquiring some education and employment opportunities, as well as to suffer discrimination Nyangweso [3]. In addition, Meleis, Sawyer, Im, Messias, Schumacher [4] transition is perceived to be complicated. Adolescents with IDs will grow into adulthood as a result of improved healthcare and related technologies. Pandey and Agarwal [5] wrote that even though transitions are almost normal as they happen often, it is, however, very challenging for adolescents moving into adulthood especially for those with intellectual disabilities who may remain wholly dependent on their parents for emotional wellbeing. This chapter provides a clear and detailed definition of the concept of transition, transition of adolescents with intellectual disabilities (IDs), followed by governmental intervention. Transition possibilities for adolescents with ID are discussed under various roles of the government, healthcare workers and

#### **Chapter 12**

## Transition Possibilities for Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities into Adulthood

*Rakgadi Grace Malapela and Gloria Thupayagale-Tshweneagae*

#### **Abstract**

Transition possibilities for adolescents with intellectual disabilities into adulthood remain a complex issue and often neglected by the healthcare system and non-healthcare system. Given the responsibilities and roles that the healthcare system, nonhealthcare system and families have to fulfil to address the transition possibility issue, the lack of knowledge, skills and resources negatively impacts on the transition possibility. In favour of situating adolescents with intellectual disabilities into adulthood, the provision and development of working skills need to be prioritised. Transition possibilities are to be considered to all adolescents with intellectual disabilities.

**Keywords:** adolescents, adulthood, intellectual disabilities, transition and possibility

#### **1. Introduction**

Adolescence is a time of transition, involving multidimensional changes, namely biological, psychological and social [1]. These changes occur simultaneously and at different paces for each adolescent. Extant literature reports that the world is home to 1.2 billion adolescents aged between 10 and 19 years. Transition for adolescents is not only biological, but it also includes emotional transition [2]. The United Nations statistics has reported that there are more than 600 million people with disability and that 80 million live in Africa. There is also an estimation that more than 300,000 adolescents have intellectual disabilities. Majority of adolescents with intellectual disabilities (IDs) adolescents would be excluded from acquiring some education and employment opportunities, as well as to suffer discrimination Nyangweso [3]. In addition, Meleis, Sawyer, Im, Messias, Schumacher [4] transition is perceived to be complicated. Adolescents with IDs will grow into adulthood as a result of improved healthcare and related technologies. Pandey and Agarwal [5] wrote that even though transitions are almost normal as they happen often, it is, however, very challenging for adolescents moving into adulthood especially for those with intellectual disabilities who may remain wholly dependent on their parents for emotional wellbeing.

This chapter provides a clear and detailed definition of the concept of transition, transition of adolescents with intellectual disabilities (IDs), followed by governmental intervention. Transition possibilities for adolescents with ID are discussed under various roles of the government, healthcare workers and communities.

#### **2. Transition as a concept**

The concept of 'transition' has been in existence for more than three decades. It is among the concepts that are debated on its meaning and uses in literature. Transitions occur throughout life and are the processes faced by all humans, from birth, to adolescence and to adulthood, from being immature to mature and from being dependent to independent [6]. Transition is often associated with movement from a more shielded environment to a more self-directed environment. It is characterised by the ability to make decisions and to take care of oneself [7]. Transition also includes many adjustments that have to occur in life. Such events include leaving parents to boarding school, leaving home after parental death to an orphanage and all other life events that may render one to transit from one area to another [8]. Chick and Meleis [9] summarises transition by defining it as 'a passage or movement from one state, condition or place to another' (p239). Ally et al. [10] are of the opinion that transitions are aimed at improving one's quality of life. It is a movement from one area of dependency to one area of independence, where one can do activities of daily living with minimal assistance. The authors further noted that it is about the cognitive and adaptive functioning of the individual. The process of transitioning is very difficult for most adolescents and could be particularly difficult for those adolescents with intellectual disabilities [11]. Shaw and DeLaet [12] define transition as a process, a point in time and a perception. As a process, transition needs people with ID their families, caregivers and the healthcare system to work together towards a common goal. The authors argue that transition entails the period starting from the anticipation of transition until the new status and change have been achieved. Lastly, the authors are of the view that transition depends on the individuals' interpretations of what transition mean to them rather than being an event. Furthermore, this depends upon the setting in which the transition process takes place. Eighteen years is globally believed to be an age of maturity, and hence adolescents when they turn 18 are expected to have reached a certain level of independence and are able to make life decisions such as employment and career. In accordance with Patterson and Pegg [13] past history reflects that adolescents with IDs were devalued and not allowed to live independently. These assumptions and beliefs pose challenges for those who are intellectually disabled.

#### **3. Transition of adolescents with intellectual disabilities**

Intellectual disability is characterised by several limitations in mental, emotional, cognitive and physical functioning. People with intellectual disabilities display very problematic behaviours that require attention at all times [14]. The definition of intellectual disability is also wrought with many controversies. To date there is no single definition that is acceptable for all. For instance, it is believed that people with intellectual disability's social and practical skills differ significantly from what is accepted as normal by his or her society (American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (2011 cited in Aldersey [15])). On the contrary, Werner [16] and Lancaster et al. [17] define ID as characterised by significant limitations in intellectual functioning with an IQ below 75 which originates before the age of 18 years. To this end, intellectual disability has been defined by limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviours. They need more attention and assistance to cope with activities of daily living Shogren and Plotner [18].

The transition of adolescents with ID into adulthood is challenging in that they are expected to go through psychological and social maturation just like their able counterparts. There is a range of issues associated with transition of adolescents with ID into adulthood. They include rehabilitation and special education issues.

**169**

**disabilities**

*Transition Possibilities for Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities into Adulthood*

programmes and policies suited for addressing their needs.

larger society are still rife in some parts of Africa [24].

because they have differing conceptions of friendships [25].

However, in most countries, especially developing countries, they do not have structures in place to assist them achieve this milestone [8]. Most often, there are no

Disability is a developing concept in Africa as it is entrenched within the culture [19]. In the African context, disability is associated with supernatural causes that affect the way family members would treat the individual with ID [20]. Aldersey [15] posits that disability in Africa is a formation of one's culture. Etiyiebo and Omiegbe [20] also support this view that culture defines an individual with intellectual disability as less than human. The two studies quoted above gave examples of other studies in Africa, such as Botswana, Zimbabwe and Cameroon, that define intellectual disability according to norms of the society they live in. These negative stereotypes in most of the African countries have led to the exclusion of individuals with ID from the mainstream society [21]. This has even led to some families to hide their adolescents allowing them to grow in isolation with no proper transition. It is therefore not surprising that in most of Africa, there is lack of relevant policies for individuals with ID, and this poses many challenges for them and their families. Most of these challenges relate to social, occupational and parental issues.

**3.1 Social challenges with transition of adolescents with intellectual disability**

Lack of support and labelling of individuals with ID by communities are some of the challenges that affect adolescents with ID. These lead to isolation and loneliness. Other studies [2, 22, 23] also reported that individuals with ID are ridiculed, not supported and unaccepted by the society they live in. Stigma and discrimination, especially in African countries where disability is associated with witchcraft and other supernatural causes, influence the way the individuals with ID are treated. Incidences of individuals with ID being locked in the houses and hidden from the

Adolescents with ID may not even have the opportunity to volunteer for some activities in their communities. Friendships and peer interactions are limited mostly because other peers with no ID may react negatively towards those with ID, and it is

**3.2 Occupational challenges with transition of adolescents with intellectual** 

Adolescents with ID face many challenges, especially in developing countries. There are very few schools open to adolescents with ID. The majority of them end at the seventh grade. This is especially true if they come from poor families who may not afford few private schools. In a study by Malapela [26], she found that out of the 25 adolescents admitted in two special schools in South Africa, only one of them was given a vocational job after completion. In other countries, there are social grants with which these individuals and their families depend on, whereas in other countries where there are no disability grants, their livelihood is dependent on their parents and families. Pandey and Agarwal [5] reported that adolescents with ID are most likely not to be employed and less likely to complete secondary education.

**3.3 Leisure challenges with transition of adolescents with intellectual disabilities**

It is generally believed that leisure promotes emotional and psychological wellbeing for individuals with ID [27]. Leisure activities develop general skills and adaptive behaviours. However, in most countries leisure activities for individuals with ID are limited or non-existent Majoko [28]. Lack of leisure or recreational

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89174*

#### *Transition Possibilities for Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities into Adulthood DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89174*

However, in most countries, especially developing countries, they do not have structures in place to assist them achieve this milestone [8]. Most often, there are no programmes and policies suited for addressing their needs.

Disability is a developing concept in Africa as it is entrenched within the culture [19]. In the African context, disability is associated with supernatural causes that affect the way family members would treat the individual with ID [20]. Aldersey [15] posits that disability in Africa is a formation of one's culture. Etiyiebo and Omiegbe [20] also support this view that culture defines an individual with intellectual disability as less than human. The two studies quoted above gave examples of other studies in Africa, such as Botswana, Zimbabwe and Cameroon, that define intellectual disability according to norms of the society they live in. These negative stereotypes in most of the African countries have led to the exclusion of individuals with ID from the mainstream society [21]. This has even led to some families to hide their adolescents allowing them to grow in isolation with no proper transition. It is therefore not surprising that in most of Africa, there is lack of relevant policies for individuals with ID, and this poses many challenges for them and their families. Most of these challenges relate to social, occupational and parental issues.

#### **3.1 Social challenges with transition of adolescents with intellectual disability**

Lack of support and labelling of individuals with ID by communities are some of the challenges that affect adolescents with ID. These lead to isolation and loneliness. Other studies [2, 22, 23] also reported that individuals with ID are ridiculed, not supported and unaccepted by the society they live in. Stigma and discrimination, especially in African countries where disability is associated with witchcraft and other supernatural causes, influence the way the individuals with ID are treated. Incidences of individuals with ID being locked in the houses and hidden from the larger society are still rife in some parts of Africa [24].

Adolescents with ID may not even have the opportunity to volunteer for some activities in their communities. Friendships and peer interactions are limited mostly because other peers with no ID may react negatively towards those with ID, and it is because they have differing conceptions of friendships [25].

#### **3.2 Occupational challenges with transition of adolescents with intellectual disabilities**

Adolescents with ID face many challenges, especially in developing countries. There are very few schools open to adolescents with ID. The majority of them end at the seventh grade. This is especially true if they come from poor families who may not afford few private schools. In a study by Malapela [26], she found that out of the 25 adolescents admitted in two special schools in South Africa, only one of them was given a vocational job after completion. In other countries, there are social grants with which these individuals and their families depend on, whereas in other countries where there are no disability grants, their livelihood is dependent on their parents and families. Pandey and Agarwal [5] reported that adolescents with ID are most likely not to be employed and less likely to complete secondary education.

#### **3.3 Leisure challenges with transition of adolescents with intellectual disabilities**

It is generally believed that leisure promotes emotional and psychological wellbeing for individuals with ID [27]. Leisure activities develop general skills and adaptive behaviours. However, in most countries leisure activities for individuals with ID are limited or non-existent Majoko [28]. Lack of leisure or recreational

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

**3. Transition of adolescents with intellectual disabilities**

assistance to cope with activities of daily living Shogren and Plotner [18].

The transition of adolescents with ID into adulthood is challenging in that they are expected to go through psychological and social maturation just like their able counterparts. There is a range of issues associated with transition of adolescents with ID into adulthood. They include rehabilitation and special education issues.

Intellectual disability is characterised by several limitations in mental, emotional, cognitive and physical functioning. People with intellectual disabilities display very problematic behaviours that require attention at all times [14]. The definition of intellectual disability is also wrought with many controversies. To date there is no single definition that is acceptable for all. For instance, it is believed that people with intellectual disability's social and practical skills differ significantly from what is accepted as normal by his or her society (American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (2011 cited in Aldersey [15])). On the contrary, Werner [16] and Lancaster et al. [17] define ID as characterised by significant limitations in intellectual functioning with an IQ below 75 which originates before the age of 18 years. To this end, intellectual disability has been defined by limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviours. They need more attention and

The concept of 'transition' has been in existence for more than three decades. It is among the concepts that are debated on its meaning and uses in literature. Transitions occur throughout life and are the processes faced by all humans, from birth, to adolescence and to adulthood, from being immature to mature and from being dependent to independent [6]. Transition is often associated with movement from a more shielded environment to a more self-directed environment. It is characterised by the ability to make decisions and to take care of oneself [7]. Transition also includes many adjustments that have to occur in life. Such events include leaving parents to boarding school, leaving home after parental death to an orphanage and all other life events that may render one to transit from one area to another [8]. Chick and Meleis [9] summarises transition by defining it as 'a passage or movement from one state, condition or place to another' (p239). Ally et al. [10] are of the opinion that transitions are aimed at improving one's quality of life. It is a movement from one area of dependency to one area of independence, where one can do activities of daily living with minimal assistance. The authors further noted that it is about the cognitive and adaptive functioning of the individual. The process of transitioning is very difficult for most adolescents and could be particularly difficult for those adolescents with intellectual disabilities [11]. Shaw and DeLaet [12] define transition as a process, a point in time and a perception. As a process, transition needs people with ID their families, caregivers and the healthcare system to work together towards a common goal. The authors argue that transition entails the period starting from the anticipation of transition until the new status and change have been achieved. Lastly, the authors are of the view that transition depends on the individuals' interpretations of what transition mean to them rather than being an event. Furthermore, this depends upon the setting in which the transition process takes place. Eighteen years is globally believed to be an age of maturity, and hence adolescents when they turn 18 are expected to have reached a certain level of independence and are able to make life decisions such as employment and career. In accordance with Patterson and Pegg [13] past history reflects that adolescents with IDs were devalued and not allowed to live independently. These assumptions and beliefs pose challenges for those who are intellectually disabled.

**2. Transition as a concept**

**168**

activities leave the individual with ID to have television as an only option. For some who do not have television, they spend most of the time in the house watching movements of their people depending on the degree of their disability. For some, parents may not allow their adolescents with ID to play with others for fear that they would be hurt, mocked or ridiculed. Jerome, Frantino and Sturmey [29] see this as being overprotective, which does not benefit the individual with ID as taking risks of being hurt is part of growing up. All these are daily challenges faced by these individuals.

#### **3.4 Parental challenges**

Literature has reported stress and depression for parents of adolescents with ID. Parents experience caregiver burden because in most cases they are left alone to care for their adolescents with no external assistance. In most instances, the parents are responsible for attending to all the activities of daily living for their adolescents with ID. A study conducted in United Kingdom by Rogers [30] reported that parenting an individual with intellectual disability incapacitates the whole family. It puts more pressure and burden on the family as more attention is needed from parents and mothers of these individuals to assist them to achieve activities of daily living including bathing, feeding, mobility, toilet training, socialising and others. The caregiver burden is aggravated by lack of professional support and unavailability of services. The American Psychological Association (2016) is of the view that where there is support and services the caregiver burden would be lessened. In other countries, where there is absence of such facilities or the lack of knowledge about their existence, then parental stress can be exacerbated [26].

#### **4. Governmental interventions**

Transition of adolescents with ID into adulthood has been a concern not just for researchers but for national governments as well. Most governments encourage the principle of inclusion in schools and employment [7]. In some instances, policies have been developed that encourage inclusion and provide more opportunities for adolescents with ID aiming at maximising their interaction with the wider community.

In South Africa, for instance, a number of legislative regulations and policy framework have been developed to protect individuals with intellectual disabilities from exploitation, vulnerability and discrimination. However, numerous concerns and challenges have been reported regarding their care, treatment and rehabilitation that are detrimental to their general wellbeing and their future prospects. According to the policy guidelines on child and adolescent mental health and reconstruction and development programme (RDP), adolescents with ID are still faced by many challenges in their transition to adulthood. It is for this reason that transition possibilities need to be prioritised.

The Mental Health Care Act No.17 of 2002 that directs care, treatment and rehabilitation of adolescents with intellectual disabilities states that individuals with ID have the right to a sheltered employment and fair treatment. However, the demands of this act have not been realised fully, and this impacts negatively on their transition.

Given all the limitations that affect the transition possibilities, proper understanding of transition possibilities in the context of intellectual disabilities needs urgent attention. There must be a change that would have positive impact in the

**171**

*Transition Possibilities for Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities into Adulthood*

educating different players such as parents, families and communities.

Poor outcomes for adolescents with ID on employment, education and social activities call for an active path for changing the post high school scenery**.** Governments can strive to make transition easier by ensuring structures that accommodate adolescents with ID are in place. Firstly, governments should ensure that all the schools from primary to secondary have facilities for special education. Such an arrangement will ensure that adolescents with ID and those without ID are taught in the same schools. Arrangements could be made that in such schools there will exist common courses that are taken together such as physical education. This will have multiple benefits for all. Adolescents with no ID will be able to accept those with ID and can understand their shortcomings and be able to assist them. Firm friendships can be built at this stage, and this would ensure that adolescents with IDs leisure time are well taken care of [5]. The authors reported that adolescents with ID believe that they are just like others and consider themselves able to interact with peers with no ID. Research by Kurth and Mastergeorge [31] suggest that inclusive education has more enhanced academic results for students

The use of technology in such schools will also improve the academic outcomes for students with ID. Therefore, governments should strive to make all this available for adolescents with ID. Maxey and Beckett [7] posit that special education which is in the same environment with the mainstream education plays a vital role on how adolescents with ID are perceived by both the teachers and their peers. Currently in most countries, especially in developing countries, there are very few special schools, hence governments should be encouraged to build some and make them

Governments can also expand employment opportunities for adolescents with ID. These they could do through collaborating with employment agencies. A study done by Plotner and Mashall [32] in the United States found that 28.4% of adults with ID were in formal employment compared to 71% of those adults without ID. However, in developing countries the statistics would even be lower. Adolescents with ID should be taught courses that would link them with particular employment

Community centres that are open for adolescents with ID need to be in place. The government can achieve this by forming partnerships with community agencies. The benefit of this would be that it would allow for integration of adolescents with ID into the community. Pallisera et al. [33] argued that transition partnerships and collaboration are key factors in the facilitation and fostering of the transition

lives of individuals with ID. These changes must take cognisance of their level of

There are numerous transition possibilities that could be done to assist adolescents with ID. Most of these possibilities centre on what governments and healthcare workers can do to mitigate the many challenges associated with their transitions. The possibilities for governments are on policy development and involvement of other stakeholders. For healthcare workers, the main theme is on

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89174*

**5. Transition possibilities**

**6. The role of governments**

with disabilities.

inclusive.

opportunities.

mental, physical, social and emotional functioning.

lives of individuals with ID. These changes must take cognisance of their level of mental, physical, social and emotional functioning.

#### **5. Transition possibilities**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

activities leave the individual with ID to have television as an only option. For some who do not have television, they spend most of the time in the house watching movements of their people depending on the degree of their disability. For some, parents may not allow their adolescents with ID to play with others for fear that they would be hurt, mocked or ridiculed. Jerome, Frantino and Sturmey [29] see this as being overprotective, which does not benefit the individual with ID as taking risks of being hurt is part of growing up. All these are daily challenges faced by

Literature has reported stress and depression for parents of adolescents with ID. Parents experience caregiver burden because in most cases they are left alone to care for their adolescents with no external assistance. In most instances, the parents are responsible for attending to all the activities of daily living for their adolescents with ID. A study conducted in United Kingdom by Rogers [30] reported that parenting an individual with intellectual disability incapacitates the whole family. It puts more pressure and burden on the family as more attention is needed from parents and mothers of these individuals to assist them to achieve activities of daily living including bathing, feeding, mobility, toilet training, socialising and others. The caregiver burden is aggravated by lack of professional support and unavailability of services. The American Psychological Association (2016) is of the view that where there is support and services the caregiver burden would be lessened. In other countries, where there is absence of such facilities or the lack of knowledge

Transition of adolescents with ID into adulthood has been a concern not just for researchers but for national governments as well. Most governments encourage the principle of inclusion in schools and employment [7]. In some instances, policies have been developed that encourage inclusion and provide more opportunities for adolescents with ID aiming at maximising their interaction with the wider

In South Africa, for instance, a number of legislative regulations and policy framework have been developed to protect individuals with intellectual disabilities from exploitation, vulnerability and discrimination. However, numerous concerns and challenges have been reported regarding their care, treatment and rehabilitation that are detrimental to their general wellbeing and their future prospects. According to the policy guidelines on child and adolescent mental health and reconstruction and development programme (RDP), adolescents with ID are still faced by many challenges in their transition to adulthood. It is for this reason that

The Mental Health Care Act No.17 of 2002 that directs care, treatment and rehabilitation of adolescents with intellectual disabilities states that individuals with ID have the right to a sheltered employment and fair treatment. However, the demands of this act have not been realised fully, and this impacts negatively on their

Given all the limitations that affect the transition possibilities, proper understanding of transition possibilities in the context of intellectual disabilities needs urgent attention. There must be a change that would have positive impact in the

about their existence, then parental stress can be exacerbated [26].

**170**

transition.

these individuals.

**3.4 Parental challenges**

**4. Governmental interventions**

transition possibilities need to be prioritised.

community.

There are numerous transition possibilities that could be done to assist adolescents with ID. Most of these possibilities centre on what governments and healthcare workers can do to mitigate the many challenges associated with their transitions. The possibilities for governments are on policy development and involvement of other stakeholders. For healthcare workers, the main theme is on educating different players such as parents, families and communities.

### **6. The role of governments**

Poor outcomes for adolescents with ID on employment, education and social activities call for an active path for changing the post high school scenery**.** Governments can strive to make transition easier by ensuring structures that accommodate adolescents with ID are in place. Firstly, governments should ensure that all the schools from primary to secondary have facilities for special education. Such an arrangement will ensure that adolescents with ID and those without ID are taught in the same schools. Arrangements could be made that in such schools there will exist common courses that are taken together such as physical education. This will have multiple benefits for all. Adolescents with no ID will be able to accept those with ID and can understand their shortcomings and be able to assist them.

Firm friendships can be built at this stage, and this would ensure that adolescents with IDs leisure time are well taken care of [5]. The authors reported that adolescents with ID believe that they are just like others and consider themselves able to interact with peers with no ID. Research by Kurth and Mastergeorge [31] suggest that inclusive education has more enhanced academic results for students with disabilities.

The use of technology in such schools will also improve the academic outcomes for students with ID. Therefore, governments should strive to make all this available for adolescents with ID. Maxey and Beckett [7] posit that special education which is in the same environment with the mainstream education plays a vital role on how adolescents with ID are perceived by both the teachers and their peers. Currently in most countries, especially in developing countries, there are very few special schools, hence governments should be encouraged to build some and make them inclusive.

Governments can also expand employment opportunities for adolescents with ID. These they could do through collaborating with employment agencies. A study done by Plotner and Mashall [32] in the United States found that 28.4% of adults with ID were in formal employment compared to 71% of those adults without ID. However, in developing countries the statistics would even be lower. Adolescents with ID should be taught courses that would link them with particular employment opportunities.

Community centres that are open for adolescents with ID need to be in place. The government can achieve this by forming partnerships with community agencies. The benefit of this would be that it would allow for integration of adolescents with ID into the community. Pallisera et al. [33] argued that transition partnerships and collaboration are key factors in the facilitation and fostering of the transition

process. This means an inclusion of a wide range of professionals, agencies, centres or services throughout the transition process.

Healthcare services are fragmented in most countries. For adolescents with ID, this would compound the problem of caregivers; hence, the governments need to bring them together. In most countries there are no services tailored for adolescents. There are health services for children and for adults, and there are very few for adolescents such as youth centres. This gap in service provision should be attended to, and youth-friendly services and skill centres should be made available even for adolescents with ID.

#### **7. The role of healthcare workers**

In order to ensure successful healthy transitions in healthcare, partnership work with families, communities, societies, education and other relevant stakeholders is needed. Ramalhal et al. [34] assert that nurses have the responsibility to assist individuals and their families to deal with the transition process. On the contrary, Shaw and DeLaet [12] argue that the physicians should take the first critical step to improve the transition process to adult-oriented healthcare. According to Meleis' Transition Theory, nurses are the partners of individuals and their families as they will be able to follow changes and outcomes regarding the transition process.

Healthcare workers are also responsible for educating parents on the adolescent's condition and what parents should expect. This would lessen the stress and ensure that parents know what to do with their adolescents. Education should focus on the adolescent behaviour. This would help parents to develop healthy relationships with their adolescent. This education should involve not just primary caregivers but extended family such as siblings, grandparents, aunts and other significant parties.

Healthcare workers are also charged with explaining to families about the level and scope of healthcare services that are available for such individuals. In most cases, families get confused because they are not aware of services that are available to adolescents with ID. Healthcare workers can facilitate their formation so that families can support and encourage each other.

Families should also be educated on the importance of a friendly, safe and stimulating environment to enable adolescents with ID to maximise their potentials and to cushion emotional and behavioural challenges [26]. Internet should be used where possible, and computer skills should be developed. Seal [35] and Seal and Pockney [36] hold a strong view that the use of the Internet allows individuals with ID to express themselves.

Provision of counselling is another viable transition possibility [26]. Individuals with ID should be counselled if they get frustrated in their inability to solve problems and be encouraged if they are able to solve problems on their own. Healthcare in most countries is very fragmented; healthcare workers should support their integration so that counselling is offered with other services. This would ensure that individuals with ID receive total quality care when is needed.

In a study by Malapela [26], it was found that the majority of parents lacked the knowledge and skill to care for their adolescents with ID. The study recommended that educating caregivers on the care of their adolescents and knowledge about their limitations would promote positive transition outcomes.

#### **8. The role of communities**

Teaching communities and socialisation of the intellectually disabled children into the community are the key factors that form the basis for assisting adolescents with

**173**

*Transition Possibilities for Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities into Adulthood*

IDs transition into adulthood. If communities understand the abilities and limitations of adolescents with ID, they would have a nondiscriminatory attitude that would assist in the transition outcomes for individuals with ID. A non-judgemental and nondiscriminatory attitude is key towards achieving healthy transition experience. Community partnerships with parents and professionals would relieve parents from being alone in the care of their intellectually disabled. Therefore, working together as a team would ensure a healthy transition of individuals with ID. For transition to bring about change and difference, individuals, their families and health and non-healthcare professionals should make necessary efforts and changes that enable these individuals and their families to adapt to their new roles and expectations. A community approach is necessary to assist these individuals, their families and their caregivers adapt to new changes and routines. Therefore, community education is essential to ensure that transition process promote positive

More community resources should be available and accessible to support these

Positive transition of adolescents with ID would ensure improvement of quality of life for individuals with ID. Governments and other stakeholders need to further develop the policy framework needed to assist individuals with ID and related interventions. Education, employment and leisure are key to a fruitful integration of individuals with ID in the mainstream society. Studies quoted in this chapter support those individuals with ID to have the same opportunities as for all individuals without ID. Prioritisation of provision and development of working skills are the determining factors for facilitating transition of adolescents with IDs into adulthood. The need for further research is necessary to ensure that adolescent with ID

individuals and their families during the transition experience and process.

Rakgadi Grace Malapela\* and Gloria Thupayagale-Tshweneagae\*

\*Address all correspondence to: gmalapela@gmail.com and tshweg@unisa.ac.za

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

provided the original work is properly cited.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89174*

experiences.

**9. Conclusion**

can live an independent life.

**Author details**

#### *Transition Possibilities for Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities into Adulthood DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89174*

IDs transition into adulthood. If communities understand the abilities and limitations of adolescents with ID, they would have a nondiscriminatory attitude that would assist in the transition outcomes for individuals with ID. A non-judgemental and nondiscriminatory attitude is key towards achieving healthy transition experience.

Community partnerships with parents and professionals would relieve parents from being alone in the care of their intellectually disabled. Therefore, working together as a team would ensure a healthy transition of individuals with ID. For transition to bring about change and difference, individuals, their families and health and non-healthcare professionals should make necessary efforts and changes that enable these individuals and their families to adapt to their new roles and expectations. A community approach is necessary to assist these individuals, their families and their caregivers adapt to new changes and routines. Therefore, community education is essential to ensure that transition process promote positive experiences.

More community resources should be available and accessible to support these individuals and their families during the transition experience and process.

#### **9. Conclusion**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

or services throughout the transition process.

**7. The role of healthcare workers**

families can support and encourage each other.

individuals with ID receive total quality care when is needed.

limitations would promote positive transition outcomes.

ID to express themselves.

**8. The role of communities**

process. This means an inclusion of a wide range of professionals, agencies, centres

Healthcare services are fragmented in most countries. For adolescents with ID, this would compound the problem of caregivers; hence, the governments need to bring them together. In most countries there are no services tailored for adolescents. There are health services for children and for adults, and there are very few for adolescents such as youth centres. This gap in service provision should be attended to, and youth-friendly services and skill centres should be made available even for adolescents with ID.

In order to ensure successful healthy transitions in healthcare, partnership work with families, communities, societies, education and other relevant stakeholders is needed. Ramalhal et al. [34] assert that nurses have the responsibility to assist individuals and their families to deal with the transition process. On the contrary, Shaw and DeLaet [12] argue that the physicians should take the first critical step to improve the transition process to adult-oriented healthcare. According to Meleis' Transition Theory, nurses are the partners of individuals and their families as they will be able to follow changes and outcomes regarding the transition process.

Healthcare workers are also responsible for educating parents on the adolescent's condition and what parents should expect. This would lessen the stress and ensure that parents know what to do with their adolescents. Education should focus on the adolescent behaviour. This would help parents to develop healthy relationships with their adolescent. This education should involve not just primary caregivers but extended family such as siblings, grandparents, aunts and other significant parties. Healthcare workers are also charged with explaining to families about the level and scope of healthcare services that are available for such individuals. In most cases, families get confused because they are not aware of services that are available to adolescents with ID. Healthcare workers can facilitate their formation so that

Families should also be educated on the importance of a friendly, safe and stimulating environment to enable adolescents with ID to maximise their potentials and to cushion emotional and behavioural challenges [26]. Internet should be used where possible, and computer skills should be developed. Seal [35] and Seal and Pockney [36] hold a strong view that the use of the Internet allows individuals with

Provision of counselling is another viable transition possibility [26]. Individuals with ID should be counselled if they get frustrated in their inability to solve problems and be encouraged if they are able to solve problems on their own. Healthcare in most countries is very fragmented; healthcare workers should support their integration so that counselling is offered with other services. This would ensure that

In a study by Malapela [26], it was found that the majority of parents lacked the knowledge and skill to care for their adolescents with ID. The study recommended that educating caregivers on the care of their adolescents and knowledge about their

Teaching communities and socialisation of the intellectually disabled children into the community are the key factors that form the basis for assisting adolescents with

**172**

Positive transition of adolescents with ID would ensure improvement of quality of life for individuals with ID. Governments and other stakeholders need to further develop the policy framework needed to assist individuals with ID and related interventions. Education, employment and leisure are key to a fruitful integration of individuals with ID in the mainstream society. Studies quoted in this chapter support those individuals with ID to have the same opportunities as for all individuals without ID. Prioritisation of provision and development of working skills are the determining factors for facilitating transition of adolescents with IDs into adulthood. The need for further research is necessary to ensure that adolescent with ID can live an independent life.

#### **Author details**

Rakgadi Grace Malapela\* and Gloria Thupayagale-Tshweneagae\* University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: gmalapela@gmail.com and tshweg@unisa.ac.za

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[25] Rossetti Z. Descriptors of friendship between secondary students with and without autism or intellectual and developmental disability. Remedial and Special Education. 2015;**36**(3):181-192

[26] Malapela RG. Strategy for transition

of adolescents with intellectual

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[18] Shogren KA, Plotner AJ. Transition planning for students with intellectual disability autism or other disabilities: Data from the National Longitudinal. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. 2012;**50**(1):16-30

[19] Mckenzie JA, McConkey R, Adnams C. Intellectual disability in Africa: Implications for research and service development. Disability and Rehabilitation. 2013;**35**(20):1750-1755

[20] Etiyiebo E, Omiegbe O. Religion, culture, and discrimination against persons with disabilities in Nigeria. African Journal of Disability. 2016;**5**(1):1-6. DOI: 1o.4102/ajod.v5i1.192

[21] Koszela K. The Stigmatization of Disabilities in Africa and the Development Effects, Independent Study project Collection 1639. 2013. Available from: http://digitalcollections. sit.edu/ISP-collection/1639

[22] Tugli AK, Zungu LI, Ramakuela NJ, Goon DT, FC A. Perceived challenges of serving students with disabilities in a historically disadvantaged tertiary institution, South Africa. African Journal for Physical Health Education. Recreation and Dance (AJPHERD) (Supplement). 2013;**1**(2):346-355

[23] Vermeer A, Magyarszeky Z. Disability Care in Africa Community Based Rehabilitation in Rural Regions. 1st ed. Netherlands, Amsterdam: VU University Press; 2014

[24] Acker J. Inequality regimes: Gender, class, and race in organisations. Gender and Society. 2006;**20**(4):441-464

[25] Rossetti Z. Descriptors of friendship between secondary students with and without autism or intellectual and developmental disability. Remedial and Special Education. 2015;**36**(3):181-192

[26] Malapela RG. Strategy for transition of adolescents with intellectual

disabilities into adulthood (thesis). Pretoria, SA: University of South Africa; 2018

[27] Buttimer J, Tiery E. Patterns of leisure participation among adolescents with mild intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities. 2005;**9**(1):25-42

[28] Majoko T. Inclusion of children with disabilities in physical education in Zimbabwean primary schools. SAGE Open. 2019;**8**:1-16

[29] Jerome J, Frantino EP, Sturmey P. The effects of errorless learning and backward chaining on the acquisition of Internet skills in adult with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis. 2007;**40**(1):185-189

[30] Rogers C. Mothering and intellectual disability: Partnership rhetoric? British Journal of Sociology of Education. 2011;**32**(4):563-581

[31] Kurth JA, Mastergeorge AM. Individual education plan goals and services for adolescents with autism: Impact of age and educational setting. Journal of Special Education. 2010;**44**:146-160

[32] Plotner AJ, Marshall KJ. Supporting post-secondary education programs for individuals with an intellectual disability: Role of the vocational rehabilitation counselor. Institute on Disabilities Hammill. 2016;**59**(4):195-202

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Fullana J. Transition to adulthood for young people with intellectual disability: Exploring transition partnerships from the point of view of professionals in school and post school services. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability. 2014;**3**(4):333-341

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Mental Health. 2010;**8**:41-53

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2018;**64**(2):S37-S43

[1] Steinberg L. Age of Opportunity: Lessons from the New Science of Adolescence. Boston, MA: Houghton

[3] Nyangweso M. Disability in Africa: A cultural/religious perspective. East Carolina University. ResearchGate.net;

Im EO, Messias DKH, Schumacher K. Experiencing transitions: An emerging middle range theory. Advances in Nursing Science. 2000;**23**(1):12-28

[5] Pandey S, Agarwal S. Transition to adulthood for youth with disability: Issues for the disabled child and family. JOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS). 2013;**17**(3):41-45

[7] Maxey M, Beckett TE. Adolescents and disabilities. Adolescent Research

[8] Malapela G, Mfidi F, Sibanda S, Thupayagale-Tshweneagae G. Caring for mental health care users with profound intellectual disabilities: Approaches and opportunities. Africa Journal of Nursing

[9] Chick N, Meleis AI. Transitions: A nursing concern. In: P.L. Chinn

and Midwifery. 2017;**19**:1-10

[6] Foley KR, Dyke P, Bourke J, Leonard H. Young adults with intellectual disability transitioning from school to post-school: A literature review framed within the ICF. Disability and Rehabilitation.

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[2] Mudhovozi P, Maphula A, Mashamba T. Caring for children with mental retardation: The experiences of Vhavenda mothers. *African*. Journal for Physical. Health Education. Recreation and Dance (AJPHERD). 2012;**2**:148-159

[4] Meleis AI, Sawyer LM,

**177**

**Chapter 13**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Speech Therapy Work with

Language Impairment: Algorithms

The concept of "personalization" is rather strengthened in pedagogy. At the same time, in Russia in the field of special pedagogy and, in particular, in speech therapy, there is an urgent need for personalized influence with specific language impairments. A review of Russian classical and modern data on the comorbidity of speech, language, motor skills, and other processes in children with specific language disorders is presented. The rationale for personifying speech therapy work in children with specific language impairments was justified. The scientific positions of the authors with respect to personalization in the field of differential evaluation, developmental effects, and prevention of systemic consequences of specific language impairments in children are indicated. The groups of personalized means and aids of influence of a speech therapist for specific language impairments in children are indicated. The directions of further development of the indicated problem of

**Keywords:** personalization, children of preschool age, personalized means and aids of speech therapy work, specific language impairment in children, personalized

In world science, and in Russian speech therapy, in particular, the issues of differential evaluation and in-depth study of specific language disorders in children are dynamically developing [1–3]. The manifestations and symptoms revealed by the authors determine the understanding of the underlying mechanisms of such a state as "specific language impairment." This allows to study in detail the structure of impaired development, to determine strategies and directions of developmental effects of speech therapy. Therefore, in Russian science, the search for further ways of a transdisciplinary study of the problem of helping children with SLI remains very relevant in special pedagogy in general, and speech therapy, in particular. It can be stated that in modern speech therapy, as a science, it is defined as a number of contradictions. On the one hand, there is a need to find new and improving

diagnostic profile, comorbidity of speech, language and motor disorders

Children Having Specific

and Personalization

*Tatiana Volodarovna Tumanova* 

*and Tatiana Borisovna Filicheva*

personalization of speech therapy work are determined.

[34] Ramalhal T, Lagarto A, Matos A, Cruz H, Ribeiro H. Transition to parenthood: Nursing intervention to promote paternal competences. NERP. 2013;**5**:164-169

[35] Seale JK. The same but different: The use of the personal home page by adults with down syndrome as a tool for self-presentation. British Journal of Educational Technology. 2001;**32**: 343-352. DOI: 10.1111/1467-8535.00203

[36] Seale JK, Pockney R. The use of the personal home page by adults with down syndrome as a tool for managing identity and friendship. British Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2002;**30**:142-148. DOI: 10.1046/j.1468-3156.2002.00195.x

### **Chapter 13**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

[34] Ramalhal T, Lagarto A,

2013;**5**:164-169

Matos A, Cruz H, Ribeiro H. Transition to parenthood: Nursing intervention to promote paternal competences. NERP.

[35] Seale JK. The same but different: The use of the personal home page by adults with down syndrome as a tool for self-presentation. British Journal of Educational Technology. 2001;**32**: 343-352. DOI: 10.1111/1467-8535.00203

[36] Seale JK, Pockney R. The use of the personal home page by adults with down syndrome as a tool for managing identity and friendship. British Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2002;**30**:142-148. DOI: 10.1046/j.1468-3156.2002.00195.x

**176**

## Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms and Personalization

*Tatiana Volodarovna Tumanova and Tatiana Borisovna Filicheva*

### **Abstract**

The concept of "personalization" is rather strengthened in pedagogy. At the same time, in Russia in the field of special pedagogy and, in particular, in speech therapy, there is an urgent need for personalized influence with specific language impairments. A review of Russian classical and modern data on the comorbidity of speech, language, motor skills, and other processes in children with specific language disorders is presented. The rationale for personifying speech therapy work in children with specific language impairments was justified. The scientific positions of the authors with respect to personalization in the field of differential evaluation, developmental effects, and prevention of systemic consequences of specific language impairments in children are indicated. The groups of personalized means and aids of influence of a speech therapist for specific language impairments in children are indicated. The directions of further development of the indicated problem of personalization of speech therapy work are determined.

**Keywords:** personalization, children of preschool age, personalized means and aids of speech therapy work, specific language impairment in children, personalized diagnostic profile, comorbidity of speech, language and motor disorders

#### **1. Introduction**

In world science, and in Russian speech therapy, in particular, the issues of differential evaluation and in-depth study of specific language disorders in children are dynamically developing [1–3]. The manifestations and symptoms revealed by the authors determine the understanding of the underlying mechanisms of such a state as "specific language impairment." This allows to study in detail the structure of impaired development, to determine strategies and directions of developmental effects of speech therapy. Therefore, in Russian science, the search for further ways of a transdisciplinary study of the problem of helping children with SLI remains very relevant in special pedagogy in general, and speech therapy, in particular. It can be stated that in modern speech therapy, as a science, it is defined as a number of contradictions. On the one hand, there is a need to find new and improving

existing approaches to the speech therapy work with children with SLI. On the other hand methodological, substantive, organizational, and other aspects of new and modernized approaches to solving the designated problem are insufficiently developed. The resolution of the existing contradictions, of course, occurs, and will continue to take place in scientific research of several generations. However, today, we can say that a personalized approach in speech therapy work with SLI children meets the abovementioned social challenges and contributes to effectively overcoming pressing contradictions in general, inclusive, and special education.

In Russian pedagogy, interest in the development of a personalized approach can be traced in the writings of scientists starting last century [1]. There are different interpretations of personalization in education, which allows interpreting this phenomenon in different ways. Personalization can be explained as the process of gaining by a subject universal human, socially significant, individually unique properties and qualities that allow him to fulfill a certain social role in an original way, creatively build communication with other people, and actively influence their perception and assessment of their own personality and activities [2]. At the same time, the term "personalization in education" is often used in Russian scientific research, interpreted extremely variably as: a special form of organization of the educational process, taking into account the peculiarities of personal differences of students [3]; one of the directions of modernization of the system of continuous education; a process aimed at the development of students' abilities and interests [4]; a factor of development of cognitive activity of trainees; and a means of building a personal educational route [5]. The personalization of education is also considered as a didactic principle, according to which the content and all other elements of the educational process should be determined and built on the basis of the interests, needs, and aspirations of persons involved in educational activities [6].

The variability of interpretations, however, reflects the general focus of educational processes in Russia on the dynamic development of such pedagogical paradigms that put the student's personality and his multidirectional interests and needs at the center of pedagogical processes.

Moreover, the relevance of a personalized approach in the field of evaluation and development work of a speech therapist with SLI children seems logical.

#### **2. Speech therapy impact at SLI in Russia: algorithms or personalization?**

For many decades, Russia has developed stable algorithms for speech therapists: how to work with children with specific language impairments. Those algorithms are based on the classic Russian level approach to assessing the linguistic and speech status of such children [7]. For many decades (since the 60s of the last century), Russian speech therapy has developed an understanding of the essence of SLI as a developmental speech\language disorder that has signs of systemic underdevelopment of all language components and embraces all speech processes [8]. In this regard, in Russia, national models for evaluation of children with SLI have been identified and are successfully operating to date. These models bring together an interdisciplinary team of specialists, which conducts a comprehensive examination of children, evaluates the state of various functions, and formulates a conclusion and recommendations for working with a particular child (psychologist, pediatrician, neurologist, speech therapist, teacher-representative of the school, and if necessary, other specialists). The speech therapist as part of this team conducts his assessment. It can be variable in technology and didactic materials, but always includes: collecting data on the development of language and speech of the child and the speech environment in his

**179**

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms…*

of language and speech in children with SLI, starting from the age of three:

not understand the tasks aimed at distinguishing the verbal sounds.

characterized by multiple violations.

• *The second level*—the beginning of the sentence development: children begin to combine two or three words into a simple sentence. However, these sentences are characterized by violations of structure and content. Understanding of speech lags significantly behind these normotypic children. Children skip or distort prepositions, as well as morphemic parts of words, which allow differentially denoting the number, size, gender of objects, objects actions and signs, and other categorical qualities. The initial attempts to form words with significant structural and substantive errors may manifest. Children enter into a dialogue, but do not initiate it, rather respond in one or two words. There is still a tendency to use nonverbal means of communication. Children cannot talk about events, retell the text, etc. Tasks related to distinguishing the verbal sounds are not feasible. The pronunciation of different groups of sounds is

• *The third level* characterizes using a simple sentence with multiple lexical and grammatical errors. For children at the third level, it becomes possible to draw up simple and even some types of complicated sentences. Nevertheless, in these sentences, there are obvious errors: omissions and rearrangement of the order of the sentence parts, replacement of the end of words, replacement of

• *The first level* characterizes practically nonspeaking children who understand the extremely limited volume of words. They use single simple words, amorphous root words, sound complexes, and parts of words, sounds associated with what is named, not combining them into a phrase. There are no word endings, understanding and use of prepositions is not observed. Word formation is not available. A child cannot compose a story on his own. Monological speech is practically absent. A dialogue with such a child shows his active use of nonverbal means of communication. The phonetic side of speech is significantly disturbed; sounds from different phonetic groups are not formed. Children do

family, understanding of speech and language structures, the state of vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, dialogical and monologue utterances (in relation to the age indicators of normative development). The diagnostic program also includes examination of the state of operations of language analysis and synthesis (starting from 3 to 4 years of age), the state of the basics of literacy (from 6 years old), and later (from 7 to 8 years) an examination is added to the above writing, reading, counting operations, and other educational skills. For many decades, scientific research data, covering various regions of Russia, confirmed the idea of professor R.E. Levina, and, later, professor T.B. Filicheva that the speech-language status of children with SLI can be understood as very different, varying within different levels: from the first level (lowest) to the fourth level (somewhat close to the lower limits of the age norm) [7–9]. The national practice of speech therapy allows detecting a delay in the development of speech/language in children from 2 to 3 years of age with a normative state of intelligence and hearing, in order to subsequently consider these children as a risk group for detecting SLI in them, starting from 3 years. Accordingly, it is from this age in Russia that it is customary to designate a condition revealed in a child not as delayed, but as a disordered development of language and speech. The context of this approach is reflected in the national psycho-pedagogical classification of speech\ language disorders [9]. In Russian speech therapy, a hierarchy of short level characteristics has been established that testifies to the underdevelopment of the processes

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

#### *Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

family, understanding of speech and language structures, the state of vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, dialogical and monologue utterances (in relation to the age indicators of normative development). The diagnostic program also includes examination of the state of operations of language analysis and synthesis (starting from 3 to 4 years of age), the state of the basics of literacy (from 6 years old), and later (from 7 to 8 years) an examination is added to the above writing, reading, counting operations, and other educational skills. For many decades, scientific research data, covering various regions of Russia, confirmed the idea of professor R.E. Levina, and, later, professor T.B. Filicheva that the speech-language status of children with SLI can be understood as very different, varying within different levels: from the first level (lowest) to the fourth level (somewhat close to the lower limits of the age norm) [7–9]. The national practice of speech therapy allows detecting a delay in the development of speech/language in children from 2 to 3 years of age with a normative state of intelligence and hearing, in order to subsequently consider these children as a risk group for detecting SLI in them, starting from 3 years. Accordingly, it is from this age in Russia that it is customary to designate a condition revealed in a child not as delayed, but as a disordered development of language and speech. The context of this approach is reflected in the national psycho-pedagogical classification of speech\ language disorders [9]. In Russian speech therapy, a hierarchy of short level characteristics has been established that testifies to the underdevelopment of the processes of language and speech in children with SLI, starting from the age of three:


*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

ing pressing contradictions in general, inclusive, and special education.

at the center of pedagogical processes.

In Russian pedagogy, interest in the development of a personalized approach can be traced in the writings of scientists starting last century [1]. There are different interpretations of personalization in education, which allows interpreting this phenomenon in different ways. Personalization can be explained as the process of gaining by a subject universal human, socially significant, individually unique properties and qualities that allow him to fulfill a certain social role in an original way, creatively build communication with other people, and actively influence their perception and assessment of their own personality and activities [2]. At the same time, the term "personalization in education" is often used in Russian scientific research, interpreted extremely variably as: a special form of organization of the educational process, taking into account the peculiarities of personal differences of students [3]; one of the directions of modernization of the system of continuous education; a process aimed at the development of students' abilities and interests [4]; a factor of development of cognitive activity of trainees; and a means of building a personal educational route [5]. The personalization of education is also considered as a didactic principle, according to which the content and all other elements of the educational process should be determined and built on the basis of the interests, needs, and aspirations of persons involved in educational activities [6]. The variability of interpretations, however, reflects the general focus of educational processes in Russia on the dynamic development of such pedagogical paradigms that put the student's personality and his multidirectional interests and needs

Moreover, the relevance of a personalized approach in the field of evaluation and development work of a speech therapist with SLI children seems logical.

**2. Speech therapy impact at SLI in Russia: algorithms or personalization?**

For many decades, Russia has developed stable algorithms for speech therapists: how to work with children with specific language impairments. Those algorithms are based on the classic Russian level approach to assessing the linguistic and speech status of such children [7]. For many decades (since the 60s of the last century), Russian speech therapy has developed an understanding of the essence of SLI as a developmental speech\language disorder that has signs of systemic underdevelopment of all language components and embraces all speech processes [8]. In this regard, in Russia, national models for evaluation of children with SLI have been identified and are successfully operating to date. These models bring together an interdisciplinary team of specialists, which conducts a comprehensive examination of children, evaluates the state of various functions, and formulates a conclusion and recommendations for working with a particular child (psychologist, pediatrician, neurologist, speech therapist, teacher-representative of the school, and if necessary, other specialists). The speech therapist as part of this team conducts his assessment. It can be variable in technology and didactic materials, but always includes: collecting data on the development of language and speech of the child and the speech environment in his

existing approaches to the speech therapy work with children with SLI. On the other hand methodological, substantive, organizational, and other aspects of new and modernized approaches to solving the designated problem are insufficiently developed. The resolution of the existing contradictions, of course, occurs, and will continue to take place in scientific research of several generations. However, today, we can say that a personalized approach in speech therapy work with SLI children meets the abovementioned social challenges and contributes to effectively overcom-

**178**

prepositions, multiple lexical changes and errors (e.g., according to the genusspecific characteristics of words). Children can actively engage in dialogue, but there is a steady tendency toward a passive role. Self-compilation of the story, retelling of the text, becomes possible. At the same time, expressed errors are allowed in the transmission of the text, its composition, cause and effect, logical and temporal relationships. Word formation and change of words by grammatical categories is characterized by persistent, constant errors (choice of morpheme, choice of grammatical model, word design, etc.). The ability to distinguish some sounds of the native language appears. However, sounding phonemes do not differentiate as should be in accordance with the age of children. They found disturbed pronunciation of sounds from different phonetic groups.

• *The fourth level* characterizes residual manifestations of mildly expressed underdevelopment of vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, and storytelling. Single, but persistent manifestations of impaired development of language and speech are noted in almost all areas, but as minimal manifestations. Such micro-manifestations in the underdevelopment of speech and language, however, are systemic. They show the need for further continuation of the work of the speech therapist [8, 10].

These characteristics of the level assessment of the state of speech and language in children, on the one hand, represent an algorithmized understanding of the fact that underdevelopment of the studied processes of varying severity can be observed in SLI. However, on the other hand, this approach already determines personalization in assessing the language and speech of a child with SLI (if there are common characteristics of underdevelopment inherent in one or another level). The speech-language data of each child are compared with indicators of the age norm. At the same time, indicators of insufficient development of language and speech inherent in each specific child are revealed. In accordance with such a layered approach, confirmed by hundreds of scientific studies and many decades of scientific and practical work, speech therapists in Russia successfully perfect effective algorithms for optimal care for children with SLI. These algorithms are based on determining the level of development of language and speech capabilities that correspond to the current state of the child, and the level that is promising and achievable for him in the course of development work, taking into account the social needs of the child [8, 10, 11].

Currently, these speech therapist work algorithms are reflected in training programs for children with SLI (e.g., programs for overcoming SLI in preschool children) [12].

Such training programs for children offer speech therapists a simple and transparent algorithm of work. It includes a plan for working with a child (with first, second, third, or fourth level of underdevelopment of speech-language processes), the content of the work, the main guidelines for the formation of the lexical, grammatical, phonetic, and syntactic possibilities of children, as well as the potential results that the speech therapist seeks in his work.

So, in working with children whose level of speech and language capabilities is assessed as the minimum (*first level*), the speech therapy is aimed at:

• development of understanding of speech: to teach according to the instructions of a speech therapist to recognize and show objects, actions, signs, understand the generalizing meaning of a word, differentially perceive who and where, and understand appeal to one or more persons, grammatical categories of the

**181**

ings, suffixes, etc.).

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms…*

number of nouns, verbs, guess objects according to their description, deter-

• the development of active speech activity: in any phonetic design, to name parents, close relatives, imitate the cries of animals and birds, sounds of the world, musical instruments; give orders—go, sit, give; make up the first sentences from amorphous root words (*mama pi*—mama, go to sleep), convert imperative verbs into singular verbs of the present tense, make sentences according to the model: (a) Who? what does? (b) Who? what does? what? (e.g., Katia (mom, dad) is sleeping; Anna drinks milk). Simultaneously, exercises are conducted to develop memory, attention, logical thinking (remembering 2–4 objects, guessing the removed or added object, remembering and selecting

As a result of speech therapy work at this stage of the formation of speech\language development, children learn to correlate objects and actions with their verbal designation, to understand the general meaning of words. An active and passive dictionary should consist of the names of objects that the child often sees; actions performed by himself or others, of some of his states (cold, warm). Children need to communicate with the help of elementary two-three-word sentences. Verbal activity

Teaching children with a *second level* of speech/language development involves

• development of understanding of speech: includes the formation of the ability to listen to the converted speech, to highlight the names of objects, actions, and some signs; the formation of understanding the generalized meaning of words; and preparation for the perception of dialogical and monological speech.

• activation of speech activity and the development of lexical and grammatical means of the language: learn to name words made up of one to three syllables (cat, bed, coat, puppy), teach initial inflection skills, then derivation (number of nouns, mood and number of verbs, possessive pronouns "my—mine," nouns

• development of active phrase: construction and use models of simple sentences—noun plus a coordinated verb in the indicative mood of the singular present tense, noun plus a coordinated verb in the indicative mood of the singular present tense plus a noun in the indirect case (of type "Misha, sleep," "Misha is sleeping," "Lilia drinks milk"); assimilation of simple prepositions—on, at, in; combining simple sentences into short stories; strengthen the skills of drawing up proposals for demonstrating actions based on questions; memorization of short couplets and nursery rhymes. Moreover, any phonetic design of independent expressions available to the child is allowed, while attention is paid to the correct grammatically significant elements (end-

• development of the pronunciation: to learn to distinguish between speech and nonspeech sounds to determine the source, strength, and direction of sound; to clarify the correct pronunciation of the sounds available to the child; develop the sounds at the level of the syllables, of the sentence, words, form the correct sound-syllabic structure of the word; to learn to distinguish and

with diminutive suffixes, categories of case of nouns).

can be manifested in any phrases without correction of their phonetic design.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

pictures of 2–4 parts).

several areas:

mine elementary cause-effect relationships;

number of nouns, verbs, guess objects according to their description, determine elementary cause-effect relationships;

• the development of active speech activity: in any phonetic design, to name parents, close relatives, imitate the cries of animals and birds, sounds of the world, musical instruments; give orders—go, sit, give; make up the first sentences from amorphous root words (*mama pi*—mama, go to sleep), convert imperative verbs into singular verbs of the present tense, make sentences according to the model: (a) Who? what does? (b) Who? what does? what? (e.g., Katia (mom, dad) is sleeping; Anna drinks milk). Simultaneously, exercises are conducted to develop memory, attention, logical thinking (remembering 2–4 objects, guessing the removed or added object, remembering and selecting pictures of 2–4 parts).

As a result of speech therapy work at this stage of the formation of speech\language development, children learn to correlate objects and actions with their verbal designation, to understand the general meaning of words. An active and passive dictionary should consist of the names of objects that the child often sees; actions performed by himself or others, of some of his states (cold, warm). Children need to communicate with the help of elementary two-three-word sentences. Verbal activity can be manifested in any phrases without correction of their phonetic design.

Teaching children with a *second level* of speech/language development involves several areas:


*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

phonetic groups.

the speech therapist [8, 10].

results that the speech therapist seeks in his work.

prepositions, multiple lexical changes and errors (e.g., according to the genusspecific characteristics of words). Children can actively engage in dialogue, but there is a steady tendency toward a passive role. Self-compilation of the story, retelling of the text, becomes possible. At the same time, expressed errors are allowed in the transmission of the text, its composition, cause and effect, logical and temporal relationships. Word formation and change of words by grammatical categories is characterized by persistent, constant errors (choice of morpheme, choice of grammatical model, word design, etc.). The ability to distinguish some sounds of the native language appears. However, sounding phonemes do not differentiate as should be in accordance with the age of children. They found disturbed pronunciation of sounds from different

• *The fourth level* characterizes residual manifestations of mildly expressed underdevelopment of vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, and storytelling. Single, but persistent manifestations of impaired development of language and speech are noted in almost all areas, but as minimal manifestations. Such micro-manifestations in the underdevelopment of speech and language, however, are systemic. They show the need for further continuation of the work of

These characteristics of the level assessment of the state of speech and language in children, on the one hand, represent an algorithmized understanding of the fact that underdevelopment of the studied processes of varying severity can be observed in SLI. However, on the other hand, this approach already determines personalization in assessing the language and speech of a child with SLI (if there are common characteristics of underdevelopment inherent in one or another level). The speech-language data of each child are compared with indicators of the age norm. At the same time, indicators of insufficient development of language and speech inherent in each specific child are revealed. In accordance with such a layered approach, confirmed by hundreds of scientific studies and many decades of scientific and practical work, speech therapists in Russia successfully perfect effective algorithms for optimal care for children with SLI. These algorithms are based on determining the level of development of language and speech capabilities that correspond to the current state of the child, and the level that is promising and achievable for him in the course of development work, taking into account the social needs of the child [8, 10, 11]. Currently, these speech therapist work algorithms are reflected in training programs for children with SLI (e.g., programs for overcoming SLI in preschool

Such training programs for children offer speech therapists a simple and transparent algorithm of work. It includes a plan for working with a child (with first, second, third, or fourth level of underdevelopment of speech-language processes), the content of the work, the main guidelines for the formation of the lexical, grammatical, phonetic, and syntactic possibilities of children, as well as the potential

So, in working with children whose level of speech and language capabilities is

• development of understanding of speech: to teach according to the instructions of a speech therapist to recognize and show objects, actions, signs, understand the generalizing meaning of a word, differentially perceive who and where, and understand appeal to one or more persons, grammatical categories of the

assessed as the minimum (*first level*), the speech therapy is aimed at:

**180**

children) [12].

reproduce clearly syllabic combinations of sounds with different stresses, voice strength, and intonation; and play the syllables with a concourse of consonants.

As a result of speech therapy work by the end of this stage of education, children should have a simple phrase, learn to coordinate the main parts of a sentence, understand and use simple prepositions, categories of case, number, time, and gender. The ability to answer questions with a short sentence, to maintain dialogue, is supposed. The understanding of some grammatical forms of words, simple stories, short tales is expanded. Work on the syllabic structure of words ends with the assimilation of the rhythmic-syllable pattern of two-syllable and three-syllable words. Sound disturbances are permissible.

Education for children with a *third level* of speech/language development includes:


(a) the development of the ability to differentiate listening oppositional speech sounds: whistling-hissing, voiced-deaf, hard-soft, etc., then, working out these differentiations in pronunciation; (b) consolidation of the pronunciation of polysyllabic words with various variants of the concordance of consonants, the use of these words in speech; (c) strengthening the skills of sound analysis and synthesis (analysis and synthesis of a simple syllable without consonants, emphasis on the initial vowel/consonant in a word, analysis and synthesis of syllables with confluence of consonants, emphasis on the final consonant/vowel in a word, division of a word into syllables, analysis and synthesis of 2-compound words, etc.).


**183**

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms…*

a picture, a series of paintings, by presentation, by demonstrating actions, transforming a deformed text; and the inclusion in the stories of the beginning

As a result of speech therapy work children should master the skills of using simple and complex sentences, be able to take part in dialogue; be able to compose a story from a picture and a series of pictures, retell the text, have a grammatically correct spoken language in accordance with the basic norms of the language; it is phonetically correct to make statements, conveying the syllabic structure of words, to master some elements of literacy (reading and typing letters, syllables, and short words). However, they may have some lexical, grammatical, and phonetic inaccuracies, the elimination of which should be combined with teaching children complex

forms of speech, which is proposed to be done at the next stage of training.

areas of work related to their comprehensive preparation for school:

Teaching children with the *fourth level* of speech\language development provides

• Improvement of the lexical and grammatical means of the language: expansion of the lexical stock in the process of learning new words and lexical groups (shell, tusks, museum, theater, exhibition etc.), activation of word-formation processes (complex words, adjectives with different correlation values, prefixes with tinted values), exercise in the selection of synonyms, and antonyms, giving them explanations (mean—greedy, kind—merciful, funny—sad, etc.), explain the figurative expression of words and whole expressions (burn with shame, wide soul), transform the names of male professions' gender into feminine names (typical for Russian), and convert one grammatical category into another (read—reader).

• Development of phrasal speech: to consolidate the skill of using sentences in reference words, to expand the volume of sentences by introducing homoge-

• Improve coherent statements, ability to build dialogue and monologue, reinforce storytelling skills, retelling with elements of fantasy and creative stories.

• Improvement of the pronunciation in speech: to consolidate the skills of clear pronunciation and distinguishing of delivered sounds, automate their correct pronunciation in polysyllabic words and statements, to bring up the

• Preparation for mastering elementary writing and reading skills: reinforce the concepts of "sound," "syllable," "word," "sentence," learn to analyze and synthesize reverse and direct syllables and monosyllables—two, three complex words, learn to make letters, split alphabet, syllables, words and read them, develop optical-spatial and motor-graphic skills, and prepare for a fluent sequential reading with awareness of the meaning of what was read.

As a result of speech therapy, preschool children should be as close as possible to age norms. This is manifested in the spontaneous, faultless possession of dialogical and monologue speech, namely: the ability to adequately formulate questions and answer the questions of others, to tell in detail and logically about the events of the real world, to retell literary texts close to the original, carry out creative storytelling, etc. Accordingly, the lexical and grammatical structure of the language is formed in children. So, children adequately understand and use the various parts of speech, simple and complex prepositions, possess the full knowledge of word formation and inflection for the full extent specified for the specified age. The phonetic design

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

neous members of sentences.

rhythmic and melodic coloring of speech.

and end of the plot, elements of fantasy.

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

a picture, a series of paintings, by presentation, by demonstrating actions, transforming a deformed text; and the inclusion in the stories of the beginning and end of the plot, elements of fantasy.

As a result of speech therapy work children should master the skills of using simple and complex sentences, be able to take part in dialogue; be able to compose a story from a picture and a series of pictures, retell the text, have a grammatically correct spoken language in accordance with the basic norms of the language; it is phonetically correct to make statements, conveying the syllabic structure of words, to master some elements of literacy (reading and typing letters, syllables, and short words). However, they may have some lexical, grammatical, and phonetic inaccuracies, the elimination of which should be combined with teaching children complex forms of speech, which is proposed to be done at the next stage of training.

Teaching children with the *fourth level* of speech\language development provides areas of work related to their comprehensive preparation for school:


As a result of speech therapy, preschool children should be as close as possible to age norms. This is manifested in the spontaneous, faultless possession of dialogical and monologue speech, namely: the ability to adequately formulate questions and answer the questions of others, to tell in detail and logically about the events of the real world, to retell literary texts close to the original, carry out creative storytelling, etc. Accordingly, the lexical and grammatical structure of the language is formed in children. So, children adequately understand and use the various parts of speech, simple and complex prepositions, possess the full knowledge of word formation and inflection for the full extent specified for the specified age. The phonetic design

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

consonants.

words. Sound disturbances are permissible.

sound-alphabetic structures.

came?), to pick up synonyms (bold—brave).

reproduce clearly syllabic combinations of sounds with different stresses, voice strength, and intonation; and play the syllables with a concourse of

As a result of speech therapy work by the end of this stage of education, children should have a simple phrase, learn to coordinate the main parts of a sentence, understand and use simple prepositions, categories of case, number, time, and gender. The ability to answer questions with a short sentence, to maintain dialogue, is supposed. The understanding of some grammatical forms of words, simple stories, short tales is expanded. Work on the syllabic structure of words ends with the assimilation of the rhythmic-syllable pattern of two-syllable and three-syllable

Education for children with a *third level* of speech/language development includes:

• the development of speech understanding, the ability to listen to the speech addressed to person, to differentially perceive the names of objects, the actions of signs; to develop an understanding of more subtle meanings of generalizing

(a) the development of the ability to differentiate listening oppositional speech sounds: whistling-hissing, voiced-deaf, hard-soft, etc., then, working out these differentiations in pronunciation; (b) consolidation of the pronunciation of polysyllabic words with various variants of the concordance of consonants, the use of these words in speech; (c) strengthening the skills of sound analysis and synthesis (analysis and synthesis of a simple syllable without consonants, emphasis on the initial vowel/consonant in a word, analysis and synthesis of syllables with confluence of consonants, emphasis on the final consonant/vowel in a word, division of a

words, to prepare for mastering monologic and dialogical speech.

word into syllables, analysis and synthesis of 2-compound words, etc.).

• literacy training: acquaintance with letters corresponding to correctly pronounced sounds; learning the elements of sound-alphanumeric analysis and synthesis when working with syllable and word schemes; read and write single syllables, words, and short sentences. Preparation for mastering elementary writing and reading skills includes consolidating the concepts of "sound," "syllable," "word," "sentence," "story," analysis and synthesis of sound-syllabic and

• the development of lexical and grammatical means of language. This section includes not only an increase in quantitative, but primarily qualitative indicators: the expansion of the meanings of words; the formation of the semantic structure of the word; the introduction of new words and phrases into speech of nouns with a diminutive and magnifying meaning, with the opposite meaning. The ability to explain the figurative meaning of words (golden hands, sharp tongue etc.). Select unambiguous nouns for adjectives (sharp—knife, sauce, razor, seasoning; dark—shawl, night, coat); form names of objects from the action names; explain logical connections (Nata escorted Sofia—who

• the development of detailed phrasal speech phonetically correctly formed; formation of dialogue skills; expanding the skills of composing a narrative story based on the events of a given sequence, drawing up sentences with different types of subordinate clauses, strengthening the ability to compose stories from

• the formation of the phonetic system of the language:

**182**

of children's speech should fully comply with the norms of their native language. In addition, children have sufficiently formed operations of sound-syllabic analysis and synthesis and elementary literacy skills (reading and typing some letters, syllables, short words) [7].

#### **3. Methodology**

The material below is aimed at achieving the goal: to identify personalization opportunities in working with children with SLI. It is traditionally considered that algorithms of speech therapy with SLI take into account an individual approach to working with children. The individual approach is an important psychological and pedagogical principle, according to which the educational characteristics of children take into account the individual characteristics of the development of each child (psychological features, abilities, psychological characteristics, the child's perception of the impact on him, etc.) [13]. In the context of speech therapy work with SLI children, a personalized approach is an equally important principle according to which medical, psychological, pedagogical, and social markers and criteria for their impaired development are taken into account in working with each child from the standpoint of further prediction and implementation of optimally effective speech therapy. With this understanding of the problem, there is no equal sign between the individual and personalized approaches in speech therapy work with SLI children. The need for a holistic algorithm-based work with these children is determined to reasonably take into account the combination of individual and personalized approaches [10, 11, 14].

Russian studies in this area show the variable correlation of the speechlanguage capabilities of SLI children with emotional-volitional, communicative, motor, spatial-orienting, visual (as later acquired) disorders [10, 11, 14, 15]. For example, the data of recent years allow to speak about the multi-level comorbidity of symptoms and components (in the context of the codependence of impaired speech, language, motor, and other processes) in children with language disorders [16–18]. The levels of comorbidity states identified in preschool children with SLI were determined (based on the results of the analysis of data from a survey of language, speech, motor, optical-spatial, graphic processes). The level of microcomorbidity is characterized by a slightly pronounced correlation of motor and speech\language disorders with the relative safety of spatial possibilities. The level of meso-comorbidity indicates a persistent, pronounced correlation of violations of speech-language processes (intonation, prosodic, pronunciation, phonological, lexical-grammatical) and motor sphere (myofunctional and motility of the fingers) along with partial violation of spatial possibilities. The level of macro-comorbidity characterizes stable, systemic combination and pronounced correlation of manifestations of speech\language disorders covering all speech processes and language components, and motor disorders covering differentiated myofunctional abilities and movements in the shoulder girdle, hands, and fingers with the accompanying pronounced impairment of spatial capabilities [16, 17]. Below is a summary data illustrating the phenomena of comorbidity in children with SLI (**Table 1**).

All of the above allow us to draw a number of conclusions that are fundamentally important for the personalization of speech therapist work with SLI children as part of an interdisciplinary team of specialists:


**185**

SLI children.

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms…*

Presence of conjugate/codependent violations

with partial violation of spatial gnosis and praxis.

and praxis relatively preserved.

Insignificant degree of correlation of violations of pronunciation and distinction of sounds, weak correlation of indicators of reduced understanding of the lexical and grammatical meanings of words and their use in self-expression mainly with indicators of violations of articulation, weak correlation between indicators of impaired speech, language processes and movements of fingers, wrists, shoulder girdle; spatial gnosis

Pronounced correlation of speech language processes (intonation, prosodic, pronunciation, phonological, lexical and grammatical) correlating with the indices of motor sphere insufficiency (myofunctional and motility of fingers, wrists etc.) along

Systemic combination and confidently pronounced persistent correlation of manifestations of speech-language impairments, covering all speech processes and components of the language, and motor impairments, covering differentiated myofunctional abilities and movements in the shoulder girdle, hands, and fingers with

• in this regard, the identification of personal indicators and characteristics of processes disturbed in a child (linguistic, speech, motor, spatial and others) will determine the need for personalization in working with each SLI child, including not only a speech therapist, school teacher, psychologist in the multidisciplinary team, but also other potentially necessary specialists.

*Characteristics of comorbidity levels of speech-language and motor-spatial capabilities of preschool children* 

associated pronounced disorders of spatial gnosis and praxis.

All of the above allows to determine the subject of study: the search for reasonable personalized directions, content, means, aids, technologies for working with

• standardized examination of language and speech used by speech therapists in Russia (the scheme of this examination was indicated above, the results were

• diagnosis of the state of movements of the shoulder girdle and fingers according to indicators of completeness, strength, coordination, etc. using Pablo System technology (the results were recorded in individual electronic protocols

• diagnostics of the state of mobility, balance, and coordination using Habilect technology according to the criteria of maintaining equilibrium, coordination

Between 2010 and 2018 at Moscow State Pedagogical University (Russia, Moscow), the authors conducted a study that covered 460 children with SLI 5–6 years of age, attending educational institutions and receiving the help of a speech therapist using algorithmic educational programs adopted in Russia. These were children whose state of language and speech was assigned to the third level out of four possible levels (according to the national assessment model). At the same time, among the population of children selected for the experiment, half had visual impairment (myopia or strabismus). This led to the formation of two experimental groups—group 1 (230 children with SLI and with good vision) and group 2 (230 children with SLI and impaired vision). For both experimental groups, an examina-

tion that combined the following methods was applied:

recorded in individual protocols for each child);

provided by the software);

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

Levels of comorbidity states

Level of meso-comorbidity

**Table 1.**

*(5–6 years).*

Level of macrocomorbidity

Level of microcomorbidity

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*


#### **Table 1.**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

lables, short words) [7].

**3. Methodology**

of children's speech should fully comply with the norms of their native language. In addition, children have sufficiently formed operations of sound-syllabic analysis and synthesis and elementary literacy skills (reading and typing some letters, syl-

The material below is aimed at achieving the goal: to identify personalization opportunities in working with children with SLI. It is traditionally considered that algorithms of speech therapy with SLI take into account an individual approach to working with children. The individual approach is an important psychological and pedagogical principle, according to which the educational characteristics of children take into account the individual characteristics of the development of each child (psychological features, abilities, psychological characteristics, the child's perception of the impact on him, etc.) [13]. In the context of speech therapy work with SLI children, a personalized approach is an equally important principle according to which medical, psychological, pedagogical, and social markers and criteria for their impaired development are taken into account in working with each child from the standpoint of further prediction and implementation of optimally effective speech therapy. With this understanding of the problem, there is no equal sign between the individual and personalized approaches in speech therapy work with SLI children. The need for a holistic algorithm-based work with these children is determined to reasonably take into account the combination of individual and personalized approaches [10, 11, 14]. Russian studies in this area show the variable correlation of the speechlanguage capabilities of SLI children with emotional-volitional, communicative, motor, spatial-orienting, visual (as later acquired) disorders [10, 11, 14, 15]. For example, the data of recent years allow to speak about the multi-level comorbidity of symptoms and components (in the context of the codependence of impaired speech, language, motor, and other processes) in children with language disorders [16–18]. The levels of comorbidity states identified in preschool children with SLI were determined (based on the results of the analysis of data from a survey of language, speech, motor, optical-spatial, graphic processes). The level of microcomorbidity is characterized by a slightly pronounced correlation of motor and speech\language disorders with the relative safety of spatial possibilities. The level of meso-comorbidity indicates a persistent, pronounced correlation of violations of speech-language processes (intonation, prosodic, pronunciation, phonological, lexical-grammatical) and motor sphere (myofunctional and motility of the fingers) along with partial violation of spatial possibilities. The level of macro-comorbidity characterizes stable, systemic combination and pronounced correlation of manifestations of speech\language disorders covering all speech processes and language components, and motor disorders covering differentiated myofunctional abilities and movements in the shoulder girdle, hands, and fingers with the accompanying pronounced impairment of spatial capabilities [16, 17]. Below is a summary data illustrating the phenomena of comorbidity in children with SLI (**Table 1**).

All of the above allow us to draw a number of conclusions that are fundamentally important for the personalization of speech therapist work with SLI children as

• in children with SLI, violations of the development of not only speech and language, but also other processes (motor, spatial and other) are detected;

• manifestations of the severity of these disturbed processes and their compat-

part of an interdisciplinary team of specialists:

ibility can be variable for each child;

**184**

*Characteristics of comorbidity levels of speech-language and motor-spatial capabilities of preschool children (5–6 years).*

• in this regard, the identification of personal indicators and characteristics of processes disturbed in a child (linguistic, speech, motor, spatial and others) will determine the need for personalization in working with each SLI child, including not only a speech therapist, school teacher, psychologist in the multidisciplinary team, but also other potentially necessary specialists.

All of the above allows to determine the subject of study: the search for reasonable personalized directions, content, means, aids, technologies for working with SLI children.

Between 2010 and 2018 at Moscow State Pedagogical University (Russia, Moscow), the authors conducted a study that covered 460 children with SLI 5–6 years of age, attending educational institutions and receiving the help of a speech therapist using algorithmic educational programs adopted in Russia. These were children whose state of language and speech was assigned to the third level out of four possible levels (according to the national assessment model). At the same time, among the population of children selected for the experiment, half had visual impairment (myopia or strabismus). This led to the formation of two experimental groups—group 1 (230 children with SLI and with good vision) and group 2 (230 children with SLI and impaired vision). For both experimental groups, an examination that combined the following methods was applied:


of movements of the upper and lower extremities, occupancy, stability of movement, etc. (the results were recorded in individual electronic protocols provided by the software).

For children of the second group (SLI and visual impairment), ophthalmologists were additionally involved in the examination, who for each child gave a professional opinion (on the presence of myopia or strabismus) and formulated recommendations for the teachers' work: what conditions, exercises, and aids are needed for each child, depending on state of his vision.

#### **4. Results**

A comparative analysis of the protocols for examining children in the areas outlined above made it possible to personally assess for each child with SLI the starting state of language, speech, motor, and spatial processes. For the second group (children with SLI and visual impairment), ophthalmologists added personal data on the state of visual functions. Thus, as a result, for each child with SLI, a database of linguistic, speech, motor, and visual (for the second group) processes was collected and analyzed. This information is reflected in personal diagnostic profiles, examples of which are given below (**Figures 1**–**3**).

**Figure 1** illustrates a piece of data reflecting part of the overall assessment procedure: the assessment of the quality of statements and stories of a child with SLI and myopia (with\without using of personalized supports) in tasks: No. 1—making a simple sentence based on 1 picture, No. 2—making a simple sentence based on 2 pictures, No. 3—making a simple sentence based on verbal help, No. 4—compiling a story based on a picture, No. 5—composing a story based on a series of paintings, No. 6—composing a story based on verbal help, No. 7—composing a creative story based on a picture. Studies have confirmed that the use of personalized supports when working with a speech therapist with such children gives a pronounced positive effect already at the initial stages of training. The work of a speech therapist for a long time with a child with SLI is all the more effective, provided that in the general algorithm of work those personalized aids and technologies are used

#### **Figure 1.**

*The profile of the state of connected statements of a child 1 (SLI and myopia) with\without the use of personalized support at the stage of primary linguistic diagnostic procedures.*

**187**

**Figure 3.**

**Figure 2.**

spatial, and other processes.

and strongly the sensor is captured by different fingers.

*Indicators of movements of the right/left leg of a child 1 (SLI and myopia).*

*Two-finger grip state indicators (right and left hand) of a child 1 (SLI and myopia).*

accurately and fully the movements are made.

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms…*

that help the child with a particular comorbid state of impaired linguistic, motor,

**Figure 2** shows a piece of the personal data of child 1 according to the indicators of two-finger pinch capture (right and left hands), demonstrating how accurately

**Figure 3** shows a piece of the personal data of child 1 on the indicators of leg movements forward, backward, right, and left (right and left legs), showing how

A generalized analysis of the data for each child with SLI has become the basis for planning and implementing personalized exposure programs, designed for 1 year (divided by month and week), for a speech therapist as a member of an interdisciplinary team of specialists. The speech therapist compiled a work plan, based primarily on what starting indicators are recorded in the child in

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

provided by the software).

**4. Results**

for each child, depending on state of his vision.

profiles, examples of which are given below (**Figures 1**–**3**).

of movements of the upper and lower extremities, occupancy, stability of movement, etc. (the results were recorded in individual electronic protocols

For children of the second group (SLI and visual impairment), ophthalmologists

were additionally involved in the examination, who for each child gave a professional opinion (on the presence of myopia or strabismus) and formulated recommendations for the teachers' work: what conditions, exercises, and aids are needed

A comparative analysis of the protocols for examining children in the areas outlined above made it possible to personally assess for each child with SLI the starting state of language, speech, motor, and spatial processes. For the second group (children with SLI and visual impairment), ophthalmologists added personal data on the state of visual functions. Thus, as a result, for each child with SLI, a database of linguistic, speech, motor, and visual (for the second group) processes was collected and analyzed. This information is reflected in personal diagnostic

**Figure 1** illustrates a piece of data reflecting part of the overall assessment procedure: the assessment of the quality of statements and stories of a child with SLI and myopia (with\without using of personalized supports) in tasks: No. 1—making a simple sentence based on 1 picture, No. 2—making a simple sentence based on 2 pictures, No. 3—making a simple sentence based on verbal help, No. 4—compiling a story based on a picture, No. 5—composing a story based on a series of paintings, No. 6—composing a story based on verbal help, No. 7—composing a creative story based on a picture. Studies have confirmed that the use of personalized supports when working with a speech therapist with such children gives a pronounced positive effect already at the initial stages of training. The work of a speech therapist for a long time with a child with SLI is all the more effective, provided that in the general algorithm of work those personalized aids and technologies are used

*The profile of the state of connected statements of a child 1 (SLI and myopia) with\without the use of* 

*personalized support at the stage of primary linguistic diagnostic procedures.*

**186**

**Figure 1.**

*Two-finger grip state indicators (right and left hand) of a child 1 (SLI and myopia).*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Indicators of movements of the right/left leg of a child 1 (SLI and myopia).*

that help the child with a particular comorbid state of impaired linguistic, motor, spatial, and other processes.

**Figure 2** shows a piece of the personal data of child 1 according to the indicators of two-finger pinch capture (right and left hands), demonstrating how accurately and strongly the sensor is captured by different fingers.

**Figure 3** shows a piece of the personal data of child 1 on the indicators of leg movements forward, backward, right, and left (right and left legs), showing how accurately and fully the movements are made.

A generalized analysis of the data for each child with SLI has become the basis for planning and implementing personalized exposure programs, designed for 1 year (divided by month and week), for a speech therapist as a member of an interdisciplinary team of specialists. The speech therapist compiled a work plan, based primarily on what starting indicators are recorded in the child in

#### *Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*


#### **Table 2.**

*A fragment of the sample work plan of a speech therapist with a child 1.*

language, speech processes. An exemplary fragment of such planning is shown below (**Table 2**).

However, this plan included areas of work for the development shoulder girdle, finger movements, body movements, leg mobility, as well as those exercises that the ophthalmologist recommended for training the visual muscles. Accordingly, all these exercises were performed by the child either in the process of linguistic tasks,

**189**

**Figure 4.**

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms…*

or as independent trainings as a dynamic lesson fragment (using the technologies of Pablo System and Habilect, according to the plan designed by the program of these hardware-computer technologies). "Gymnastics for the eyes" took 2–3 minutes during each lesson and, according to the recommendations of the ophthalmologist, was an obligatory part of the lesson for those children who had visual impairments. Other teachers of the school (physical education teacher, music teacher, and drawing teacher) in their plan of work with each child made personal, substantive, and technological changes based on what were the personal capabilities and needs of each child. The clearly planned work allowed each specialist to carry out his functions, but this was done in mandatory coordination between all team members. In addition to personalizing the content and areas of work, personalized tools and technologies were identified that increase the effectiveness of the speech therapist

**Figure 4** shows the personal data of child 1 obtained when assessing linguistic, speech, motor, and spatial processes primarily (relative to age norm data), and reflects the constancy and stability of the mistakes made when performing language, speech, and motor-spatial tests. **Figure 4** demonstrates the improvement in the child's performance under the condition of a single administration of personalized aids. After provided prolonged (14 weeks) personalized assistance from an interdisciplinary team of specialists, the improvement in the results of child 1 was clearly shown. After each prolonged period of personalized training, a team of specialists discussed the results, drafted amendments and changes to the content, technologies and auxiliary means of working with SLI child. Typically, in speech therapy for SLI, algorithmic exposure programs involve 2 years of training for children with a third level of speech and language development before they reach

At the end of the school year, the results of personalized work with children involved in experimental groups (E group 1—SLI, E group 2—SLI and visual impairment) were analyzed. Each child passed the final assessment according to the same parameters and criteria as before personalized learning. The linguistic and speech processes of all children in the experimental groups turned out to be much higher than at the beginning of the year in all assessment parameters. According to the national model for assessing language and speech status, almost

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

the next, fourth, level of language development.

*Generalized indicators of process evaluation of a child 1 (SLI and myopia).*

working with SLI child.

#### *Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

or as independent trainings as a dynamic lesson fragment (using the technologies of Pablo System and Habilect, according to the plan designed by the program of these hardware-computer technologies). "Gymnastics for the eyes" took 2–3 minutes during each lesson and, according to the recommendations of the ophthalmologist, was an obligatory part of the lesson for those children who had visual impairments. Other teachers of the school (physical education teacher, music teacher, and drawing teacher) in their plan of work with each child made personal, substantive, and technological changes based on what were the personal capabilities and needs of each child. The clearly planned work allowed each specialist to carry out his functions, but this was done in mandatory coordination between all team members. In addition to personalizing the content and areas of work, personalized tools and technologies were identified that increase the effectiveness of the speech therapist working with SLI child.

**Figure 4** shows the personal data of child 1 obtained when assessing linguistic, speech, motor, and spatial processes primarily (relative to age norm data), and reflects the constancy and stability of the mistakes made when performing language, speech, and motor-spatial tests. **Figure 4** demonstrates the improvement in the child's performance under the condition of a single administration of personalized aids. After provided prolonged (14 weeks) personalized assistance from an interdisciplinary team of specialists, the improvement in the results of child 1 was clearly shown. After each prolonged period of personalized training, a team of specialists discussed the results, drafted amendments and changes to the content, technologies and auxiliary means of working with SLI child. Typically, in speech therapy for SLI, algorithmic exposure programs involve 2 years of training for children with a third level of speech and language development before they reach the next, fourth, level of language development.

At the end of the school year, the results of personalized work with children involved in experimental groups (E group 1—SLI, E group 2—SLI and visual impairment) were analyzed. Each child passed the final assessment according to the same parameters and criteria as before personalized learning. The linguistic and speech processes of all children in the experimental groups turned out to be much higher than at the beginning of the year in all assessment parameters. According to the national model for assessing language and speech status, almost

**Figure 4.** *Generalized indicators of process evaluation of a child 1 (SLI and myopia).*

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

1 Singular and plural nouns Learn to use singular and plural nouns

 Singular and plural nouns Continue to learn to use singular and plural nouns Word and sentence To teach to understand and use the concepts of "word," "sentence" Sounds of speech To teach to understand and use the concept of "Speech

5 Simple sentences To strengthen the skills of compiling and understanding

1 Verbs singular and plural Learn to change verbs in the singular and plural categories 2 Verbs singular and plural Continue learning to change verbs in the singular and

3 Simple sentences To strengthen the skills of compiling and understanding

1 Nouns with a diminutive meaning To learn to form and use nouns with a diminutive meaning

nouns

5 Consonant sounds To strengthen the skills of distinguishing and consonant

1 Nouns with a diminutive meaning To learn to form and use nouns with a diminutive meaning

4 Vowels (A, U) To strengthen the skills of distinguishing and

5 Vowels (O) To strengthen the skills of distinguishing and

4 Preposition "on" To strengthen the skills of distinguishing and

4 Preposition "in" To strengthen the skills of distinguishing and

plural categories

simple common sentences

simple common sentences

pronunciation of sounds "A-U"

pronunciation of sound "O"

of "Who? What doing?"

of: "Who? What doing?"

of: "Who? What doing? Where?"

pronunciation of preposition "in"

pronunciation of preposition "on"

Sounds," to distinguish speech sounds from nonspeech

To learn to select and coordinate quality adjectives with

To strengthen the skills of making sentences on the model

sounds (1-2 consonants, the most accessible for the child)

To strengthen the skills of making sentences on the model

To strengthen the skills of making sentences on the model

**No Theme of the lesson The purpose of the lesson**

**Week 1**

**Week 2**

**Week 3**

**Week 4**

2 The phrase "quality adjective +

3 Model sentence: Who? What doing?

2 Model sentence: Who? What doing?

3 Model sentence: Who? What doing? Where?

*A fragment of the sample work plan of a speech therapist with a child 1.*

noun"

language, speech processes. An exemplary fragment of such planning is shown

However, this plan included areas of work for the development shoulder girdle, finger movements, body movements, leg mobility, as well as those exercises that the ophthalmologist recommended for training the visual muscles. Accordingly, all these exercises were performed by the child either in the process of linguistic tasks,

5 Consonant sounds (P-B) Clarify the pronunciation and distinction of sounds "P-B"

**188**

**Table 2.**

below (**Table 2**).


**Table 3.**

*Analysis of language development data for children with SLI involved in experimental and comparative groups (pre- and post-training) (%).*

all children have been changed status from third to fourth level. At the same time, the comparative analysis groups (CA groups), which included children of a similar age who received the work of a speech therapist according to standard exposure algorithms (CA group 1—SLI, CA group 2—SLI and visual impairment) in most cases remained at the third level of speech\language development (**Table 3**).

**Table 3** shows data that convincingly show that in the vast majority of cases, the dynamics of language development are higher in those children with ALS who were trained according to personalized programs.

Motor and spatial assessment data using Pablo System and Habilect technologies recorded a personal dynamics for each child, reflecting an improvement in the state of mobility, coordination, strength, motor control in the fingers, wrists, elbow, shoulder, as well as in the movements and coordination of the trunk and legs. The ophthalmologist's data for children with SLI and visual impairments showed varied dynamics (mainly from stabilization of indicators to their slight improvement—81%). The remaining 19% of cases were characterized by an ophthalmologist as a "progressive" course of visual impairment.

#### **5. Discussion**

Such data on the impact of personalized teaching aids, which have multiple reproducibility in the study of children with SLI in Russia, subsequently provide weighty reasons for substantial optimization of general, particular, and specific algorithms of speech therapy and developmental influence. At the same time, a personalized approach to it should be understood as a harmonious component of the general scientific and methodological support of the holistic process of psychological and pedagogical assistance for specific language impairment. The effectiveness of this approach seems to be optimal when the following conditions are met: reasonable integration with other approaches strengthened in science and practice, competent use of classical and modern scientific data from the field of speech therapy and related sciences, taking into account variable and combinatorial components in the structure of SLI, based on understanding personalized needs and capabilities of children, the relationship in the interdisciplinary team. The personalization of speech therapy is advisable on the planning and implementation of the content and directions of work, the choice of aids and technologies of influence, logical interaction with other members of the interdisciplinary team.

It is possible to clarify the interpretation of the concept of "personalized aids that ensure the effectiveness of speech therapy work in children with SLI" as a system of various ideal and material objects, including artificially created ones, in order to optimally form language and speech processes in children, as carriers of the necessary information and as instrument. They are integrated at the linguodidactic,

**191**

**Groups of personalized aids**

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms…*

logical-semantic, optico-ophthalmological (as prescribed by the ophthalmologist), motor-spatial, and information-technological levels of the problem under study. It is logical to believe that personalization will be in demand in the work of a speech

Let us consider, for example, the personalization of the content and means of speech therapy work with schoolchildren with SLI and visual impairment (squint and myopia) in the direction associated with the improvement of their coherent expressions. The content of this speech therapy area is traditionally algorithmdriven, based on the appropriate techniques adopted in speech therapy. In parallel, in the context of the joint work of a speech therapist, parents, teachers of physical culture, music, drawing, an ophthalmologist, personalized exercise programs were developed and implemented for such children (depending on the states of comorbidity of speech-language, spatial, optical and motor processes identified for each child) as well as personal plans to perform special visual exercises and workouts. These directions of speech therapy may be changed in content due to child visual impairment. So, in Russian speech therapy, usually a story-description of an object is one of the first forms of work in teaching SLI child storytelling. However, for a child with SLI and visual impairment, we can built a different algorithm that combines analysis and construction: a simple sentence—a fragmentary/holistic dialogue—a narrative story—a descriptive story—a creative story (all types of work are based on a special interactive touch panel with elements of feedback

Lingvodidactic Aids that are designed to teach children who have SLI (means to ensure optimal

range of grammatical and phonetic problems.

Optical-spatial Means that allow optimizing the training of schoolchildren with SLI and visual

motivation to express, generate intention, plan, select speech means, implement and control speech). These means are personalized depending on what type of statements is "starting" for each child (simple or complex sentence, fragmentary or holistic dialogue, etc.), what are the personal indicators of language capabilities (in terms of diagnostic parameters) and preferences of the child on the subject of statements ("Game," "Animal Care," "Sport," "TV," etc.), what are the personal indicators of each child when performing diagnostic tests (reflected in the appropriate personal diagnostic profile). On this basis, for each child, separate models of statements are selected, objects that motivate the statement, graphic images and problematic communicative situations, individually take into account the variable set of words denoting objects, signs, actions, phenomena; solved

impairment, taking into account the peculiarities of the optical-spatial capabilities of these children. These tools provide a linear organization of the stimulus material, its location in space, the possibility of correlating eye movements with hand movements (with tactile and visual row tracking), a fixed increased image size, its contour, detail, etc. These aids are personalized, for example, depending on the recommendations of the ophthalmologist. So children with squint (depending on the squinting eye) are invited to have visual rows on the left (or right); for children with one type of squint, verticalization of images is suggested, and with another type, horizontal position of images. Children in the process of occlusion are given the location of the stimulus material from the "better seeing" eye. Children who are in the process of pleoptic and orthoptic treatment (associated with correcting squint and restoring the ability to fusion-merging two images together) can be offered optical-spatial conditions that are close to those that are suitable for children with myopia (e.g., the increased size of images and their spatial image). The angle of visual stimulus material for children with squint and amblyopia—90 degrees, for children with myopia—40 degrees. When teaching children with myopia, you should monitor the wearing of glasses during class, set a timer that regulates visual loads in time, use "visual pauses" and visual exercises, determine the optimal distance between the eyes of the child and the stimulus material, spatial arrangement of cards relative to each other, etc.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

therapist as part of an interdisciplinary team.

**Characteristics of aids**

#### *Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

logical-semantic, optico-ophthalmological (as prescribed by the ophthalmologist), motor-spatial, and information-technological levels of the problem under study. It is logical to believe that personalization will be in demand in the work of a speech therapist as part of an interdisciplinary team.

Let us consider, for example, the personalization of the content and means of speech therapy work with schoolchildren with SLI and visual impairment (squint and myopia) in the direction associated with the improvement of their coherent expressions. The content of this speech therapy area is traditionally algorithmdriven, based on the appropriate techniques adopted in speech therapy. In parallel, in the context of the joint work of a speech therapist, parents, teachers of physical culture, music, drawing, an ophthalmologist, personalized exercise programs were developed and implemented for such children (depending on the states of comorbidity of speech-language, spatial, optical and motor processes identified for each child) as well as personal plans to perform special visual exercises and workouts. These directions of speech therapy may be changed in content due to child visual impairment. So, in Russian speech therapy, usually a story-description of an object is one of the first forms of work in teaching SLI child storytelling. However, for a child with SLI and visual impairment, we can built a different algorithm that combines analysis and construction: a simple sentence—a fragmentary/holistic dialogue—a narrative story—a descriptive story—a creative story (all types of work are based on a special interactive touch panel with elements of feedback


*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

**E group 1 E group 2 CA group 1 CA group 2 pre post pre post pre post pre post**

all children have been changed status from third to fourth level. At the same time, the comparative analysis groups (CA groups), which included children of a similar age who received the work of a speech therapist according to standard exposure algorithms (CA group 1—SLI, CA group 2—SLI and visual impairment) in most cases remained at the third level of speech\language development

**Table 3** shows data that convincingly show that in the vast majority of cases, the dynamics of language development are higher in those children with ALS who were

Level III 100 20 100 22 100 72 100 82 Level IV 0 80 0 87 0 28 0 18

*Analysis of language development data for children with SLI involved in experimental and comparative groups* 

Motor and spatial assessment data using Pablo System and Habilect technologies recorded a personal dynamics for each child, reflecting an improvement in the state of mobility, coordination, strength, motor control in the fingers, wrists, elbow, shoulder, as well as in the movements and coordination of the trunk and legs. The ophthalmologist's data for children with SLI and visual impairments showed varied dynamics (mainly from stabilization of indicators to their slight improvement—81%). The remaining 19% of cases were characterized by an ophthalmolo-

Such data on the impact of personalized teaching aids, which have multiple reproducibility in the study of children with SLI in Russia, subsequently provide weighty reasons for substantial optimization of general, particular, and specific algorithms of speech therapy and developmental influence. At the same time, a personalized approach to it should be understood as a harmonious component of the general scientific and methodological support of the holistic process of psychological and pedagogical assistance for specific language impairment. The effectiveness of this approach seems to be optimal when the following conditions are met: reasonable integration with other approaches strengthened in science and practice, competent use of classical and modern scientific data from the field of speech therapy and related sciences, taking into account variable and combinatorial components in the structure of SLI, based on understanding personalized needs and capabilities of children, the relationship in the interdisciplinary team. The personalization of speech therapy is advisable on the planning and implementation of the content and directions of work, the choice of aids and technologies of influence,

logical interaction with other members of the interdisciplinary team.

It is possible to clarify the interpretation of the concept of "personalized aids that ensure the effectiveness of speech therapy work in children with SLI" as a system of various ideal and material objects, including artificially created ones, in order to optimally form language and speech processes in children, as carriers of the necessary information and as instrument. They are integrated at the linguodidactic,

**190**

(**Table 3**).

**model)**

**Table 3.**

**Language development level (according to the national** 

*(pre- and post-training) (%).*

**5. Discussion**

trained according to personalized programs.

gist as a "progressive" course of visual impairment.


#### **Table 4.**

*Personalized aids of forming coherent utterances in children with SLI and visual impairment.*

communication). These directions were carried out with the support of conditionally selected groups of personalized teaching aids for children, depending on their content, materialized, technological, visualized, audio, motor saturation.

The identified groups of personalized aids used in the formation of coherent statements in preschool children with SLI with visual impairment are presented in **Table 4**.

The effectiveness of speech therapy work, combining algorithmic, individual, and personalized approaches is much higher than with standard work. These combined approaches are being extremely significant in the light of the accomplishment of tasks to improve the quality of life of children with language impairment and their families.

#### **6. Conclusion**

At present, the idea of applying a personalized approach along with algorithmic and individual approaches is very popular and dynamically developing in the

**193**

**Author details**

Moscow, Russia

Tatiana Volodarovna Tumanova\* and Tatiana Borisovna Filicheva

\*Address all correspondence to: tumanova-t-v@yandex.ru

provided the original work is properly cited.

Speech\Language Therapy Department, Moscow Pedagogical State University,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms…*

scientific, technological, informational, and social resources of society.

context of improving speech therapy in Russia. In particular, aspects of personalized care for children with SLI are being developed. Given the diverse comorbidity of the state of disturbed verbal and nonverbal processes in these children, the personalization of the content, means, and technologies of the speech therapist working with such children will vary significantly, including depending on the

The use of a personalized approach in speech therapy seems optimal when there

are real conditions for rational integration with other approaches strengthened in science and practice. It depends under competent use of classical and modern scientific data from the field of speech therapy and related sciences, accounting for variable and combinatorial components in the structure of a systemic speech and language impairment understanding of the personalized needs and opportunities of children (social, activity, educational, etc.), the relationship in the work interdisci-

plinary team of specialists, attracting justified technological solutions, etc.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

context of improving speech therapy in Russia. In particular, aspects of personalized care for children with SLI are being developed. Given the diverse comorbidity of the state of disturbed verbal and nonverbal processes in these children, the personalization of the content, means, and technologies of the speech therapist working with such children will vary significantly, including depending on the scientific, technological, informational, and social resources of society.

The use of a personalized approach in speech therapy seems optimal when there are real conditions for rational integration with other approaches strengthened in science and practice. It depends under competent use of classical and modern scientific data from the field of speech therapy and related sciences, accounting for variable and combinatorial components in the structure of a systemic speech and language impairment understanding of the personalized needs and opportunities of children (social, activity, educational, etc.), the relationship in the work interdisciplinary team of specialists, attracting justified technological solutions, etc.

#### **Author details**

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

Light-chrome Means that take into account the presence of visual impairment in children with

SLI. These means provide additional illumination, illumination orientation, and color indication of various actions in the context of holistic activities (e.g., speech-language and subject-practical). These means cause the realization of sufficient illumination of the room, the location of an additional light source for children with squint in the side of the space in which the doctor recommends (e.g., in the state of occlusion), light indicator lights that signal the eye movements horizontally (from left to right) for children with myopia and variably—horizontally or vertically —depending on the type of squint; compliance with the rules of color contrast, the introduction of the contour of the image (e.g., for children with amblyopia—high, medium, or low degree of image contour), its small saturation with small details—for children with myopia and so on. It is necessary to use "anti-glare" materials for graphic presentation—for children with a high degree of

Analytical-synthetic tools that help optimize the formation of coherent expressions in children with SLI, taking into account their language and cognitive abilities. These are tools that help analyze, plan, and implement the meaning, content, storyline of statements. These aids are personalized depending on what the indicators of each child are according to the results of the diagnostic profile, what are the difficulties in analyzing and planning speech utterances (difficulties in identifying text composition, transmitting cause-and-effect, temporal, spatial relationships; personal relationships between actors, retelling, creative narration, etc.), what is the nature of difficulties in exercising control over statements (intermediate or final character). Accordingly, for some children it is crucially important to use (as a means) a detailed orated plot analysis, with a consistent analysis of its compositional structure, the introduction of appropriate graphic symbols; for others, it is important to learn to interpret (explain) certain words and expressions, marking difficult to understand and explain words; for the third, strengthening the work on the logic and verbal designation of grammatical relations, and for the fourth, the unification of all these logical and semantic means in the framework of chains and

Means that with the help of appropriate information technology solutions ensure the formation of coherent statements in SLI children with visual impairment. It can be audio, video, multimedia, telecommunication technology, and so on. Personalization of these funds is determined in accordance with the existing visual impairments, relevant

**Characteristics of aids**

amblyopia.

consecutive occupations.

communication). These directions were carried out with the support of conditionally selected groups of personalized teaching aids for children, depending on their

recommendations, and prohibitions from the ophthalmologist.

The identified groups of personalized aids used in the formation of coherent statements in preschool children with SLI with visual impairment are presented in

The effectiveness of speech therapy work, combining algorithmic, individual,

At present, the idea of applying a personalized approach along with algorithmic

and personalized approaches is much higher than with standard work. These combined approaches are being extremely significant in the light of the accomplishment of tasks to improve the quality of life of children with language impairment

and individual approaches is very popular and dynamically developing in the

content, materialized, technological, visualized, audio, motor saturation.

*Personalized aids of forming coherent utterances in children with SLI and visual impairment.*

**192**

**Table 4**.

**Table 4.**

**Groups of personalized aids**

Logicalsemantic

Information technology

and their families.

**6. Conclusion**

Tatiana Volodarovna Tumanova\* and Tatiana Borisovna Filicheva Speech\Language Therapy Department, Moscow Pedagogical State University, Moscow, Russia

\*Address all correspondence to: tumanova-t-v@yandex.ru

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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*Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language Impairment: Algorithms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91185*

[18] Filicheva TB, Sokolova TV, Tumanova TV. Formation of coherent utterances in children with primary ocular pathology and specific language impairment. Journal Modern Problems of Science and Education. 2014;(4):74-82. http://www.scienceeducation.ru/117-13346

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Sphera; 2014

*Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention*

Outcomes. Methodical Collection of Materials of the International Symposium of August 23-26, 2018. Publishing House

LOGOMAG: Moscow; 2018

[12] Filicheva TB, Chirkina GV,

therapy work to overcome the

Moscow: Education; 2016

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[13] Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary. Moscow: Scientific Publishing House "Big Russian

[14] Lalaeva RI, Serebryakova NV. Correction of Underdevelopment of Speech in Preschool Children (the Formation of Vocabulary and Grammatical Structure). Sankt-Petersburg: UNION; 1999

[15] Filicheva TB, Tumanova TV, Eliseenkova OA. Formation of communication of preschool children with a general underdevelopment of speech in gaming activities. Journal Modern Problems of Science and Education. 2014;(3):13-19. http://www. science-education.ru/117-13346

[16] Filicheva TB, Tumanova TV, Gareva TA. The state of speech-lingual processes in preschool children with dysarthria. Journal of Defectology.

[17] Filicheva TB, Tumanova TV, Guschina YR. Features of wordformation and communicative activity of children of preschool age with speech disorders. Journal Modern Problems of Science and Education. 2014;(6): 21-29. http://www.science-education.

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[1] Ushinsky KD. Pedagogical Op.

[2] Sadovaya VV, Korshunova OV, Nauruzbay Zh. Personalized Education Strategies\\ Mathematics Education.

[3] Ogarev EI. Specificity of adult institutional education. Human and

[4] Unt IE. Individualization and Differentiation of Education. Moscow: Pedagogy Publishing House; 1990

[5] Ermakov DS, Osmolovskaya IM, Ryazanova DV. Competency-Based Approach to the Formation of the Content of Education: Monograph. ITIP

[6] Galkina TE. Personalized Approach in the System of Additional Professional Education of Social Sphere Specialists. Avtoreferat of dissertation. D. ped.n.;

[7] Logopedia. Theory and practice. Under ed. Filicheva T. Moscow: Eksmo; 2017

[8] Tumanova T, Filicheva T. Russian scientific trends on specific language

Fernandes FDM, editor. Advances in Speech-language Pathology. Rijeka: IntechOpen; 2017. ISBN: 978-953-51- 3510-4, Print ISBN: 978-953-51-3509-8

[9] Levina RE. Pedagogical issues of speech pathology in children. Special

School. 1967;**122**(2):121-130

[10] Benilova SY, Davidovich LR,

[11] Specific Language Impairment in Children: Assessment & Intervention

Miklyaeva NV. Speech Therapy Systemic Speech Disorders in Children. Moscow:

impairment in childhood. In:

Education. 2008;**14**(1):64-65

Vol. 6 - T. 2; 1988

**References**

2016;**11**(1):199-209

RAO: Moscow; 2007

2008

### *Edited by Sandro Misciagna*

Learning disabilities are a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by failure to acquire, retrieve, or use information competently. They are the most severe and chronic form of learning difficulty in children. They can be present at birth or acquired as a result of illness, exposure to toxins, poor nutrition, medical treatment, sociocultural deprivation, or injury. Learning problems typically consist in failure to acquire reading, writing, or math skills, which are traditionally considered core domains. This book explores the epidemiology, neurobiological bases, and diagnostic tools necessary for a comprehensive assessment of children with learning disabilities. It also presents examples of children with specific learning disabilities and explains possible intervention strategies.

Published in London, UK © 2020 IntechOpen © LIgorko / iStock

Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention

Learning Disabilities

Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and

Strategies of Intervention

*Edited by Sandro Misciagna*