Preface

Learning disabilities (LDs) consist of impairment in one or more cognitive domains such as written or spoken expression, reading, math, information processing, and memory. Individuals with LDs have lower than expected measured intelligence for their age. LDs negatively affect children, their families, and ultimately society. It is important to note that there is not a universal consensus regarding the definition of LDs.

According to the United States Office of Education (1977), the term "specific learning disability" means a disorder in one or more basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Such terms do not include children who have LDs that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, of intellectual disability, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

According to the National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (1997), "learning disabilities" is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical skills.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) defines "specific learning disability" as an impairment in one or more of the following cognitive domains: understanding or using written or spoken language, math, information processing, memory, or reading, including dyslexia, orthographic impairment (inability to memorize words), and hyperlexia (comprehension difficulties). The IDEA also includes in the definition of LDs conditions such as developmental aphasia, perceptual disabilities, brain injury, and minimal brain dysfunction.

Finally, the American Psychiatric Association (2013) defines "learning disorders" as specific disorders of reading, writing expression, or mathematics skills that are lower than expected for the individual's age, measured intelligence, and age-appropriate education level.

LDs affect approximately 10 percent of children in the United States. Of these children, about 40 percent have learning disabilities in language, reading, math information processing, or memory.

Language or speech impairment affects about 18.5 percent of American children. Dyslexia is the most common disability, affecting about 80 percent. Children with intellectual disability (7.4 percent) also have comorbidity with learning and emotional disturbances.

Other cognitive deficits, such as memory problems, attentional deficits, and difficulty managing social interactions are not typically considered LDs.

**II**

**Section 3**

*by Nada Pop-Jordanova*

Underpinnings

**Section 4**

Secondary Schools *by Maria Rontou*

A Study of Case

into Adulthood

**Section 5**

Learning Disabilities Comorbid with Behavioral, Developmental

Developmental Dyscalculia: Nosological Status and Cognitive

*by Ricardo Moura, Suzane Garcia and Júlia Beatriz Lopes-Silva*

Contradictions around Inter-collegial Collaboration Regarding Differentiated Assessment for Pupils with Dyslexia in Greek State

The Child with Learning Difficulties and His Writing:

ADHD as a Specific Cause for Learning Disability

Learning Disabilities in Children with Autism *by Ingrid Ya I Sun, Ana Carolina Martins Cortez* 

*and Fernanda Dreux Miranda Fernandes*

*by Edgardo Domitilo Gerardo Morales*

Disorders and Autism **91**

**Chapter 7 93**

**Chapter 8 109**

**Chapter 9 121**

Assessment of Speech and Language-Based Learning Disabilities **129**

**Chapter 10 131**

**Chapter 11 147**

Strategy of Interventions in Learning Disabilities **165**

**Chapter 12 167**

**Chapter 13 177**

Transition Possibilities for Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities

*by Rakgadi Grace Malapela and Gloria Thupayagale-Tshweneagae*

Speech Therapy Work with Children Having Specific Language

*by Tatiana Volodarovna Tumanova and Tatiana Borisovna Filicheva*

Impairment: Algorithms and Personalization

LDs are also common in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), chronic health conditions, or other mental and psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, and obsessive compulsive disorder.

Risk factors for LDs include prenatal alcohol exposure, prematurity, low birth weight, early life malnutrition, and under-stimulating environment. Other risk factors include a family history of LDs such as dyslexia, ADHD, memory difficulty, and dropping out of school. Medical conditions associated with LDs include some neurological conditions (epilepsy or epileptic disorders, neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, complex Tourette syndrome), chromosomal disorders (Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, fragile X syndrome), certain chronic medical conditions (pediatric HIV infection, adolescent diabetes mellitus), and history of central system infection, irradiation, or traumatic brain injury.

Pathogenesis of LDs is not known. The full expression of LDs probably occurs as a result of intrinsic neuropathological factors (brain functions) in conjunction with environmental factors that include home factors (exposure to learn at home, degree of support provided in the home) and school factors (student–teacher interactions, level of stimulation provided by learning materials, classroom setting).

The most common LDs are dyslexia, writing disorders, and math learning disorder.

Reading disability (dyslexia) is in general the most frequent LD and is estimated to occur in approximately 5 to 12 percent of school-age children, depending upon the criteria used for definition. It consists in specific reading disorder such as difficulty identifying which letter/letter combination correlates with a particular sound (phonics and decoding), difficulty reading printed text smoothly and efficiently (reading fluency), and difficulty understanding what was read (reading comprehension).

Writing disability is estimated to occur in approximately 7 to 15 percent of schoolage children. Writing disability consists of a range of disabilities including problems in composing sentences and text (excessive grammar and punctuation errors), difficulty with handwriting (copying efficiently from the chalkboard), difficulty with spelling (phonics, encoding), and problems properly organizing written text.

Math learning disorder is estimated to occur in 3 to 6 percent or 6 to 13.8 percent of children. Math learning disorder includes difficulty with mental representation of quantity (number sense) and difficulty in performing math calculations accurately (adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing). Students with math LDs can also have difficulty with the language of math (difficulty correctly reading and understanding math symbols), word problems in math (correctly reading and understanding numbers and arithmetic symbols), and visuospatial organization of math problems.

LDs usually do not exist in isolation but co-occur with other learning cognitive and behavioral conditions. For example, among children with writing disability, 15 percent have coexisting reading and math disability, 14 percent have coexisting reading disability, and 13 percent have coexisting math disability.

It is difficult to accurately determine the frequency of co-occurrence of LDs with psychiatric conditions. However, most studies suggest LDs in 20 to 70 percent of children with behavioral or psychiatric conditions such as ADHD, anxiety, depression, or autism.

**V**

Differential diagnosis of LDs includes intellectual disability (formerly called mental retardation), psychiatric conditions (ADHD), sensorial deficits (hearing or vision impairment), sleep disorders, prenatal alcohol exposure (fetal alcohol spectrum disorders), genetic causes, neurological organic conditions (epileptic syndromes,

Children with LDs must be submitted to an assessment to determine whether they

Any assessment requires evaluation of speech, language, and mathematics by a

It is also useful to do a psychological and educational assessment that includes

This book formulates a hypothesis to explain neurobiological bases of LDs, provides examples of LDs, and discusses assessment and treatment strategies. I hope it will contribute to preventing individuals from dropping out of school and enhancing

**Sandro Misciagna, MD, PhD.**

Belcolle Hospital, Viterbo, Italy

progressive neurological disorders), or environmental factors.

are eligible for a treatment plan and the strategy of interventions.

qualified professional.

behavior and environment.

life outcomes for those with LDs.

Differential diagnosis of LDs includes intellectual disability (formerly called mental retardation), psychiatric conditions (ADHD), sensorial deficits (hearing or vision impairment), sleep disorders, prenatal alcohol exposure (fetal alcohol spectrum disorders), genetic causes, neurological organic conditions (epileptic syndromes, progressive neurological disorders), or environmental factors.

Children with LDs must be submitted to an assessment to determine whether they are eligible for a treatment plan and the strategy of interventions.

Any assessment requires evaluation of speech, language, and mathematics by a qualified professional.

It is also useful to do a psychological and educational assessment that includes behavior and environment.

This book formulates a hypothesis to explain neurobiological bases of LDs, provides examples of LDs, and discusses assessment and treatment strategies. I hope it will contribute to preventing individuals from dropping out of school and enhancing life outcomes for those with LDs.

> **Sandro Misciagna, MD, PhD.** Belcolle Hospital, Viterbo, Italy

**IV**

depression, or autism.

comprehension).

LDs are also common in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), chronic health conditions, or other mental and psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, and obsessive compulsive disorder.

Risk factors for LDs include prenatal alcohol exposure, prematurity, low birth weight, early life malnutrition, and under-stimulating environment. Other risk factors include a family history of LDs such as dyslexia, ADHD, memory difficulty,

and dropping out of school. Medical conditions associated with LDs include some neurological conditions (epilepsy or epileptic disorders, neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, complex Tourette syndrome), chromosomal disorders (Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, fragile X syndrome), certain chronic medical conditions (pediatric HIV infection, adolescent diabetes mellitus), and history of

Pathogenesis of LDs is not known. The full expression of LDs probably occurs as a result of intrinsic neuropathological factors (brain functions) in conjunction with environmental factors that include home factors (exposure to learn at home, degree of support provided in the home) and school factors (student–teacher interactions,

The most common LDs are dyslexia, writing disorders, and math learning disorder.

Reading disability (dyslexia) is in general the most frequent LD and is estimated to occur in approximately 5 to 12 percent of school-age children, depending upon the criteria used for definition. It consists in specific reading disorder such as difficulty identifying which letter/letter combination correlates with a particular sound (phonics and decoding), difficulty reading printed text smoothly and efficiently (reading fluency), and difficulty understanding what was read (reading

Writing disability is estimated to occur in approximately 7 to 15 percent of schoolage children. Writing disability consists of a range of disabilities including problems in composing sentences and text (excessive grammar and punctuation errors), difficulty with handwriting (copying efficiently from the chalkboard), difficulty with spelling (phonics, encoding), and problems properly organizing written text.

Math learning disorder is estimated to occur in 3 to 6 percent or 6 to 13.8 percent of children. Math learning disorder includes difficulty with mental representation of quantity (number sense) and difficulty in performing math calculations accurately (adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing). Students with math LDs can also have difficulty with the language of math (difficulty correctly reading and understanding math symbols), word problems in math (correctly reading and understanding numbers and arithmetic symbols), and visuospatial organization of math problems.

LDs usually do not exist in isolation but co-occur with other learning cognitive and behavioral conditions. For example, among children with writing disability, 15 percent have coexisting reading and math disability, 14 percent have coexisting

It is difficult to accurately determine the frequency of co-occurrence of LDs with psychiatric conditions. However, most studies suggest LDs in 20 to 70 percent of children with behavioral or psychiatric conditions such as ADHD, anxiety,

reading disability, and 13 percent have coexisting math disability.

central system infection, irradiation, or traumatic brain injury.

level of stimulation provided by learning materials, classroom setting).

**1**

Section 1

General Definition,

Epidemiology and

Neurobiological Bases

of Learning Disabilities

### Section 1
