Recent Advancement on the Excitonic and Biexcitonic Properties of Low-Dimensional Semiconductors

*Anca Armășelu*

### **Abstract**

Knowing excitonic and biexcitonic properties of low-dimensional semiconductors systems is extremely important for the discovery of new physical effects and for the development of novel optoelectronics applications. This review work furnishes an interdisciplinary analysis of the fundamental features of excitons and biexcitons in two-dimensional semiconductor structures, one-dimensional semiconductor structures, and zero-dimensional (0D) semiconductor structures. There is a focus on spectral and dynamical properties of excitons and biexcitons in quantum dots (QDs). A study of the recent advances in the field is given, emphasizing the latest theoretical results and latest experimental methods for probing exciton and biexciton dynamics. This review presents an outlook on future applications of engineered multiexcitonic states including the photovoltaics, lasing, and the utilization of QDs in quantum technologies.

**Keywords:** excitonic states, biexcitonic states, multiexcitonic states, reduced dimensionality semiconductors, quantum wells, quantum wires, quantum dots, applications

### **1. Introduction**

The scientific significance in the field of the physics of excitons comprises both basic research and applied research, this area of physics being one of the most actively studied subjects. The interest in the physics of excitons has raised actively over the past two decades, this interest being provoked by the unique properties of excitons that provide the development's context of optoelectronic and photovoltaic of various device applications such as electrically driven light emitters [1–3], photovoltaic solar cells [4–6], photodetectors [7, 8], and lasers [9–12].

An important concern for the researchers of this field is to obtain a decrease of the dimension of the macroscopic semiconductor systems to nanoscale, this thing leading not only to manufacturing and observing low-dimensional semiconductor structures (LDSs) but also to the emergence and development of new electronic and optical properties that are significantly different from bulk semiconductors properties. Because the essential distinction between low-dimensional semiconductor structures and bulk semiconductor structures can be explained using the

terminology of improved excitonic effects that are determined by exciton localization result, it is crucial that, in these quantum-confined materials, the excitonic properties to be better understood and mastered to be able to use them in the development of the innovative and proficient optoelectronic devices utilizing these types of the materials.

Numerous researches have already shown that exploring the excitons' behavior in low-dimensional semiconductor systems can find new ways of controlling the fundamental exciton properties for light generation and light harvesting and finding novel materials for the next-generation high-efficiency excitonic lightharvesting tools at low cost [13–15].

Excitons in low-dimensional semiconductor structures have been widely investigated latterly. A low-dimensional semiconductor structure is a system which presents quantum confinement effects, the movement of electrons or other particles (holes, excitons, etc.) being limited in one or more dimensions.

The promising area of excitonics represents the science and manufacturing of the excitons in disordered and low dimensionality semiconductors (organic semiconductors, hybrid perovskites, colloidal semiconductor nanoparticles) [16–23] and guarantees much quicker efficiency of harmonizing with fiber optics, realizing some novel stages to perform exciton-based computation at room temperatures [24].

It is known that the absorption by a semiconductor of a photon with energy equal to or greater than its bandgap stimulates an electron from the valence band into the conduction band, the vacancy left behind in the valence band being characterized as a hole which is a quasiparticle carrying positive charge. The Coulomb attraction type between these particles with electrical charges of opposite sign provides a quantum structure of electron–hole pair type which is electrical neutral, called exciton. Excitons have numerous characteristics similar to those of atomic hydrogen [25, 26]. Using this type of hydrogen atom model, in crystalline materials, two types of excitons can be discussed in the two limiting cases of a small dielectric constant when the exciton is tightly bound Frenkel-like (the electron and the hole are tightly bound; the Coulomb interaction is poorly screened) in contrast with large dielectric constant when the exciton is weakly bound Wannier-like (the Coulomb interaction is strongly screened by the valence electrons, the electron, and the hole being weakly bound) [27–32]. For a semiconductor exciton named Wannier exciton which has a radius greater than lattice spacing, the effective-mass approximation can be used [33–40].

The entire gamut of low-dimensional semiconductor systems comprises quantum dots (QDs) or zero-dimensional (0D) systems if the excitons are dimensionally confined in all directions, quantum wires (QWRs) or one-dimensional systems (1D) if they are semiconductor nanocrystals in which the excitons are confined only in the diameter direction and quantum wells (QWs), or two-dimensional systems (2D) if the quantum confinement occurs in the thickness direction, while the particle motion is free in the other two directions [41–43].

It has been shown that in the quantum confinement conditions, the size and shape of semiconductor nanocrystals show an influence on the exciton fine structure, this being presented like the mode in which the energetic states of the exciton are divided by crystal field asymmetry consequences and low-dimensional semiconductor structures shape anisotropy [41–50].

Besides the hydrogen characteristics of the exciton, it is known that in QWs, QWRs, and QDs, there are hydrogen atom-like exciton pair-state populations or larger bound systems called biexcitons [25–27, 51–56].

Various researchers have shown that with the rise of the exciton binding energy value in low-dimensional semiconductor systems, the biexciton binding energy

**43**

*Recent Advancement on the Excitonic and Biexcitonic Properties of Low-Dimensional…*

value with growth confinement is also raised [25, 57–67]. All of the papers in this field have shown that by improving the biexciton creation in reduced dimensional semiconductor structures, the quantum yield (QY) of photovoltaic cells has been enhanced [57, 68–71]. Also, biexcitons are important for quantum-information and computation areas due to their stunning benefit for the creation of coherent combination of quantum states, in this sense being used to find new platforms for the obtaining of future and scalable quantum-information applications such as some greater efficiency non-blinking single-photon sources of biexciton, entangled

Multiple exciton generation (MEG) in low-dimensional semiconductors is the procedure by which multiple electron–hole pairs, or excitons, are created after the absorption of a single high-energy photon (larger than two times the bandgap energy) and is an encouraging research direction to maximize the solar energy conversion efficiencies in semiconductor solar cells at a possibly much diminished price [76–78]. Numerous studies have shown that the photo-physical properties of

This present chapter reviews the recent advancement in the understanding of the excitons' and biexcitons' behavior in LDSs, this fact being important for new

The second section of this paper comprises three important parts that analyze the way in which the properties of excitons and biexcitons in two-dimensional structures, one-dimensional semiconductor structures, and zero-dimensional semiconductor structures are influenced by the nanometric dimensions case.

The final section recapitulates the fundamental and special issues that have been

This part of the chapter contains some crucial and novel concepts of excitonic and biexcitonic properties of semiconductor structures of low dimensionality (e.g., QWs, QWRs, QDs) which are relevant for the characterization of the active con-

**2.1 Excitons and biexcitons in two-dimensional semiconductor structures**

the optical absorption comprising Coulomb interaction cases [81–84].

This section presents a subject of an enormous significance for the excitons and biexcitons effects in two-dimensional semiconductor structures. In 2005, Klingshirn [25] reported some essence results which emphasize the optical properties of excitons in QWs, in coupled quantum wells (CQWs), and superlattices. In the last years, in the area of excitons in LDSs, there has been much study which integrates experimental, theoretical, and technical features about the effective-mass theory of excitons and explains numerical procedures to compute

Xiao and coworkers [85, 86] emphasized the case of the excitons functioning in some layered two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors, presenting new different methods of the obtaining of some propitious materials structure (like molybdenum disulfide MoS2) with perfect properties for the evolving of the operable optoelectronics and photonics such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, optical modulators, and solar cells based on 2D materials. In Ref. [87] the study of the enhanced Coulomb interactions in WSe2-MoSe2-WSe2 trilayer van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures via neutral and charged interlayer excitons dynamics is mentioned.

MEG are due to the character of inherent multiexciton interaction [79, 80].

**2. Excitonic and biexcitonic properties in low-dimensional** 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90147*

experiments and optoelectronic devices.

debated.

**semiconductors**

stituents in advanced tools.

light sources, and laser based on biexciton states [72–75].

### *Recent Advancement on the Excitonic and Biexcitonic Properties of Low-Dimensional… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90147*

value with growth confinement is also raised [25, 57–67]. All of the papers in this field have shown that by improving the biexciton creation in reduced dimensional semiconductor structures, the quantum yield (QY) of photovoltaic cells has been enhanced [57, 68–71]. Also, biexcitons are important for quantum-information and computation areas due to their stunning benefit for the creation of coherent combination of quantum states, in this sense being used to find new platforms for the obtaining of future and scalable quantum-information applications such as some greater efficiency non-blinking single-photon sources of biexciton, entangled light sources, and laser based on biexciton states [72–75].

Multiple exciton generation (MEG) in low-dimensional semiconductors is the procedure by which multiple electron–hole pairs, or excitons, are created after the absorption of a single high-energy photon (larger than two times the bandgap energy) and is an encouraging research direction to maximize the solar energy conversion efficiencies in semiconductor solar cells at a possibly much diminished price [76–78]. Numerous studies have shown that the photo-physical properties of MEG are due to the character of inherent multiexciton interaction [79, 80].

This present chapter reviews the recent advancement in the understanding of the excitons' and biexcitons' behavior in LDSs, this fact being important for new experiments and optoelectronic devices.

The second section of this paper comprises three important parts that analyze the way in which the properties of excitons and biexcitons in two-dimensional structures, one-dimensional semiconductor structures, and zero-dimensional semiconductor structures are influenced by the nanometric dimensions case.

The final section recapitulates the fundamental and special issues that have been debated.

### **2. Excitonic and biexcitonic properties in low-dimensional semiconductors**

This part of the chapter contains some crucial and novel concepts of excitonic and biexcitonic properties of semiconductor structures of low dimensionality (e.g., QWs, QWRs, QDs) which are relevant for the characterization of the active constituents in advanced tools.

### **2.1 Excitons and biexcitons in two-dimensional semiconductor structures**

This section presents a subject of an enormous significance for the excitons and biexcitons effects in two-dimensional semiconductor structures. In 2005, Klingshirn [25] reported some essence results which emphasize the optical properties of excitons in QWs, in coupled quantum wells (CQWs), and superlattices.

In the last years, in the area of excitons in LDSs, there has been much study which integrates experimental, theoretical, and technical features about the effective-mass theory of excitons and explains numerical procedures to compute the optical absorption comprising Coulomb interaction cases [81–84].

Xiao and coworkers [85, 86] emphasized the case of the excitons functioning in some layered two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors, presenting new different methods of the obtaining of some propitious materials structure (like molybdenum disulfide MoS2) with perfect properties for the evolving of the operable optoelectronics and photonics such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, optical modulators, and solar cells based on 2D materials. In Ref. [87] the study of the enhanced Coulomb interactions in WSe2-MoSe2-WSe2 trilayer van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures via neutral and charged interlayer excitons dynamics is mentioned.

*Advances in Condensed-Matter and Materials Physics - Rudimentary Research to Topical…*

types of the materials.

room temperatures [24].

mation can be used [33–40].

harvesting tools at low cost [13–15].

terminology of improved excitonic effects that are determined by exciton localization result, it is crucial that, in these quantum-confined materials, the excitonic properties to be better understood and mastered to be able to use them in the development of the innovative and proficient optoelectronic devices utilizing these

Numerous researches have already shown that exploring the excitons' behavior

The promising area of excitonics represents the science and manufacturing of the excitons in disordered and low dimensionality semiconductors (organic semiconductors, hybrid perovskites, colloidal semiconductor nanoparticles) [16–23] and guarantees much quicker efficiency of harmonizing with fiber optics, realizing some novel stages to perform exciton-based computation at

It is known that the absorption by a semiconductor of a photon with energy equal to or greater than its bandgap stimulates an electron from the valence band into the conduction band, the vacancy left behind in the valence band being characterized as a hole which is a quasiparticle carrying positive charge. The Coulomb attraction type between these particles with electrical charges of opposite sign provides a quantum structure of electron–hole pair type which is electrical neutral, called exciton. Excitons have numerous characteristics similar to those of atomic hydrogen [25, 26]. Using this type of hydrogen atom model, in crystalline materials, two types of excitons can be discussed in the two limiting cases of a small dielectric constant when the exciton is tightly bound Frenkel-like (the electron and the hole are tightly bound; the Coulomb interaction is poorly screened) in contrast with large dielectric constant when the exciton is weakly bound Wannier-like (the Coulomb interaction is strongly screened by the valence electrons, the electron, and the hole being weakly bound) [27–32]. For a semiconductor exciton named Wannier exciton which has a radius greater than lattice spacing, the effective-mass approxi-

The entire gamut of low-dimensional semiconductor systems comprises quantum dots (QDs) or zero-dimensional (0D) systems if the excitons are dimensionally confined in all directions, quantum wires (QWRs) or one-dimensional systems (1D) if they are semiconductor nanocrystals in which the excitons are confined only in the diameter direction and quantum wells (QWs), or two-dimensional systems (2D) if the quantum confinement occurs in the thickness direction, while the

It has been shown that in the quantum confinement conditions, the size and shape of semiconductor nanocrystals show an influence on the exciton fine structure, this being presented like the mode in which the energetic states of the exciton are divided by crystal field asymmetry consequences and low-dimensional semi-

Besides the hydrogen characteristics of the exciton, it is known that in QWs, QWRs, and QDs, there are hydrogen atom-like exciton pair-state populations or

Various researchers have shown that with the rise of the exciton binding energy value in low-dimensional semiconductor systems, the biexciton binding energy

particle motion is free in the other two directions [41–43].

conductor structures shape anisotropy [41–50].

larger bound systems called biexcitons [25–27, 51–56].

in low-dimensional semiconductor systems can find new ways of controlling the fundamental exciton properties for light generation and light harvesting and finding novel materials for the next-generation high-efficiency excitonic light-

Excitons in low-dimensional semiconductor structures have been widely investigated latterly. A low-dimensional semiconductor structure is a system which presents quantum confinement effects, the movement of electrons or other par-

ticles (holes, excitons, etc.) being limited in one or more dimensions.

**42**

In the situation of cryogenic temperatures, an increasing photoluminescence quantum yield in the conditions of the inclusion of a WSe2 layer in the trilayer composition in contrast with the example of the bilayer heterostructures has been reported.

Owing to the fact that the class of 2D materials presents some distinctive features, which are highly dissimilar in comparison with those of their threedimensional (3D) correspondents, it is used for the next-generation ultra-thin electronics [88]. In this context some researchers explained the role of the expansion of indirect excitons (an indirect exciton—IX—is a bound pair of an electron and hole in separated QW layers [89]), which is observed in vdW transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) heterostructures at room temperature, this study helping for the progress of excitonic devices with energy-productive computation and ideal connection quality for optical communication cases [90, 91]. Various theoretical and experimental analyses have been developed for the improvement of the excitonic devices that use IXs propagation in different types of single QWs and coupled QWs [92, 93]. Fedichkin and his colleagues [94] studied a novel exciton transport model in a polar (Al, Ga)N/GaN QWs calculating the propagation lengths up to 12 μm at room temperature and up to 20 μm at 10 K.

In Ref. [95] a theoretical portrayal of the ground and excited states of the excitons for GaAs/AlGaAs and InGaAs/GaAs finite square QWs of different widths is presented which eases the elucidation of the experimental reflectance and photoluminescence spectra of excitons in QWs.

Some works examined new different excitonic properties of the 2D organic– inorganic halide perovskite materials showing that this type of perovskite is very qualified to be used for the construction of the photonics devices [96–98] containing LEDs [99, 100], photodetectors [101], transistors, and lasing applications [102]. Wang et al. [103] provided a valuable research about the special characteristics of the long-lived exciton, trion, and biexciton cases in CdSe/CdTe colloidal QWs, proposing a novel model of light harvester with minimal energy losses.

#### **2.2 Excitons and biexcitons in one-dimensional semiconductor structures**

One-dimensional semiconductor structures have obtained a remarkable consideration within the last decade. 1D semiconductor nanostructures including wires, rods, belts, and tubes possess two dimensions smaller than 100 nm [104]. Among these types of 1D nanostructures, semiconductor QWRs have been investigated thoroughly for a broad range of materials. This type of 1D nanostructures is used for an essential study due to their exclusive constitutional and physical properties comparative with their bulk correspondents. Crottini et al. [105] communicated the 1D biexcitons behavior in high-quality disorder-free semiconductor QWRs, evaluating the biexciton binding energy value at 1.2 meV.

Sitt and his coworkers [106] reviewed the excitonic comportment of a diversity of heterostructured nanorods (NRs) which are used for a series of applications comprising solid-state lighting, lasers, multicolor emission, bio-labeling, photondetecting devices, and solar cells. In the same work [106], some multiexciton effects are shown, and the dynamics of charge carriers is presented in core/shell NRs with potential applications in the optical gain field and in the light-harvesting section.

For the case of the single crystalline silicon nanowires (SiNWs), which is a key structure for nanoscale tools including field-effect transistors, logic circuits, sensors, lasers, Yang [107] described some excitonic effects and the case of the optical absorption spectra using the Bethe-Salpeter equation.

In Ref. [108] the physical properties of elongated inorganic particles are reported in the case of the nanoparticle shape modification from spherical to rod-like with the help of the exciton storage process.

**45**

*Recent Advancement on the Excitonic and Biexcitonic Properties of Low-Dimensional…*

**2.3 Excitons and biexcitons in zero-dimensional semiconductor structures**

Zero-dimensional semiconductor structures have captivated a notable interest owing to the fact that the motion is confined in all three directions, the size of a QDs being smaller than or comparable to the bulk exciton Bohr radius [109–112]. In this part of the chapter, some recent progresses in the topic which deals with the excitonic and biexcitonic effects for QDs applications case are emphasized, including computing and communication field, light-emitting devices, solar cells area,

Pokutnyi [115–120] realized the foremost theoretical analyses that accurately describe different absorption mechanisms in such nanosystems, discussing many issues related to the complicated interrelationship between the morphology of the zero-dimensional semiconductor structures and their electronics and their optical properties and which help to the progress of novel proficient optoelectronic devices. Plumhof and his colleagues [121] proved that QDs with an adequately small excitonic fine structure splitting (FSS) can be utilized as some valuable deterministic sources of polarization-entangled photon pairs to improve the building blocks'

Golasa et al. [122] presented some new statistical properties of neutral excitons,

Singh and his team of researchers [123] found a new multipulse time-resolved fluorescence experiment for the CdSe/CdS core/shell QDs case, this work being a crucial spectroscopic procedure which can separate and measure the recombination

In Ref. [124] a comprehensive review is furnished about the appropriately engineered core/graded-shell QDs revealing advantageous optical properties and unique photoluminescence assets of QDs for liquid crystal displays backlighting technologies and organic light-emitting diode tools. In different papers which have to do with the quantum dot-based-light-emitting diodes (QD-LEDs) results [124–127], it is mentioned that for the improvement of the QD-LED performance, two processes must be diminished: trapping of carriers at surface defects and Auger

Important studies reveal many novel and interesting experimental and theoretical results on LDSs exhibiting high quantum yield as a result of MEG occurrence with the aim of the improvement of the solar devices field. Considering that Shockley and Queisser determined a basic threshold value for the efficiency of a traditional p-n solar cell of 30%, these essential results prove that there is a possibility to exceed the Shockley-Quiesser threshold employing quantum effects for a

In recent decades, low-dimensional semiconductor structures have become one of the most dynamic research areas in nanoscience, the excitons showing some notably novel attributes due to confinement consequence case. In this chapter a review of some modern experimental and theoretical discoveries on excitonic and biexcitonic effects in low-dimensional semiconductors is presented. The paper furnishes an outstandingly multipurpose excitonic aspect of the optoelectronic applications field, including photodetectors and opto-valleytronic tools, computing

biexcitons, and trions for the case of QDs which are created in the InAs/GaAs wetting layer (WL), confirming that the WLQDs structure is a useful model to be

applied in the area of quantum-information processing applications.

recently developed low-cost third-generation solar cell [77, 128–130].

and communication domain, and light-emitting devices.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90147*

and biological domain [113, 114].

quality for quantum communication technology.

times of multiexcited state for the proposed sample.

recombination of excitons.

**3. Conclusions**

*Recent Advancement on the Excitonic and Biexcitonic Properties of Low-Dimensional… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90147*

### **2.3 Excitons and biexcitons in zero-dimensional semiconductor structures**

Zero-dimensional semiconductor structures have captivated a notable interest owing to the fact that the motion is confined in all three directions, the size of a QDs being smaller than or comparable to the bulk exciton Bohr radius [109–112]. In this part of the chapter, some recent progresses in the topic which deals with the excitonic and biexcitonic effects for QDs applications case are emphasized, including computing and communication field, light-emitting devices, solar cells area, and biological domain [113, 114].

Pokutnyi [115–120] realized the foremost theoretical analyses that accurately describe different absorption mechanisms in such nanosystems, discussing many issues related to the complicated interrelationship between the morphology of the zero-dimensional semiconductor structures and their electronics and their optical properties and which help to the progress of novel proficient optoelectronic devices.

Plumhof and his colleagues [121] proved that QDs with an adequately small excitonic fine structure splitting (FSS) can be utilized as some valuable deterministic sources of polarization-entangled photon pairs to improve the building blocks' quality for quantum communication technology.

Golasa et al. [122] presented some new statistical properties of neutral excitons, biexcitons, and trions for the case of QDs which are created in the InAs/GaAs wetting layer (WL), confirming that the WLQDs structure is a useful model to be applied in the area of quantum-information processing applications.

Singh and his team of researchers [123] found a new multipulse time-resolved fluorescence experiment for the CdSe/CdS core/shell QDs case, this work being a crucial spectroscopic procedure which can separate and measure the recombination times of multiexcited state for the proposed sample.

In Ref. [124] a comprehensive review is furnished about the appropriately engineered core/graded-shell QDs revealing advantageous optical properties and unique photoluminescence assets of QDs for liquid crystal displays backlighting technologies and organic light-emitting diode tools. In different papers which have to do with the quantum dot-based-light-emitting diodes (QD-LEDs) results [124–127], it is mentioned that for the improvement of the QD-LED performance, two processes must be diminished: trapping of carriers at surface defects and Auger recombination of excitons.

Important studies reveal many novel and interesting experimental and theoretical results on LDSs exhibiting high quantum yield as a result of MEG occurrence with the aim of the improvement of the solar devices field. Considering that Shockley and Queisser determined a basic threshold value for the efficiency of a traditional p-n solar cell of 30%, these essential results prove that there is a possibility to exceed the Shockley-Quiesser threshold employing quantum effects for a recently developed low-cost third-generation solar cell [77, 128–130].

### **3. Conclusions**

In recent decades, low-dimensional semiconductor structures have become one of the most dynamic research areas in nanoscience, the excitons showing some notably novel attributes due to confinement consequence case. In this chapter a review of some modern experimental and theoretical discoveries on excitonic and biexcitonic effects in low-dimensional semiconductors is presented. The paper furnishes an outstandingly multipurpose excitonic aspect of the optoelectronic applications field, including photodetectors and opto-valleytronic tools, computing and communication domain, and light-emitting devices.

*Advances in Condensed-Matter and Materials Physics - Rudimentary Research to Topical…*

12 μm at room temperature and up to 20 μm at 10 K.

ating the biexciton binding energy value at 1.2 meV.

absorption spectra using the Bethe-Salpeter equation.

the help of the exciton storage process.

minescence spectra of excitons in QWs.

In the situation of cryogenic temperatures, an increasing photoluminescence quantum yield in the conditions of the inclusion of a WSe2 layer in the trilayer composition in contrast with the example of the bilayer heterostructures has been reported. Owing to the fact that the class of 2D materials presents some distinctive features, which are highly dissimilar in comparison with those of their threedimensional (3D) correspondents, it is used for the next-generation ultra-thin electronics [88]. In this context some researchers explained the role of the expansion of indirect excitons (an indirect exciton—IX—is a bound pair of an electron and hole in separated QW layers [89]), which is observed in vdW transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) heterostructures at room temperature, this study helping for the progress of excitonic devices with energy-productive computation and ideal connection quality for optical communication cases [90, 91]. Various theoretical and experimental analyses have been developed for the improvement of the excitonic devices that use IXs propagation in different types of single QWs and coupled QWs [92, 93]. Fedichkin and his colleagues [94] studied a novel exciton transport model in a polar (Al, Ga)N/GaN QWs calculating the propagation lengths up to

In Ref. [95] a theoretical portrayal of the ground and excited states of the excitons for GaAs/AlGaAs and InGaAs/GaAs finite square QWs of different widths is presented which eases the elucidation of the experimental reflectance and photolu-

Some works examined new different excitonic properties of the 2D organic– inorganic halide perovskite materials showing that this type of perovskite is very qualified to be used for the construction of the photonics devices [96–98] containing LEDs [99, 100], photodetectors [101], transistors, and lasing applications [102]. Wang et al. [103] provided a valuable research about the special characteristics of the long-lived exciton, trion, and biexciton cases in CdSe/CdTe colloidal QWs,

proposing a novel model of light harvester with minimal energy losses.

**2.2 Excitons and biexcitons in one-dimensional semiconductor structures**

One-dimensional semiconductor structures have obtained a remarkable consideration within the last decade. 1D semiconductor nanostructures including wires, rods, belts, and tubes possess two dimensions smaller than 100 nm [104]. Among these types of 1D nanostructures, semiconductor QWRs have been investigated thoroughly for a broad range of materials. This type of 1D nanostructures is used for an essential study due to their exclusive constitutional and physical properties comparative with their bulk correspondents. Crottini et al. [105] communicated the 1D biexcitons behavior in high-quality disorder-free semiconductor QWRs, evalu-

Sitt and his coworkers [106] reviewed the excitonic comportment of a diversity of heterostructured nanorods (NRs) which are used for a series of applications comprising solid-state lighting, lasers, multicolor emission, bio-labeling, photondetecting devices, and solar cells. In the same work [106], some multiexciton effects are shown, and the dynamics of charge carriers is presented in core/shell NRs with potential applications in the optical gain field and in the light-harvesting section. For the case of the single crystalline silicon nanowires (SiNWs), which is a key structure for nanoscale tools including field-effect transistors, logic circuits, sensors, lasers, Yang [107] described some excitonic effects and the case of the optical

In Ref. [108] the physical properties of elongated inorganic particles are reported in the case of the nanoparticle shape modification from spherical to rod-like with

**44**

*Advances in Condensed-Matter and Materials Physics - Rudimentary Research to Topical…*

## **Author details**

Anca Armășelu Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Department of Electrical Engineering and Applied Physics, Transilvania University of Brasov, Brasov, Romania

\*Address all correspondence to: ancas@unitbv.ro

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**47**

*Recent Advancement on the Excitonic and Biexcitonic Properties of Low-Dimensional…*

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*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90147*

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Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Department of Electrical Engineering and Applied Physics, Transilvania University of Brasov, Brasov,

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

**46**

**Author details**

Anca Armășelu

\*Address all correspondence to: ancas@unitbv.ro

provided the original work is properly cited.

Romania

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2007;**41**(11):1323-1328

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10.1007/978-3-642-00710-1

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acsphotonics.5b00563

[98] Zhang R, Fan JF, Zhang X,

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perovskite light - emitting diodes. Nature Communications. 2018;**9**(1):608. DOI: 10.1038/

s41467-018-03049-7

PhysRevApplied.6.014011

spmi.2016.12.035

in semiconductor nanocrystals. Semiconductors. 1996;**30**(7):694-695

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[86] Amani M, Lien DH, Kiriya D, Xiao J, Azcati A, Noh J, et al. Near-unity photoluminescence quantum yield in MoS2. Science. 2015;**350**(6264):1065- 1068. DOI: 10.1126/science.aad2114

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10.1038/s41699-018-0075-1

apmt.2017.05.003

dn/e\_044\_02\_0389.pdf

[90] Calman EV, Fogler MM, Butov LV, Hu S, Mishchenko A, Geim AK. Indirect excitons in van der Waals heterostructures at room temperature. Nature Communications.

2017;**9**(1):1985. DOI: 10.1038/

[91] Dzyuba VP, Pokutnyi SI, Amosov AV, Kulchin YN. Indirect Excitons and polarization of dielectric nanoparticles. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2019;**123**(42):26031-26035

s41467-018-04293-7

[88] Velický M, Toth PS. From two-dimensional materials to their heterostructures: An electrochemist's perspective. Applied Materials Today. 2017;**8**:68-103. DOI: 10.1016/j.

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[85] Xiao J, Zhao M, Wang Y, Zhang X.

semiconductors and their applications. Nano. 2017;**6**(6):1309-1328. DOI: 10.1515/nanoph-2016-0160

**52**

[101] Li Y, Shi ZF, Li XJ, Shan CX. Photodetectors based on inorganic halide perovskites: Materials and devices. Chinese Physics B. 2019;**28**:017803. DOI: 10.1088/1674-1056/28/1/017803

[102] Stylianakis MM, Maksudov T, Panagiotopoulos A, Kakavelakis G, Petridis K. Inorganic and hybrid Perovskite based laser devices: A review. Materials. 2019;**12**(6):859. DOI: 10.3390/ ma12060859

[103] Wang JH, Liang GJ, Wu KF. Long-lived single Excitons, Trions, and Biexcitons in CdSe/CdTe type-II colloidal quantum Wells. Chinese Journal of Chemical Physics. 2017;**30**(6):649-656. DOI: 10.1063/1674-0068/30/cjcp1711206

[104] Xia Y, Yang P, Sun Y, Wu Y, Mayers B, Gates B, et al. Onedimensional nanostructures: Synthesis characterization, and applications. Advanced Materials. 2003;**15**(5):353- 389. DOI: 10.1002/adma.200390087

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[106] Sitt A, Hadar J, Banin U. Bandgap engineering optoelectronic properties and applications of colloidal heterostructured semiconductor nanorods. Nano Today. 2013;**8**(5):494- 513. DOI: 10.1016/j.nantod.2013.08.002

[107] Yang L. Excited-state properties of thin silicon nanowires. In: Andreoni W, Yip S, editors. Handbook of Materials

Modeling. Cham: Springer; 2018. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-50257-1\_37-1

[108] Krahne R, Morello G, Figuerola A, George C, Deka S, Manna L. Physical properties of elongated inorganic nanoparticles. Physics Reports. 2011;**501**(3-5):75-221. DOI: 10.1016/j. physrep.2011.01.001

[109] El-Saba M. Transport of Information-Carriers in Semiconductors and Nanodevices. 1st ed. Hershey: IGI Global; 2017. p. 696. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2312-3

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[112] Pokutnyi SI. Exciton states formed by spatially separated electron and hole in semiconductor quantum dots. Technical Physics. 2015;**60**:1615-1618

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[122] Gołasa K, Molas M, Goryca M, Kazimierczuk T, Smoleński T, Koperski M, et al. Properties of Excitons in quantum dots with a weak confinement. Acta Physica Polonica A. 2013;**124**(5):781. DOI: 10.12693/APhysPolA.124.781

[123] Singh G, Guericke MA, Song Q, Jones M. A multiple time-resolved fluorescence method for probing second-order recombination dynamics in colloidal quantum

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[124] Todescato F, Fortunati I, Minoto A, Signorini R, Jaseniak JJ, Bozio R. Engineering of semiconductor Nanocrystals for light emitting applications. Materials. 2016;**9**(8):672. DOI: 10.3390/ma9080672

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[126] Bae WK, Park YS, Lim J, Lee D. Controlling the influence of auger recombination on the performance of quantum-dot light-emitting diodes. Nature Communications. 2013;**4**:2661. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3661

[127] Zhou W, Coleman JJ. Semiconductor quantum dots. Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science. 2016;**20**(6):352-360. DOI: 10.1016/j.cossms.2016.06.006

[128] Goodwin H, Jellicoe TC, Davis NJLK, Böhm ML. Multiple exciton generation in quantum dot-based solar cells. Nano. 2017;**7**(1):111-126. DOI: 10.1515/nanoph-2017-0034

[129] Beard MC. Multiple Exciton generation in semiconductor quantum dots. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 2011;**2**(11):1282-1288. DOI: 10.1021/jz200166y

[130] Yan Y, Crisp RW, Gu J, Chernomordik BD, Pach GF, Marshall AR, et al. Multiple exciton generation for photoelectrochemical hydrogen evolution reaction with quantum yields exceeding 100%. Nature Energy. 2017;**2**:17052. DOI: 10.1038/ nenergy.2017.52

**55**

**Chapter 4**

**Abstract**

optical properties

**1. Introduction**

pattern [3, 4].

Study of Morphological,

*Mohsin Ganaie and Mohammad Zulfequar*

Semiconductor

Electrical and Optical behaviour

Amorphous chalcogenide semiconductor plays a key role in search for novel functional materials with excellent optical and electrical properties. The science of chalcogenide semiconductor (CS) show broad spectrum of soluble alloy and a wider band gap device that access the optimal energy bandgap. The electronic properties of these alloys can be tuned by controlling the proportion of (S, Se, Te). The chalcogenide semiconducting (CS) alloys are promising candidates because of low band gap (1.0–1.6 eV) and high extinction coefficient in the visible region of solar spectrum. The band structure of amorphous semiconductor governed the transport properties and evaluates various factors such as Tauc gap, defect states, mobility edges. In the extended and localized state of amorphous semiconductor an electron goes various transition, absorption/ emission, transport which is due to drift and diffusion under DC electric fields. CS, including sulfides, selenides, and tellurides, have been broadly utilized in variety of energy conversion and storage devices for example, solar cells, fuel cells, light-emitting diodes, IR detector, Li/Na-ion batteries, supercapacitors, thermoelectric devices, etc. Here, we report various morphological electrical, structural, and optical properties of

InSeS thin films prepared by Melt Quenching thermal evaporation technique.

**Keywords:** amorphous chalcogenide semiconductor, electrical properties,

Solid can be found to prepare either in crystalline state (periodic) or in noncrystalline (disordered) state on the basis of their atomic-scale structure. The crystal has periodicity in its atomic structure and exhibit a property called long-range order or translational periodicity; positions repeat in space in a regular array to an infinite extend, as shown in **Figure 1a**. While non-crystalline state is disordered structure, does not possess long range order (or translational periodicity) as indicated in **Figure 1b** [1, 2], and also do not exhibit any discrete diffraction

The non-crystalline solid is further divided into glassy and amorphous, which does or does not have glass transition temperature respectively [5]. The terms amorphous and non-crystalline are synonymous under this definition. The term

of Amorphous Chalcogenide

### **Chapter 4**

*Advances in Condensed-Matter and Materials Physics - Rudimentary Research to Topical…*

dots. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2014;**118**(26):14692- 14702. DOI: 10.1021/jp5043766

[124] Todescato F, Fortunati I, Minoto A, Signorini R, Jaseniak JJ, Bozio R. Engineering of semiconductor

Nanocrystals for light emitting

DOI: 10.3390/ma9080672

intechopen.69177

applications. Materials. 2016;**9**(8):672.

[125] Armășelu A. Recent developments in applications of quantum-dot based light-emitting diodes. In: Ghamsari MS, editor. Quantum-Dot Based Light-Emitting Diodes. 1st ed. London: IntechOpen; 2017. DOI: 10.5772/

[126] Bae WK, Park YS, Lim J, Lee D. Controlling the influence of auger recombination on the performance of quantum-dot light-emitting diodes. Nature Communications. 2013;**4**:2661.

Semiconductor quantum dots. Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science. 2016;**20**(6):352-360. DOI: 10.1016/j.cossms.2016.06.006

Davis NJLK, Böhm ML. Multiple exciton generation in quantum dot-based solar cells. Nano. 2017;**7**(1):111-126. DOI:

DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3661

[127] Zhou W, Coleman JJ.

[128] Goodwin H, Jellicoe TC,

10.1515/nanoph-2017-0034

[130] Yan Y, Crisp RW, Gu J, Chernomordik BD, Pach GF, Marshall AR, et al. Multiple exciton generation for photoelectrochemical hydrogen evolution reaction with quantum yields exceeding 100%. Nature Energy. 2017;**2**:17052. DOI: 10.1038/

10.1021/jz200166y

nenergy.2017.52

[129] Beard MC. Multiple Exciton generation in semiconductor quantum dots. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 2011;**2**(11):1282-1288. DOI:

[116] Pokutnyi SI. Strongly absorbing light nanostructures containing metal quantum dots. Journal of Nanophotonics. 2018;**12**(1):012506-1-012506-6

Physics. 2018;**506**:26-30

2018;**44**(8):819-823

Surface.2019.11.472

[120] Pokutnyi SI. New quasiatomic nanostructures containing exciton quasimolecules and exciton quasicrystals: theory. Surface. 2019;**11**(26):472-483. DOI: 10.1540/

of post-growth tuning of the excitonic fine structure splitting in semiconductor quantum dots. Nanoscale Research Letters. 2012;**7**:336.

DOI: 10.1186/1556-276X-7-336

[122] Gołasa K, Molas M, Goryca M, Kazimierczuk T, Smoleński T, Koperski M, et al. Properties of Excitons in quantum dots with a weak confinement. Acta Physica Polonica A. 2013;**124**(5):781. DOI: 10.12693/APhysPolA.124.781

[123] Singh G, Guericke MA, Song Q, Jones M. A multiple time-resolved fluorescence method for probing second-order recombination dynamics in colloidal quantum

[121] Plumhof JD, Trotta R, Rastelli A, Schmidt OG. Experimental methods

[117] Pokutnyi SI. Exciton states and optical absorption in core/shell/shell spherical quantum dot. Chemical

[118] Pokutnyi SI. Optical spectroscopy of excitons with spatially separated electrons and holes in nanosystems containing dielectric quantum dots. Journal of Nanophotonics. 2018;**12**(2):026013-1-026013-16

[119] Pokutnyi SI. Exciton spectroscopy with spatially separated electron and hole in Ge/Si heterostructure with germanium quantum dots. Low Temperature Physics.

**54**
