**10. References**

378 Atopic Dermatitis – Disease Etiology and Clinical Management

Better understanding of the effects of different probiotic strains and a deeper insight into the mechanisms of the heterogeneous manifestations of AD are needed for the validation of specific strains carrying anti-allergic potential. Therefore, research activities are currently focusing on identification of specific probiotic strains with immunomodulatory potential and on how dietary content interacts with the most efficacious probiotic strains. Moreover, the selection of the most beneficial probiotic strain, the dose, and the timing of supplementation still need to be determined. Further studies should also clarify if any susceptible groups of AD exist and how these groups benefit from supplementation with

Some studies in the management of AD suggest that therapeutic benefit requires a combination of probiotic species (as with VSL#3 or Lacto-mix) or that the component(s) responsible for the anti-inflammatory effect in combination preparations have specific properties that monotherapy probiotics do not [112]. This concept also supports the use of prebiotics that increase concentrations of several commensal immunoregulatory bacteria. Prebiotic use was shown to be associated with a reduction in the faecal concentration of Bacteroides fragilis, but had no effect on Lactobacilli or Bifidobacteria. Genetically modified probiotics will be tested for their ability to attenuate AD thru secreting regulatory cytokines in experimental models as well [113]. In near future, the researchers will look for more appropriate combinations of probiotic species or modified probiotics with/without prebiotic

Additionally, side effects are very low and they might not be nonexistent, as shown in a set of patients with different diseases. However, probiotics should not be considered as totally harmless, particularly in the immunodeficient host, and more safety studies are needed. As imagined, probiotics may have unpredictable behaviour like all microorganisms, such as unanticipated gene expression in nonnative host environment, or acquired mutations occurring spontaneously via bacterial DNA-transfer mechanisms [114]. And certain probiotics are known to stimulate Th1 immunity, which has been suggested as one of the

Since conclusions on probiotics are limited to specific strains and models, they should

 Probiotics should not be considered as completely harmless, particularly in the immunodeficient host, and more safety studies are needed [100-110, 115,116]. Physiological use (normal route, normal dose, normal growth phase, specific strain or substrain/species) is studied in all cases, so as not to overwhelm (high dose) or

 Do probiotics really induce/exacerbate Th1 and / or Th2- mediated diseases? Such as being reported an increased rate of recurrent wheezing episodes, an augmented rate of atopic disorders, increased sensitization to allergens as well as autoimmune disorders. Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria have specific dose- and duration- dependent

immunomodulatory effects on the proliferation of B-/T-lymphocytes [108-110]. The researchers ought to look for more appropriate and safe combinations of probiotic species (as with VSL#3 or Lacto-mix) or modified probiotics with/without prebiotic

 Research activities are currently focusing on identification of specific probiotic strains with immunomodulatory potential and on how dietary content interacts with the most

mechanisms by which they can suppress Th2-mediated allergic diseases [110].

certain probiotic strains.

**9. Key issues** 

not be generalized [20,35].

and test them in human/experimental AD models.

circumvent natural immune processing [100-110].

and test them in human/experimental AD models [112].


The Role of Probiotics in Atopic Dermatitis Prevention and Therapy 381

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**22** 

*USA*

**Food Compounds Inhibit** *Staphylococcus* 

Enterotoxigenic *S. aureus* is a major bacterial pathogen that develops multi-drug resistance to antibiotics (Pereira et al., 2009; Pu et al., 2011; Rhee & Woo, 2010). The enterotoxigenic bacteria and secreted toxins have been reported to cause clinical infections, and it has also been reported that they contaminate a broad variety of foods, including breaded chicken products (Pepe et al., 2006), canned mushrooms (Anderson et al., 1996), cheeses (Ertas et al., 2010; Ostyn et al., 2010; Rosengren et al., 2010), raw milk (Fusco et al., 2011; Heidinger et al., 2009), pork meat (Wallin-Carlquist et al., 2010), and other foods (Balaban & Rasooly, 2000) as well contaminating handles of shopping carts (Mizumachi et al., 2011) causing many foodborne illnesses in the United States each year (Shinefield & Ruff, 2009). Staphylococcal food poisoning is due to the absorption from the digestive tract into the circulation of the enterotoxins preformed in food A toxin level of <1 µg may induce symptoms of food poisoning. This level is reached with a bacterial population of >105

*S. aureus* produces the virulent staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA), a single chain protein that consists of 233 amino acid residues with a molecular weight of 27,078 Da. It has been estimated that staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) secreted by the bacteria is associated with 78% of staphylococcal outbreaks (Vernozy-Rozand et al., 2004). Heat used to eliminate the pathogenic bacteria may not eliminate toxins already formed (Margosch et al., 2005; Pepe et al., 2006). Staphylococcus enterotoxins (SEs) exhibit two separate biological activities: they cause gastroenteritis in the gastrointestinal tract and they act as a superantigen on the immune system. Previous research has shown that emetic activities and superantigenic activities of

Because SEA is present in contaminated foods and exerts adverse effects on the gastrointestinal tract, there is a need to find food-compatible safe conditions to inactivate it. Efforts to inhibit the toxin or its release from *S. aureus* include the use of electrolyzed water (Suzuki et al., 2002), high pressure and heat (Margosch et al., 2005), radiation and pulsed electric fields (Walkling-Ribeiro et al., 2008), condensed tannins (Choi et al., 2007) and other plant extracts (Carlos et al., 2010; Ifesan & Voravuthlkunchai, 2009), peptides (Wang et al.,

**1. Introduction** 

CFU/g food (Stewart, 2005).

SEs are related (Shinefield & Ruff, 2009; Stewart, 2005).

*Aureus* **Bacteria and the Toxicity of** 

**Associated with Atopic Dermatitis** 

*Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, California* 

Reuven Rasooly and Mendel Friedman

**Staphylococcus Enterotoxin A (SEA)** 

