**4. Policy and institutional responses to climate change**

In line with the climate mitigation and adaptation agenda articulated in multilateral environment agreements (MEAs), Zimbabwe's policy space has largely been characterised by active participation in international environmental laws and

**41**

*Deciphering the Climate Change Conundrum in Zimbabwe: An Exposition*

received, materials or equipment accessible to the country.

subsequent ratification of the MEAs. Reviewing this policy space is necessary to show the main activities in the national policy regime and the reapable benefits thereof. Thus, the country's response to the three main climate based MEAs, namely the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement is assessed in this section. These instruments unlock opportunities in the form of knowledge and skills acquisition through training, technical assistance, technology transfer, funds

Zimbabwe signed and ratified the UNFCCC in 1992. The coordination for the implementation of this Convention is done by the Climate Change Management Department (CCMD) in the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture Water, Climate and Rural Resettlement. The UNFCCC is supported by other important instruments namely, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. The purpose of the UNFCCC is to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system. It covers climate change assessments, mitigation and adaptation. Focus of the Convention is on stabilising GHGs at a level to be achieved "… within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner." The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the UNFCCC, which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets. Although drawing much attention to the developed countries as principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of industrial activity, Zimbabwe also ratified the Protocol in 2009 [9]. The Paris Agreement builds upon the UNFCCC and has managed, for the first time, to bring all nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects, with enhanced support to assist developing countries to do so. Zimbabwe signed the Agreement on 22 April 2016, ratified it on 7 August 2017 and was entered into force on 6 September 2017. The Agreement's central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping global temperature rise below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5°C. Additionally, the agreement aims to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change. To reach these ambitious goals, appropriate financial flows, a proposed technology framework and an enhanced capacity building framework will support action by developing countries and the most vulnerable countries, in line with their own national objectives. The Agreement also provides for enhanced transparency of action and support through a more robust transparency framework. It requires all Parties to put forward their best efforts through nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the years ahead. This includes requirements that all Parties report regularly on their emissions and on their implementation efforts [13, 46].

Under these instruments, Zimbabwe has developed the National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) in 2014; Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) in 2015; National Climate Policy (NCP) of 2017; the First, Second and Third National Communication to the UNFCCC. The country also conducted United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (UN REDD+) Capacity Needs Assessment. **Table 1** summarises the

Through the Adaptation Fund that is established to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, Zimbabwe is likely to benefit from this funding window. There is an on-going process for the Environmental Management Agency (EMA) to be accredited as a National Implementing Entity (NIE), to access the funds. The country also got support from the Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA), UNDP, Global Water Partnership Southern Africa, UNECA, Climate

interventions made so far and the benefits that accrue to the country.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84443*

### *Deciphering the Climate Change Conundrum in Zimbabwe: An Exposition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84443*

*Global Warming and Climate Change*

created by climate change in the sector.

children and people living with disabilities [39, 40].

**3.4 The health sector**

falling by 25% in 2000. The resultant cumulative loss in generation was variously estimated at between 1.0 and 1.5% of total GDP. These negative climate impacts have affected other sectors of freshwater distribution and food production [35]. Zimbabwe uses a mix of energy sources. These include fossil fuels (coal, coal bed methane and imported petroleum) and clean energy sources (hydropower, biofuel and solar). The sector faces challenges from rising population and economic demands. Climate change is also expected to exacerbate the energy supply situation. The energy sector constitutes about 49% share of total GHG emissions in CO2 equivalent [36]. However, as shall be discussed later, there are also opportunities

Evidence suggests that climate change will affect human health in various ways. Africa is already experiencing high burdens of health outcomes whose frequency, magnitude and spatial range is anticipated to grow [15]. These challenges, largely triggered by temperature and precipitation extremes, manifest in malnutrition, diarrheal diseases, and malaria and other vector-borne diseases. Climate change is also expected to exacerbate the human exposure to heat waves and direct exposure to ozone owing to elevation of ozone in the troposphere [37, 38]. There is a gender dimension to these problems, with evident disproportionate impacts on women,

In Zimbabwe, observed health burdens of climate disturbances largely emanate from high frequencies and severity of floods, storms and droughts, including geographic spread of infectious disease vectors. The geographical range of malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases, such as dengue; increases in the problem of diarrheal diseases, and of water-borne pathogens such as cholera and typhoid, are worrisome [22, 41]. Hartmann et al. [41], using sixteen climate change scenarios, reveal that the geographical distribution of malaria could change, with previously unsuitable areas becoming suitable for transmission as the ecology of vectors and pathogens is altered. Matawa and Murwira [42] also projected expansion in habitats of certain disease vectors owing to changes in temperature and rainfall in some parts of the country. There are also fears that disease epidemics in addition to other stressors such as food insecurity, chronic malnutrition, and HIV and AIDS are eroding the resilience of households, rendering them less resilient and more vulnerable to health problems. Although mainly attributed to water contamination, the recent outbreaks in cholera and typhoid could also be partly blamed on climate change. A case in point is the repeated outbreaks of cholera that recorded over 98,000 cases and more than 4000 deaths between August 2008 and June 2009 [43] and over 6500 cases and 31 deaths reported by 20 September 2018 [44]. The Cyclone Idai, which was downgraded to a tropical depression on the 16th of March 2019 caused high winds and heavy precipitation in Manicaland Province, riverine and flash flooding and subsequent deaths, destruction of livelihoods and properties, with Chimanimani and Chipinge districts being the most affected. The Ministry of Health and Child Care (MoHCC), with support from development partners, had to urgently move in to lead the health response,

including preventing outbreaks of epidemic diseases such as cholera [45].

In line with the climate mitigation and adaptation agenda articulated in multilateral environment agreements (MEAs), Zimbabwe's policy space has largely been characterised by active participation in international environmental laws and

**4. Policy and institutional responses to climate change**

**40**

subsequent ratification of the MEAs. Reviewing this policy space is necessary to show the main activities in the national policy regime and the reapable benefits thereof. Thus, the country's response to the three main climate based MEAs, namely the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement is assessed in this section. These instruments unlock opportunities in the form of knowledge and skills acquisition through training, technical assistance, technology transfer, funds received, materials or equipment accessible to the country.

Zimbabwe signed and ratified the UNFCCC in 1992. The coordination for the implementation of this Convention is done by the Climate Change Management Department (CCMD) in the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture Water, Climate and Rural Resettlement. The UNFCCC is supported by other important instruments namely, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. The purpose of the UNFCCC is to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system. It covers climate change assessments, mitigation and adaptation. Focus of the Convention is on stabilising GHGs at a level to be achieved "… within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner." The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the UNFCCC, which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets. Although drawing much attention to the developed countries as principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of industrial activity, Zimbabwe also ratified the Protocol in 2009 [9].

The Paris Agreement builds upon the UNFCCC and has managed, for the first time, to bring all nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects, with enhanced support to assist developing countries to do so. Zimbabwe signed the Agreement on 22 April 2016, ratified it on 7 August 2017 and was entered into force on 6 September 2017. The Agreement's central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping global temperature rise below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5°C. Additionally, the agreement aims to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change. To reach these ambitious goals, appropriate financial flows, a proposed technology framework and an enhanced capacity building framework will support action by developing countries and the most vulnerable countries, in line with their own national objectives. The Agreement also provides for enhanced transparency of action and support through a more robust transparency framework. It requires all Parties to put forward their best efforts through nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the years ahead. This includes requirements that all Parties report regularly on their emissions and on their implementation efforts [13, 46].

Under these instruments, Zimbabwe has developed the National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) in 2014; Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) in 2015; National Climate Policy (NCP) of 2017; the First, Second and Third National Communication to the UNFCCC. The country also conducted United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (UN REDD+) Capacity Needs Assessment. **Table 1** summarises the interventions made so far and the benefits that accrue to the country.

Through the Adaptation Fund that is established to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, Zimbabwe is likely to benefit from this funding window. There is an on-going process for the Environmental Management Agency (EMA) to be accredited as a National Implementing Entity (NIE), to access the funds. The country also got support from the Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA), UNDP, Global Water Partnership Southern Africa, UNECA, Climate


**43**

**Figure 1.**

*Deciphering the Climate Change Conundrum in Zimbabwe: An Exposition*

**MEA Focal point National action** 

UNFCCC CCMD/EMA National

*Interventions for climate related MEAs implementation (source: [47]).*

to adoption of CDM interventions in the country [48].

Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) and Environment Africa. These provided support towards the development of the NCCRS, NCP, UNFCCC COP participation and other capacity building on climate change issues negotiations, including development of a Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) Manual, Technical Assistance on Climate Change readiness, and NDC MRV Framework development. So far, Zimbabwe has one Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) registered project known as the Sable Chemicals Tertiary N20 Abatement Project, which is supported by the United Kingdom. This large-scale project has potential to reduce an estimated 473,759 metric tonnes of CO2 equivalent per annum. Limited understanding of the opportunities associated with CDM projects, high upfront costs for baseline evaluation, and capacity to develop CDM project proposals, among other policy and institutional implementation challenges, have been cited as the main impediments

**plans/strategies**

Adaptation Plan

**Source of funds Funds** 

Green Climate Fund 3,000,000

**received (US\$)**

The broad national climate policy regime has also enabled the engendering of climate change in national budgets. **Figure 1** indicates the budgetary allocations given to the CCMD from 2016 to 2019. There has been a significant increase in funds allocated to support the climate change coordination activities of the CCMD since 2016. This increased attention to climate change can be attributed largely to the recognition of the climatic challenge in the recent national economic blueprints, in particular, the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation (ZimASSET) (2013–2018) and the Transitional Stabilisation Programme (TSP) (2018–2020). While ZimASSET did not articulate clear guidance on climate change interventions, there has been increased consideration and guidance on climate change in the TSP.

The sustainability of these policy interventions deserves critical analysis. The next section uses the sustainability lens in examining the challenges and opportunities associated with sectoral climate change interventions in Zimbabwe. The policy

*Treasury allocations to the Climate Change Management Department, 2016–2019 (source: CCMD Official).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84443*

**Table 1.**

*Deciphering the Climate Change Conundrum in Zimbabwe: An Exposition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84443*


### **Table 1.**

*Global Warming and Climate Change*

**MEA Focal point National action** 

UNFCCC CCMD Energy and Water

UNFCCC CCMD Climate Smart

UNFCCC CCMD/EMA Coping with

UNFCCC CCMD National Climate

UNFCCC CCMD Third National

CCMD/Forestry Commission

Paris Agreement CCMD Intended Nationally

Paris Agreement CCMD Climate Change

UNFCCC CCMD GCF Readiness

UNFCCC/Kyoto Protocol

**plans/strategies**

Efficiency Audit for 10 selected pilot companies

Agriculture Manual development

Drought Project

Scaling Up Adaptation

Policy (NCP)

Communication to UNFCCC

UN REDD+ Capacity Needs Assessment

Determined Contribution (INDC), 2015

Technical Assistance-NDC MRV Framework development

Programme

UNFCCC CCMD/EMA NIE Accreditation Adaptation Fund/

UNFCCC CCMD NCCRS, 2014 COMESA, UNDP,

**Source of funds Funds** 

Global Water Partnership Southern Africa, UNECA, Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) & Environment Africa

Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN)

Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN)

> Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF)

> Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF)

Government of Zimbabwe, UNDP, Global Water Partnership Southern Africa, UNECA, Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) & Environment Africa

UNEP from Zimbabwe's GEF STAR Allocation and French Embassy in Zimbabwe

> South-South Cooperation

**received (US\$)**

100,000

250,000

100,000

1,000,000

3,980,000

130,000

200,000

50,000

UNEP 400,000

UN-REDD 50,000

World Bank 1,500,000

Green Climate Fund 300,000

**42**

*Interventions for climate related MEAs implementation (source: [47]).*

Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) and Environment Africa. These provided support towards the development of the NCCRS, NCP, UNFCCC COP participation and other capacity building on climate change issues negotiations, including development of a Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) Manual, Technical Assistance on Climate Change readiness, and NDC MRV Framework development. So far, Zimbabwe has one Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) registered project known as the Sable Chemicals Tertiary N20 Abatement Project, which is supported by the United Kingdom. This large-scale project has potential to reduce an estimated 473,759 metric tonnes of CO2 equivalent per annum. Limited understanding of the opportunities associated with CDM projects, high upfront costs for baseline evaluation, and capacity to develop CDM project proposals, among other policy and institutional implementation challenges, have been cited as the main impediments to adoption of CDM interventions in the country [48].

The broad national climate policy regime has also enabled the engendering of climate change in national budgets. **Figure 1** indicates the budgetary allocations given to the CCMD from 2016 to 2019. There has been a significant increase in funds allocated to support the climate change coordination activities of the CCMD since 2016. This increased attention to climate change can be attributed largely to the recognition of the climatic challenge in the recent national economic blueprints, in particular, the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation (ZimASSET) (2013–2018) and the Transitional Stabilisation Programme (TSP) (2018–2020). While ZimASSET did not articulate clear guidance on climate change interventions, there has been increased consideration and guidance on climate change in the TSP.

The sustainability of these policy interventions deserves critical analysis. The next section uses the sustainability lens in examining the challenges and opportunities associated with sectoral climate change interventions in Zimbabwe. The policy

**Figure 1.**

*Treasury allocations to the Climate Change Management Department, 2016–2019 (source: CCMD Official).*

environment and the capacity of multi-sectoral institutions responsible for addressing climate change is also discussed.
