**5. Sectoral interventions, challenges and opportunities**

Acknowledging the effects of climate change and guided by the policy and institutional framework presented above, the country, institutions and individuals have not been complacent. The responses, depending on the nature of the climatic event and the persons involved, have either been well-planned or spontaneously executed. This section discusses the sectoral responses to climate change by various stakeholders. Aside from sectoral analysis of the mitigation and adaptation practices in place, the discussion attempts, where possible, to disaggregate the analysis at the level of government, institutions and individuals. The interventions discussed here are intended primarily to identify opportunities that have been unlocked or that are potentially available within the sectors in question. It also ingrains the sustainability question in the analysis.

### **5.1 Climate change responses in the agriculture sector**

There is growing evidence that farmers in Zimbabwe are adapting to observed climate changes. This is through altering cultivation and sowing times and crop cultivars and species that can withstand climatic irregularities. Notable progress in the agriculture sector relates to the development of irrigation infrastructure. In 2001, about 152,000 hectares of land were under formal irrigation with a total of 5000–20,000 under informal irrigation. A further 600,000 ha of land nationwide was to be availed for irrigation development. In 2015, government availed a total of US\$2.6 million towards completion of 13 irrigation schemes covering about 635 ha [21]. Since then, government with support from development partners has upscaled the irrigation programme as illustrated in **Table 2**. It is clear from the table that the adaptation agenda has got support largely from international players who have injected funds and equipment to increase the area that can be put under irrigation. The objective is to depart from a practice that has largely relied on rain-fed agriculture to subsequently harness the available water resources for irrigated farming. Within the irrigation policy drive, a number of projects on resilience capacity building in agriculture for communities to better cope with the negative impact of climate change have been implemented. These interventions have also strengthened the Agriculture Extension Services Department (Agritex) to be able to give advisory warnings on planting, crop maturing varieties, including varying of planting dates to spread risks.

Climate change has also led to innovative ways of adaptation in the agriculture sector. These range from isolated practices such as moisture conservation practices by farmers to well-developed responses of CSA such as precise fertiliser application, manure application, agroforestry, crop rotations and intercropping and soil conservation [49]. Adoption of moisture conservation farming practices for example, enable farmers to extend the growing season and to do dual season cropping. In places such as Muzarabani, where climate change has increased the frequency and severity of floods, the practice of dual season cropping has been observed. This strategy enables the locals to harness opportunities associated with flooding [50]. However, floods bring mixed fortunes to the communities experiencing them such as improved soil fertility and ground water recharge [10, 51], but adaptation interventions being practiced in such areas may not be sustainable.

Climate-smart agriculture is farming that embraces the twin goals of mitigation and adaptation at the farm level. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) describes it as a sustainable climate sensitive response in the agriculture sector with

**45**

**Box 1.**

*Deciphering the Climate Change Conundrum in Zimbabwe: An Exposition*

**(ha)**

European Union (EU) 7.8 million 1206 Technical support for 20 irrigation schemes in

**Description**

Chimanimani, Makoni, Chipinge, Beitbridge, Gwanda and Mangwe districts

1425 households in Bikita, Gutu, Masvingo and Zaka districts

irrigation scheme in Nyanga District along Gairezi River

commencing in 2017

households' beneficiaries across the country. This was to be complemented by US\$8,6 million of support from development partners. Co-financing of Zhove Irrigation Scheme with government contributing US\$7 million

farmers and supporting training and extension services

1.3 million 656 Rehabilitation of 14 irrigation schemes, benefiting

15 million 674 Rehabilitation and development of Nyakomba

60 million — Smallholder Irrigation Revitalisation Programme

28.7 million 11,290 Maintenance of irrigation schemes for over 2000

48 million — Rehabilitating irrigation schemes for smallholder

co-benefits of increasing productivity and building the resilience of agricultural-based livelihoods communities while reducing GHG emissions. It is a planned intervention strategy encompassing agricultural practices, policies, institutions and financing to bring tangible benefits particularly to smallholder farmers and to enable them to be stewards of the environment that support them [49, 52]. With support from development partners, Zimbabwe has started implementing the CSA programme. The programme targets small-scale farmers, particularly women and poor households that are vulnerable to food insecurity under a changing climate. Elsewhere, successful

The CSA pilot projects (2011–2014), implemented jointly with partners in Kenya and Tanzania, promoted integrated and diversified farming systems and agro-ecological principles. The programme was established to demonstrate that ongoing agricultural development programmes could bring co-benefits in terms of climate change adaptation and mitigation thereby increase the uptake of CSA at significantly larger scale. The pilot projects linked research activities, practical work in farmers' fields and policy making at different levels to enhance the effectiveness of planning and programming for CSA on farms, throughout the landscape and at the national level. Results showed that: The main benefits of following the CSA approach resulted in higher yields, raised farm income and increased food availability. This is an indication that CSA can be an effective approach for improving food security, alleviating poverty and building more resilient livelihoods. It also indicates that smallholder farmers can be an effective part of the response to climate change and make a meaningful contribution to reducing GHG emissions. Scenarios, modelling and measurements serve an important role in evaluating and prioritising CSA practices for implementation and scaling up. By building research into ongoing development activities, the assessment of CSA practices can be undertaken more quickly, and the findings can be used to prioritise efforts in projects and programmes. Bringing sound, up-to-date evidence into decision-making processes can help shape policy making that effectively supports CSA. The findings from the pilot activities were presented in national workshops, which allowed decision makers to become familiar with the benefits of CSA practices and develop or adjust policies, plans and programmes to better foster CSA.

results have been noted in Kenya and Tanzania as detailed in **Box 1**.

*Successful climate smart agriculture practices in Kenya and Tanzania (source: [49]: xii-xiii).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84443*

**Responsible authority Funds (US\$) Target** 

*Irrigation support projects in Zimbabwe (source: [21]).*

Swiss Development Cooperation

Japanese International Cooperation Agency

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)

Kuwait and Abu Dhabi funds supported projects

Department for International Development (DFID)

**Table 2.**

(JICA)


### **Table 2.**

*Global Warming and Climate Change*

ing climate change is also discussed.

environment and the capacity of multi-sectoral institutions responsible for address-

Acknowledging the effects of climate change and guided by the policy and institutional framework presented above, the country, institutions and individuals have not been complacent. The responses, depending on the nature of the climatic event and the persons involved, have either been well-planned or spontaneously executed. This section discusses the sectoral responses to climate change by various stakeholders. Aside from sectoral analysis of the mitigation and adaptation practices in place, the discussion attempts, where possible, to disaggregate the analysis at the level of government, institutions and individuals. The interventions discussed here are intended primarily to identify opportunities that have been unlocked or that are potentially available within the sectors in question. It also ingrains the sustainability question in the analysis.

There is growing evidence that farmers in Zimbabwe are adapting to observed climate changes. This is through altering cultivation and sowing times and crop cultivars and species that can withstand climatic irregularities. Notable progress in the agriculture sector relates to the development of irrigation infrastructure. In 2001, about 152,000 hectares of land were under formal irrigation with a total of 5000–20,000 under informal irrigation. A further 600,000 ha of land nationwide was to be availed for irrigation development. In 2015, government availed a total of US\$2.6 million towards completion of 13 irrigation schemes covering about 635 ha [21]. Since then, government with support from development partners has upscaled the irrigation programme as illustrated in **Table 2**. It is clear from the table that the adaptation agenda has got support largely from international players who have injected funds and equipment to increase the area that can be put under irrigation. The objective is to depart from a practice that has largely relied on rain-fed agriculture to subsequently harness the available water resources for irrigated farming. Within the irrigation policy drive, a number of projects on resilience capacity building in agriculture for communities to better cope with the negative impact of climate change have been implemented. These interventions have also strengthened the Agriculture Extension Services Department (Agritex) to be able to give advisory warnings on planting, crop maturing varieties,

Climate change has also led to innovative ways of adaptation in the agriculture sector. These range from isolated practices such as moisture conservation practices by farmers to well-developed responses of CSA such as precise fertiliser application, manure application, agroforestry, crop rotations and intercropping and soil conservation [49]. Adoption of moisture conservation farming practices for example, enable farmers to extend the growing season and to do dual season cropping. In places such as Muzarabani, where climate change has increased the frequency and severity of floods, the practice of dual season cropping has been observed. This strategy enables the locals to harness opportunities associated with flooding [50]. However, floods bring mixed fortunes to the communities experiencing them such as improved soil fertility and ground water recharge [10, 51], but adaptation

Climate-smart agriculture is farming that embraces the twin goals of mitigation and adaptation at the farm level. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) describes it as a sustainable climate sensitive response in the agriculture sector with

**5. Sectoral interventions, challenges and opportunities**

**5.1 Climate change responses in the agriculture sector**

including varying of planting dates to spread risks.

interventions being practiced in such areas may not be sustainable.

**44**

*Irrigation support projects in Zimbabwe (source: [21]).*

co-benefits of increasing productivity and building the resilience of agricultural-based livelihoods communities while reducing GHG emissions. It is a planned intervention strategy encompassing agricultural practices, policies, institutions and financing to bring tangible benefits particularly to smallholder farmers and to enable them to be stewards of the environment that support them [49, 52]. With support from development partners, Zimbabwe has started implementing the CSA programme. The programme targets small-scale farmers, particularly women and poor households that are vulnerable to food insecurity under a changing climate. Elsewhere, successful results have been noted in Kenya and Tanzania as detailed in **Box 1**.

The CSA pilot projects (2011–2014), implemented jointly with partners in Kenya and Tanzania, promoted integrated and diversified farming systems and agro-ecological principles. The programme was established to demonstrate that ongoing agricultural development programmes could bring co-benefits in terms of climate change adaptation and mitigation thereby increase the uptake of CSA at significantly larger scale. The pilot projects linked research activities, practical work in farmers' fields and policy making at different levels to enhance the effectiveness of planning and programming for CSA on farms, throughout the landscape and at the national level. Results showed that: The main benefits of following the CSA approach resulted in higher yields, raised farm income and increased food availability. This is an indication that CSA can be an effective approach for improving food security, alleviating poverty and building more resilient livelihoods. It also indicates that smallholder farmers can be an effective part of the response to climate change and make a meaningful contribution to reducing GHG emissions. Scenarios, modelling and measurements serve an important role in evaluating and prioritising CSA practices for implementation and scaling up. By building research into ongoing development activities, the assessment of CSA practices can be undertaken more quickly, and the findings can be used to prioritise efforts in projects and programmes. Bringing sound, up-to-date evidence into decision-making processes can help shape policy making that effectively supports CSA. The findings from the pilot activities were presented in national workshops, which allowed decision makers to become familiar with the benefits of CSA practices and develop or adjust policies, plans and programmes to better foster CSA.

### **Box 1.**

*Successful climate smart agriculture practices in Kenya and Tanzania (source: [49]: xii-xiii).*

It is clear from the cited Kenyan and Tanzanian cases that for climatic interventions to be successful, they need to be driven by evidence-based policy formulation and trialled in participatory learning experiences with the concerned communities. Similar CSA approaches, though existing at small isolated scales, are also practiced in Zimbabwe. Many studies carried out in Zimbabwe identify the development of irrigation facilities, growing of small grains and short to medium term crops which mature early and are drought tolerant, and introduction of new agricultural techniques and practices as opportunities farmers were harnessing in adapting to drought [24, 26, 53, 54]. Chanza [53] collaborated with earlier views by Mararike [55] and Kaseke [56] that revival of indigenous food security strategies at village level is an important direction to adapt to climate change disturbances that lead to food insecurity.

The major concern, however, is that most of the climatic support to the farmers has largely been driven by the donor community and the direct support by government is insufficient to meet the assortment of farmers described earlier. As such, farmers who take long to be independent may not be able to continue with the new agricultural techniques without external support.

### **5.2 Climate change responses in the water sector**

The unpredictable and potentially devastating effects of climate change puts a strain on the management of water resources. Zimbabwe's water sector faces mixed challenges such as satisfying increasing competing and conflicting uses owing to climate change effects and increased water demand by other sectors and underutilisation of water resources in some areas. Degradation of water quality worsens the urban water supply situation in the country. This also creates potential for conflict among the different sectors and water users. With proper decisions however, climate change can guide society and water users to be water sensitive and adopt water conservation practices. The challenges related to unpredictable rainfall patterns have seen government, with support from development agencies, investing in irrigation development and maximising on use of existing water and irrigation facilities. Despite the capacity to irrigate more than 330,000 ha, only 80,000 ha were under irrigation in 2016 [21]. There are many ways in which investment in irrigation can bring benefits to the country and farmers involved. For instance, irrigation enables expansion of agriculture activities by turning dry areas into highly productive lands. Development of irrigation infrastructure allows continuous crop production and can facilitate increased productivity where farmers supplement rain fed agriculture. However, under the changing climate, irrigation cannot be business as usual since it is also likely to be affected by the increasing frequency of droughts. The government has moved in to promote centre pivot irrigation to save the water resources and address the high costs associated with the more efficient drip irrigation [57].

Beginning in 2016, Government of Zimbabwe started implementing the Climate Resilient National Water Resources and Irrigation Master Plan, whose objective is to integrate climate change modelling with development and management of water resources and irrigation infrastructure. Under this scheme, the government secured a US\$98 million loan facility to buy irrigation equipment, tractors and implements through Brazil's More Food for Africa programme. The programme has been extended to cover small-scale farmers. For instance, following acknowledgement that the available water bodies are being under-utilised, government mooted an integrated water use master plan beginning with Tokwe Mukosi Dam. The plan is expected to support irrigation farming, fisheries, hydropower supply and tourism. The dam reported as the largest inland reservoir in the country, has capacity to irrigate 25,000 ha and can supply 15 MW of hydropower. Clearly, this intervention

**47**

*Deciphering the Climate Change Conundrum in Zimbabwe: An Exposition*

has managed to resuscitate idle irrigation infrastructure to increase food production. There are also opportunities for technology, knowledge and skills transfer. For example, through using drip and canal irrigation that use less power as compared to

With reference to urban areas, the threats of water scarcity associated with climate change have caused water institutions to embark on water saving practices and recycling. It is a fact that urbanisation, whether with or without climate change, imposes increased water use and consumption demands. Accordingly, through adapting water sensitive practices such as recycling, more water can be availed into the supply system. If treated to meet specific water quality standards, wastewater can still be discharged back into public river systems for ecological support and use

The key challenge, however, is that investment in the water sector or in setting up irrigation infrastructure requires large funding. Given the predominantly external based support in irrigation projects that is presented earlier in **Table 2**, there are notable deficiencies in upscaling climatic responses in the water and agriculture sectors. Therefore, unless government allocates adequate funding for irrigation development, the current practice is not only slow in implementation but also not

The energy sector remains a key intervention focal area by the Government of Zimbabwe. In response to the UNFCCC's global call to cut GHG emissions, Zimbabwe set the conditional mitigation contribution of reducing emissions by 33% below a business as usual (BAU) scenario by 2030. This goal is to be accomplished by uptake of robust responses in the energy sector. Projects that are currently running include ethanol blending, solar water heaters, energy efficiency improvement, increasing hydropower generation in the energy mix, and the refurbishment and electrification of the rail infrastructure. The country is on course to meet these target reductions in carbon-dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrogen oxide (N2O) gases. Other mitigation strategies proposed include coal-bed methane power, solar powered off-grids, integrated waste management, changing thermal power station technologies, reviewing the transport system, upscaling the UN-REDD+ implementation and sustainable energy alternatives in the tobacco farming system [46, 58]. As explained earlier, responses in the energy sector are being supported by an enabling policy framework. Specific policies related to the energy sector include the National Climate Policy and the Transport Policy, alongside other climate mitigation instruments. Other policies expected to support GHG mitigation interventions include the Forest Policy, Renewable Energy Policy and Bio-fuels Policy, which are being finalised for adoption. The supportive policy framework has enabled the country to speed up the upgrading of hydro-power generation plants (the recent one being the Kariba Dam Project) and the completion of the Tokwe Mukosi Dam cited earlier. Already the country is on course in renewable energy drive although there are still some challenges to be addressed to scale up the implementation and uptake of renewable energy. Some of these challenges include un-viable tariffs and the low creditworthiness of the power utility who is the major offtaker. **Table 3** shows some of the key projects that are at various stages of implementation, notably the Batoka and the Gairezi hydro-power plants, with others already been completed. The bigger projects capable of generating at least 100 MW have largely been spearheaded by the Zimbabwe Power Company (ZPC), with independent power producers (IPP) concentrating on smaller projects. In addition to the projects indicated in **Table 3**, small hydro-power projects on run off

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84443*

the overhead sprinkler methods [21].

by downstream communities [10].

**5.3 Climate change responses in the energy sector**

sustainable.

## *Deciphering the Climate Change Conundrum in Zimbabwe: An Exposition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84443*

*Global Warming and Climate Change*

It is clear from the cited Kenyan and Tanzanian cases that for climatic interventions to be successful, they need to be driven by evidence-based policy formulation and trialled in participatory learning experiences with the concerned communities. Similar CSA approaches, though existing at small isolated scales, are also practiced in Zimbabwe. Many studies carried out in Zimbabwe identify the development of irrigation facilities, growing of small grains and short to medium term crops which mature early and are drought tolerant, and introduction of new agricultural techniques and practices as opportunities farmers were harnessing in adapting to drought [24, 26, 53, 54]. Chanza [53] collaborated with earlier views by Mararike [55] and Kaseke [56] that revival of indigenous food security strategies at village level is an important

direction to adapt to climate change disturbances that lead to food insecurity.

agricultural techniques without external support.

**5.2 Climate change responses in the water sector**

The major concern, however, is that most of the climatic support to the farmers has largely been driven by the donor community and the direct support by government is insufficient to meet the assortment of farmers described earlier. As such, farmers who take long to be independent may not be able to continue with the new

The unpredictable and potentially devastating effects of climate change puts a strain on the management of water resources. Zimbabwe's water sector faces mixed challenges such as satisfying increasing competing and conflicting uses owing to climate change effects and increased water demand by other sectors and underutilisation of water resources in some areas. Degradation of water quality worsens the urban water supply situation in the country. This also creates potential for conflict among the different sectors and water users. With proper decisions however, climate change can guide society and water users to be water sensitive and adopt water conservation practices. The challenges related to unpredictable rainfall patterns have seen government, with support from development agencies, investing in irrigation development and maximising on use of existing water and irrigation facilities. Despite the capacity to irrigate more than 330,000 ha, only 80,000 ha were under irrigation in 2016 [21]. There are many ways in which investment in irrigation can bring benefits to the country and farmers involved. For instance, irrigation enables expansion of agriculture activities by turning dry areas into highly productive lands. Development of irrigation infrastructure allows continuous crop production and can facilitate increased productivity where farmers supplement rain fed agriculture. However, under the changing climate, irrigation cannot be business as usual since it is also likely to be affected by the increasing frequency of droughts. The government has moved in to promote centre pivot irrigation to save the water resources and address the high costs associated with the more efficient

Beginning in 2016, Government of Zimbabwe started implementing the Climate

Resilient National Water Resources and Irrigation Master Plan, whose objective is to integrate climate change modelling with development and management of water resources and irrigation infrastructure. Under this scheme, the government secured a US\$98 million loan facility to buy irrigation equipment, tractors and implements through Brazil's More Food for Africa programme. The programme has been extended to cover small-scale farmers. For instance, following acknowledgement that the available water bodies are being under-utilised, government mooted an integrated water use master plan beginning with Tokwe Mukosi Dam. The plan is expected to support irrigation farming, fisheries, hydropower supply and tourism. The dam reported as the largest inland reservoir in the country, has capacity to irrigate 25,000 ha and can supply 15 MW of hydropower. Clearly, this intervention

**46**

drip irrigation [57].

has managed to resuscitate idle irrigation infrastructure to increase food production. There are also opportunities for technology, knowledge and skills transfer. For example, through using drip and canal irrigation that use less power as compared to the overhead sprinkler methods [21].

With reference to urban areas, the threats of water scarcity associated with climate change have caused water institutions to embark on water saving practices and recycling. It is a fact that urbanisation, whether with or without climate change, imposes increased water use and consumption demands. Accordingly, through adapting water sensitive practices such as recycling, more water can be availed into the supply system. If treated to meet specific water quality standards, wastewater can still be discharged back into public river systems for ecological support and use by downstream communities [10].

The key challenge, however, is that investment in the water sector or in setting up irrigation infrastructure requires large funding. Given the predominantly external based support in irrigation projects that is presented earlier in **Table 2**, there are notable deficiencies in upscaling climatic responses in the water and agriculture sectors. Therefore, unless government allocates adequate funding for irrigation development, the current practice is not only slow in implementation but also not sustainable.

### **5.3 Climate change responses in the energy sector**

The energy sector remains a key intervention focal area by the Government of Zimbabwe. In response to the UNFCCC's global call to cut GHG emissions, Zimbabwe set the conditional mitigation contribution of reducing emissions by 33% below a business as usual (BAU) scenario by 2030. This goal is to be accomplished by uptake of robust responses in the energy sector. Projects that are currently running include ethanol blending, solar water heaters, energy efficiency improvement, increasing hydropower generation in the energy mix, and the refurbishment and electrification of the rail infrastructure. The country is on course to meet these target reductions in carbon-dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrogen oxide (N2O) gases. Other mitigation strategies proposed include coal-bed methane power, solar powered off-grids, integrated waste management, changing thermal power station technologies, reviewing the transport system, upscaling the UN-REDD+ implementation and sustainable energy alternatives in the tobacco farming system [46, 58].

As explained earlier, responses in the energy sector are being supported by an enabling policy framework. Specific policies related to the energy sector include the National Climate Policy and the Transport Policy, alongside other climate mitigation instruments. Other policies expected to support GHG mitigation interventions include the Forest Policy, Renewable Energy Policy and Bio-fuels Policy, which are being finalised for adoption. The supportive policy framework has enabled the country to speed up the upgrading of hydro-power generation plants (the recent one being the Kariba Dam Project) and the completion of the Tokwe Mukosi Dam cited earlier. Already the country is on course in renewable energy drive although there are still some challenges to be addressed to scale up the implementation and uptake of renewable energy. Some of these challenges include un-viable tariffs and the low creditworthiness of the power utility who is the major offtaker. **Table 3** shows some of the key projects that are at various stages of implementation, notably the Batoka and the Gairezi hydro-power plants, with others already been completed. The bigger projects capable of generating at least 100 MW have largely been spearheaded by the Zimbabwe Power Company (ZPC), with independent power producers (IPP) concentrating on smaller projects. In addition to the projects indicated in **Table 3**, small hydro-power projects on run off


### **Table 3.**

*Clean energy project interventions (source: [21]).*

river in the Eastern Highlands, and on inland dams around the country are variously taking course [21, 22].

Although still lacking the appropriate supporting policy instruments, fuel blending of E10, E15 and E85 have been introduced. The major challenge is related to limited awareness and low uptake of these products by the public. Solar energy technologies are widely being adopted especially for lighting, powering phones and solar-powered geysers in some households. Most of the large urban areas such as Harare, Bulawayo and Gweru have embarked on projects to use solar-powered traffic lights in the cities although these maybe low-key initiatives compared to what countries like South Africa, Kenya and Morocco have done in the solar energy space. The Rural Electrification Agency (REA) of Zimbabwe has scaled the uptake of solar systems in schools, clinics and public facilities. REA has also supported the uptake of biogas digesters to provide alternative energy for cooking for rural households. Overall, the mitigation initiatives highlighted here present enormous opportunities for a developing country like Zimbabwe. A number of development windows have been opened for international collaboration towards low carbon development pathways and economic development. Investments in low emissions development (LED) are still limited but have potential to grow. Therefore, the country is set to fully benefit from a LED trajectory [22].

In order to respond to the twin problems of energy poverty and land degradation, the Zimbabwe government implemented energy sector reforms that aimed at substituting biomass fuels with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Davidson et al. [59] reported a reduction in charcoal use, in favour of LPG consumption, which grew by an annual rate of 12%. The use of LPG also stopped the production of an estimated 337,500 tonnes of charcoal that would have destroyed about 40,500 ha of forest [60]. As argued by Johnson and Lambe [61], switching from a traditional biomass fuel source, for example, charcoal to an environmentally friendly source (LPG) can often lead to adaptive response mechanisms.

A renewable energy project supported by Oxfam and Practical Action in rural areas of Masvingo and Manicaland provinces has yielded positive benefits to the communities. As detailed in **Box 2**, the project has literally energised the beneficiaries as it led to improved health outcomes, widened access to education, increased agricultural production and boosted business and enterprise, strengthened livelihoods, and enhanced quality of life. Already the intervention has shown possibilities of creating green communities that are independent of the national grid and becoming self-sustaining [33].

**49**

resource.

**Box 2.**

Climate Change Plan [22].

and the President's Malaria Initiative [22].

**5.4 Climate change responses in the health sector**

*Deciphering the Climate Change Conundrum in Zimbabwe: An Exposition*

psychological health of communities and their sense of empowerment.

*Case study of a clean energy project in Zimbabwe (source: [33]).*

The project cited above (see **Box 2**) presents numerous development opportunities for rural development in Zimbabwe. This is a clear demonstration that decentralised energy systems have a potential to contribute to a sustainable future in Zimbabwe. The sustainability of the project has been guaranteed since it enabled communities to take ownership, set their own priorities for energy use and devise payment systems such that they will be able to finance the ongoing operation and maintenance, and ultimately expansion and improvement. Notwithstanding the encouraging progress, much remains to be done in terms of activities to complement energy access that will enable enterprises to thrive [33]. The main challenge could be related to the fall in general economic development indicators that would make it difficult for poor households to access the energy

Results show that access to affordable and reliable electricity from the sun or from running water is crucial to boosting enterprise and increasing production. This has improved quality of life of the beneficiaries, in particular, the quality of women's lives. Access to energy and water has also improved the social and

The Rural Sustainable Energy Development Project (RuSED) in Zimbabwe ran from August 2011 to January 2016. The project was funded by a two million euros grant from the European Union and Oxfam and was led and implemented by Oxfam in partnership with Practical Action and in association with the Ministry of Energy and Power Development and the Rural Electrification Authority of Zimbabwe. The project aims to enhance the lives and livelihoods of poor rural people by harnessing energy from the sun and running water to bring electricity to remote and isolated communities in ways that are affordable and sustainable. Over the course of the project, Oxfam has implemented a solar energy scheme in Gutu District in Masvingo province, and Practical Action a micro-hydro project in Himalaya in Mature District in Manicaland. The Himalaya scheme was commissioned on 8 April 2015. The Gutu scheme has many elements, including a solar pumping extension to the Ruti irrigation scheme which was

Zimbabwe's commitment in the health sector is generally reflected through international, regional and national frameworks. Within these instruments, health issues associated with climate or weather-related shocks and stresses are addressed. Some of the international obligations have been domesticated into national policies and legislation, starting with its Constitution, medium term policies and sectoral strategies in the health sector and in relation to climate change. The NCP and NCCRS give specific mention of health, while the 2016– 2020 National Health Strategy makes explicit reference to the need to improve climate change awareness and the need to develop a Public Health Adaptation to

Through a strong epidemiological surveillance system in place, the country is capable of giving an early detection of changes in incidence, mortality and geographic range of health outcomes associated with climatic change. One of the critical national programmes to respond to the observed and anticipated spatial spread of malaria mosquitoes is the National Malaria Control Programme, spearheaded by the Department of Disease Prevention and Control in the Ministry of Health and Child Care. The programme implements many strategies, including vector control, case management, epidemic preparedness and response, intermittent preventive therapy, research, monitoring and evaluation, and information, education and advocacy for malaria treatment and prevention. The programme receives support from two major donors: The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84443*

commissioned on 10 April 2015.

The Rural Sustainable Energy Development Project (RuSED) in Zimbabwe ran from August 2011 to January 2016. The project was funded by a two million euros grant from the European Union and Oxfam and was led and implemented by Oxfam in partnership with Practical Action and in association with the Ministry of Energy and Power Development and the Rural Electrification Authority of Zimbabwe. The project aims to enhance the lives and livelihoods of poor rural people by harnessing energy from the sun and running water to bring electricity to remote and isolated communities in ways that are affordable and sustainable. Over the course of the project, Oxfam has implemented a solar energy scheme in Gutu District in Masvingo province, and Practical Action a micro-hydro project in Himalaya in Mature District in Manicaland. The Himalaya scheme was commissioned on 8 April 2015. The Gutu scheme has many elements, including a solar pumping extension to the Ruti irrigation scheme which was commissioned on 10 April 2015.

Results show that access to affordable and reliable electricity from the sun or from running water is crucial to boosting enterprise and increasing production. This has improved quality of life of the beneficiaries, in particular, the quality of women's lives. Access to energy and water has also improved the social and psychological health of communities and their sense of empowerment.

### **Box 2.**

*Global Warming and Climate Change*

Expansion of the Kariba South

Batoka Gorge Hydropower

Power Station

Project

**Table 3.**

ously taking course [21, 22].

*Clean energy project interventions (source: [21]).*

river in the Eastern Highlands, and on inland dams around the country are vari-

**Project description Proponent Energy contribution**

Zambezi River Authority (ZRA)

Energy (IPP)

Gwanda Solar Power Plant ZPC 100 MW Insukamini Solar Power Plant ZPC 100 MW Munyati Solar Power Plant ZPC 100 MW

Kupinga Hydropower IPP 1.4 MW Gairezi Hydropower Project ZPC 30 MW

Pungwe Hydropower Plant Nyangani Renewable

ZPC 300 MW

1200 MW (for Zimbabwe) and 1200 MW (for Zambia)

3 MW

grow. Therefore, the country is set to fully benefit from a LED trajectory [22].

often lead to adaptive response mechanisms.

becoming self-sustaining [33].

In order to respond to the twin problems of energy poverty and land degradation, the Zimbabwe government implemented energy sector reforms that aimed at substituting biomass fuels with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Davidson et al. [59] reported a reduction in charcoal use, in favour of LPG consumption, which grew by an annual rate of 12%. The use of LPG also stopped the production of an estimated 337,500 tonnes of charcoal that would have destroyed about 40,500 ha of forest [60]. As argued by Johnson and Lambe [61], switching from a traditional biomass fuel source, for example, charcoal to an environmentally friendly source (LPG) can

A renewable energy project supported by Oxfam and Practical Action in rural areas of Masvingo and Manicaland provinces has yielded positive benefits to the communities. As detailed in **Box 2**, the project has literally energised the beneficiaries as it led to improved health outcomes, widened access to education, increased agricultural production and boosted business and enterprise, strengthened livelihoods, and enhanced quality of life. Already the intervention has shown possibilities of creating green communities that are independent of the national grid and

Although still lacking the appropriate supporting policy instruments, fuel blending of E10, E15 and E85 have been introduced. The major challenge is related to limited awareness and low uptake of these products by the public. Solar energy technologies are widely being adopted especially for lighting, powering phones and solar-powered geysers in some households. Most of the large urban areas such as Harare, Bulawayo and Gweru have embarked on projects to use solar-powered traffic lights in the cities although these maybe low-key initiatives compared to what countries like South Africa, Kenya and Morocco have done in the solar energy space. The Rural Electrification Agency (REA) of Zimbabwe has scaled the uptake of solar systems in schools, clinics and public facilities. REA has also supported the uptake of biogas digesters to provide alternative energy for cooking for rural households. Overall, the mitigation initiatives highlighted here present enormous opportunities for a developing country like Zimbabwe. A number of development windows have been opened for international collaboration towards low carbon development pathways and economic development. Investments in low emissions development (LED) are still limited but have potential to

**48**

*Case study of a clean energy project in Zimbabwe (source: [33]).*

The project cited above (see **Box 2**) presents numerous development opportunities for rural development in Zimbabwe. This is a clear demonstration that decentralised energy systems have a potential to contribute to a sustainable future in Zimbabwe. The sustainability of the project has been guaranteed since it enabled communities to take ownership, set their own priorities for energy use and devise payment systems such that they will be able to finance the ongoing operation and maintenance, and ultimately expansion and improvement. Notwithstanding the encouraging progress, much remains to be done in terms of activities to complement energy access that will enable enterprises to thrive [33]. The main challenge could be related to the fall in general economic development indicators that would make it difficult for poor households to access the energy resource.

### **5.4 Climate change responses in the health sector**

Zimbabwe's commitment in the health sector is generally reflected through international, regional and national frameworks. Within these instruments, health issues associated with climate or weather-related shocks and stresses are addressed. Some of the international obligations have been domesticated into national policies and legislation, starting with its Constitution, medium term policies and sectoral strategies in the health sector and in relation to climate change. The NCP and NCCRS give specific mention of health, while the 2016– 2020 National Health Strategy makes explicit reference to the need to improve climate change awareness and the need to develop a Public Health Adaptation to Climate Change Plan [22].

Through a strong epidemiological surveillance system in place, the country is capable of giving an early detection of changes in incidence, mortality and geographic range of health outcomes associated with climatic change. One of the critical national programmes to respond to the observed and anticipated spatial spread of malaria mosquitoes is the National Malaria Control Programme, spearheaded by the Department of Disease Prevention and Control in the Ministry of Health and Child Care. The programme implements many strategies, including vector control, case management, epidemic preparedness and response, intermittent preventive therapy, research, monitoring and evaluation, and information, education and advocacy for malaria treatment and prevention. The programme receives support from two major donors: The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria and the President's Malaria Initiative [22].

In some places such as Muzarabani, it can be argued that the desiccation of wetlands and ponds that previously harboured vectors and acted as breeding grounds for mosquitoes has significantly reduced disease incidences. Drought has also led to serious water scarcities prompting the government and other development partners to sink boreholes in order to improve access to portable water. This means people can now easily access portable water, which previously they could not. In this thinking therefore, climate change is arguably an opportunity for community development through interventions to improve water and sanitation [50]. The major threat to this drive emanates largely from the depletion of ground water sources described earlier. This means communities in some dry regions may only have seasonal access to the portable water as drought events worsen.

Existing policies also create adaptation opportunities that can assist in evading adaptation barriers. Worth mentioning is the National Water Policy of 2012 that provides an enabling environment for climate change response. Within it, the Zimbabwe National Water Act specifies the need to use water efficiently and applies a user pays principle that regulates water use. Alongside other development policies, the water policy aims to promote uptake of cleaner and more efficient technologies across all water consumption sectors. This has seen sectoral and institutional collaborations in funding the construction of solar powered boreholes in dry areas of the country such as Chivi District in Masvingo Province. This has been supported by construction of Blair toilets to improve the hygiene and sanitation of the communities [22]. Zimbabwe's Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) sector is managed and coordinated by an inter-ministerial committee, the National Action Committee (NAC) with the National Coordinating Unit (NCU) as the Secretariat. WASH components comprising of Hygiene Promotion, Water Supply, Excreta Disposal, Vector Control, Solid Waste Management and Drainage require protection from damage and disruption by climate change induced disasters. Should they be damaged, they urgently require restoration to avert deaths, diseases and malnutrition. The NAC has been strategic in engaging partners, mobilising resources and ensuring timeous response to WASH disasters. Undoubtedly, the sector interventions lessen the impacts of climate change as people have access to adequate water supply and sanitary facilities, which are key provisions in reducing diarrhoea and other infectious diseases.
