**3.5 Mitigation and adaptation strategies for minimizing climate change in developing regions**

UNFCCC have already identified two ways to address climate change: first through mitigation of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing sinks and secondly through adaptation to the impacts of climate change. Mitigation comprises all human activities aimed at reducing the emissions or enhancing sinks of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide [74, 75]. **Table 4** summarizes areas that require mitigation and the corresponding activity-solutions to enhance the carbon sinks.

Adaptation in the context of climate change refers to any adjustments that take place in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects or impacts, aimed at moderating harm or exploiting beneficial opportunities [7, 74].


**25**

*The Developing World's Contribution to Global Warming and the Resulting Consequences…*

McGray et al. [77] showed in their diagram the adaptation and development as an option for dealing with limitations faced by developing countries whereby their development needs or vulnerabilities can be dealt with in order, not to sabotage the adaptation techniques applied. **Figure 1** showed themes 1 and 2 and also showed that unmet development needs (as manifest in poverty or weak institutional capacities) drive vulnerability, including vulnerability to climate change. Such development needs need to be addressed to ascertain that adaptation activities (as in themes 3 and 4) can be effective and sustained. From this perspective, a separation of development from adaptation may in fact be counterproductive to the ultimate goal

*The continuum of adaptation activities from development to climate change vulnerability focus. Source:* 

Generally, developing countries and their cities have lower emissions, but there is limited data, and GHG emission levels vary from place to place. There are three sectors that give the highest GHG emissions; they are residential, commercial and transportation. Hence, developing countries can have good planning practices and climate-smart practices around these sectors [17]. They can implement adaptive strategies such as urban greening and farming in order to contribute to carbon sequestration [3, 4]. Urban vegetation, such as trees, can store carbon, provide shade for buildings and reduce air and noise pollution in cities. Urban farming also provides green spaces and carbon sequestration benefits by reducing the urban heat island effect. It can have a positive impact on food security and reduce urban poverty [3]. Green spaces such as roofs and parks bring ecological and social benefits to urban areas. Green roofs can improve drainage of rainwater and thus reduce

Green spaces and public green areas, such as parks, improve the quality of the

Also, developing countries can incorporate sustainable urban designs and construction by making use of robust materials for buildings or locating buildings at high or more stable grounds. These approaches could be ad hoc which involves taking

social life urban dwellers by creating integration and accessibility [82–88].

rainwater run-off in case of extreme weather events [78–81].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85052*

of achieving climate resilience.

**Figure 1.**

*Adapted from Ref. [77].*

**Table 4.**

*Typology of mitigation activities.*

*The Developing World's Contribution to Global Warming and the Resulting Consequences… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85052*


### **Figure 1.**

*Global Warming and Climate Change*

**developing regions**

opportunities [7, 74].

efficiency

efficiency

efficiency

Demand-side, brownfield energy

Demand-side, greenfield energy

Supply-side, brownfield energy

**3.5 Mitigation and adaptation strategies for minimizing climate change in** 

sponding activity-solutions to enhance the carbon sinks.

**Areas Activities**

UNFCCC have already identified two ways to address climate change: first through mitigation of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing sinks and secondly through adaptation to the impacts of climate change. Mitigation comprises all human activities aimed at reducing the emissions or enhancing sinks of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide [74, 75]. **Table 4** summarizes areas that require mitigation and the corre-

Adaptation in the context of climate change refers to any adjustments that take place in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects or impacts, aimed at moderating harm or exploiting beneficial

> Public services Agriculture Industry

Power plants

ecosystems

Agriculture Livestock Biofuels

Energy audits Supply chain Financing instruments Low-carbon technologies

Renewable energy Electricity generation, greenfield projects

Transport Vehicle energy efficiency fleet retrofit

Agriculture, forestry and land use Afforestation and reforestation

Waste and wastewater Solid waste management

Non-energy GHG reductions Industrial processes

Cross-sector activities Policy and regulation

Construction of new buildings

Transmission and distribution systems

Heat production, greenfield or brownfield projects

Reducing emissions from the deforestation or degradation of

Interurban transport and freight transport

Transmission systems, greenfield

Urban transport modal change Urban development

Sustainable forest management

Wastewater treatment Waste recycling

Air conditioning and cooling Fugitive emissions and carbon capture

Activities with greenhouse gas accounting

Commercial and residential sectors (buildings)

**24**

**Table 4.**

*Source: Ref. [76].* 

*Typology of mitigation activities.*

*The continuum of adaptation activities from development to climate change vulnerability focus. Source: Adapted from Ref. [77].*

McGray et al. [77] showed in their diagram the adaptation and development as an option for dealing with limitations faced by developing countries whereby their development needs or vulnerabilities can be dealt with in order, not to sabotage the adaptation techniques applied. **Figure 1** showed themes 1 and 2 and also showed that unmet development needs (as manifest in poverty or weak institutional capacities) drive vulnerability, including vulnerability to climate change. Such development needs need to be addressed to ascertain that adaptation activities (as in themes 3 and 4) can be effective and sustained. From this perspective, a separation of development from adaptation may in fact be counterproductive to the ultimate goal of achieving climate resilience.

Generally, developing countries and their cities have lower emissions, but there is limited data, and GHG emission levels vary from place to place. There are three sectors that give the highest GHG emissions; they are residential, commercial and transportation. Hence, developing countries can have good planning practices and climate-smart practices around these sectors [17]. They can implement adaptive strategies such as urban greening and farming in order to contribute to carbon sequestration [3, 4]. Urban vegetation, such as trees, can store carbon, provide shade for buildings and reduce air and noise pollution in cities. Urban farming also provides green spaces and carbon sequestration benefits by reducing the urban heat island effect. It can have a positive impact on food security and reduce urban poverty [3]. Green spaces such as roofs and parks bring ecological and social benefits to urban areas. Green roofs can improve drainage of rainwater and thus reduce rainwater run-off in case of extreme weather events [78–81].

Green spaces and public green areas, such as parks, improve the quality of the social life urban dwellers by creating integration and accessibility [82–88].

Also, developing countries can incorporate sustainable urban designs and construction by making use of robust materials for buildings or locating buildings at high or more stable grounds. These approaches could be ad hoc which involves taking opportunity of a crisis situation. For instance, in Mozambique in 2010, its city Maputo was severely flooded, and the "Living with Flood" initiative took up the project of building schools and community halls that would serve as shelter during future floods [17]. In Nigeria, for example, an energy efficient transport system can be introduced to minimize the high levels of carbon monoxide emitted into the atmosphere.

An ad hoc approach could require partnering with environment- or healthbased NGOs to solve a problem. Nigeria has received support from the WHO on water, erosion and drainage projects, among others. Another example is the City of São Paulo; it entered into agreements with the Brazilian company Biogás. Biogás constructed facilities at two landfill sites for a total investment of US\$ 90 million. At the Bandeirantes site, a system captures the methane gas and channels it into a combined heat and power plant. The two landfills together now generate 10% of the city's electricity requirements. To date, the credits generated by reduced emissions have yielded some 48 million Euros, which the city splits 50/50 with Biogás. The City Council of São Paulo has used its share of the revenues to develop parks and squares in the poor neighbourhoods surrounding these landfills [17]. The challenge was that the 10 million inhabitants generated 15,000 tonnes of garbage daily, and harnessing methane gas was an asset, while reducing GHG emission and improving livelihood were expedient.

Also, developing cities can have specific plans with an implementation strategy. For example, an action plan has been adapted by Cape Town in South Africa for energy and climate change, which has (11) objectives and targets. One of the targets is 10% renewable and cleaner energy supply in 2020. Another plan is to build more compact and resilient-efficient city. The implementation of the plan involved more than 115 projects. Mitigation approach could also be achieved through incorporating climate change into existing plans, policies and programmes, for example, transport, public health, energy management and disaster risk reduction plan. For example, Cambodia's coastal city of Preah Sihanouk is planning for climate change by mainstreaming into existing planning process [17].

Generally, most developing countries have begun to develop alternative policy frameworks, for example, through national adaptation programmes. These have focused on climate-proofing infrastructure projects, such as transport and irrigation systems, improved disaster monitoring and management and better land-use planning [89]. For instance, the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action, adopted by the government of Bangladesh in 2009, seeks to guide activities and programmes related to climate change in Bangladesh. The strategy contains 44 programmes formulated around six themes which include food security/social protection/health, comprehensive disaster management, mitigation/ low-carbon development and capacity/institutional strengthening. Thirty-four programmes listed under five themes are wholly or partially focused on adaptation [48]. Adaptation measures are also incorporated into disaster preparedness in Bangladesh. Furthermore, Orindi and Murray [90] acknowledged the progress being made in East Africa on integrating adaptation into the most vulnerable sectors. This is also similar in other African countries such as Tanzania, Uganda and Sudan in their national communication to the UNFCCC.

The mitigation and adaptation strategies enumerated above surmises the UN climate speech of 2017, by the UN Climate Change Executive Secretary, Patricia Espinosa, She called for a more holistic view of health throughout the world, with an inclusion of the concept of planetary health, a re-establishment that there is an intricate connection of the health of humankind to the right condition of the overall environment and other living beings. The Rockefeller-Lancet commission defined planetary health as the health of human civilization and the state of the natural systems on which it depends [91]. Planetary health is a new and emerging field

**27**

*The Developing World's Contribution to Global Warming and the Resulting Consequences…*

across disciplines intersecting physical/natural sciences and the health of human. In addition, planetary health is acceptable by international organization, the global north universities, countries and their NGO actors, due to the input of sustainable environmental interventions. However, there is need for the inclusion of developing nations in this new emerging concept. The impacts of climate change in developing nations reveals an ominous threat to the health of the citizenry and the health of the

We have used and abused our natural resources with negative impacts to the populace. We see diseases, food insecurity, poverty, hunger and malnutrition with high risks of vitamin deficiencies. Hence a basic and introductory thrust on which planetary health lies is the innovative and transformative actions for integrative approach to further develop an evidence base to inform solutions that simultaneously address human health, environmental sustainability and economic development [92], in essence, one that directly connects human and animal health with the health of the planet [93] so as to improve the lives of individuals, families and

Generally, this study assessed the local and regional contributions of Nigeria and other developing countries to global warming and the resulting consequences of climate change. Findings from the study showed that the impacts of climate change in developing countries include loss in agriculture/forestry resources, water shortage, food insecurity, biodiversity loss, infrastructure damage, loss of human and animal life, drought and health and livelihoods risks. Also, certain factors that were highlighted such as rapid urbanization, poor urban design, inadequate infrastructure, inadequate meteorological information, poor awareness and low levels of literacy combined with human actions such as industrialization, gas flaring, burning of fossil fuels and agricultural practices have immensely escalate climate change-related disasters. These have affected the socio-economic sectors of Nigeria and other developing countries made towards adaptation, adjustment and resilience in Africa. These issues of global warming are real, and the myriad of limitations faced by developing countries show huge potentials that may totally collapse the economic, social and environmental processes of developing countries particularly in the area of agriculture, tourism and natural resource if sustainable actions are not quickly implemented. Africa battles with data documentation and monitoring systems and the known levels of GHG emitted, moreover, the human health implications cannot be properly accounted for. Hence, Nigeria and other developing countries can become part of planetary health approaches and alliances for sustainable development and safe public health presently adopted in institutions of global North. As Planetary health looks at the health of human civilization and the state of the natural systems on which they depend (Seltenrich, [91]). Though an emerging, multidisciplinary, crosssectoral concept within borders, planetary health reverts attention to the anthropogenic degradation of our planet with potential to sustainable environmental solutions

Finally, this study advocates an applicable mitigation and adaptation option that is tailored to each developing country's peculiar socio-economic and environmental challenges. The need for community based participatory approaches with population groups that are more disproportionately burdened from the impact of climate change is critical in Nigeria as well as developing countries. It is obvious that community academic partnerships that are wholly driven based on community needs are necessary at this time of climate emergencies in Nigeria. Though community

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85052*

natural systems which they depend.

communities in Nigeria and beyond

for the climatic plague of humanity.

**5. Conclusion**

### *The Developing World's Contribution to Global Warming and the Resulting Consequences… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85052*

across disciplines intersecting physical/natural sciences and the health of human. In addition, planetary health is acceptable by international organization, the global north universities, countries and their NGO actors, due to the input of sustainable environmental interventions. However, there is need for the inclusion of developing nations in this new emerging concept. The impacts of climate change in developing nations reveals an ominous threat to the health of the citizenry and the health of the natural systems which they depend.

We have used and abused our natural resources with negative impacts to the populace. We see diseases, food insecurity, poverty, hunger and malnutrition with high risks of vitamin deficiencies. Hence a basic and introductory thrust on which planetary health lies is the innovative and transformative actions for integrative approach to further develop an evidence base to inform solutions that simultaneously address human health, environmental sustainability and economic development [92], in essence, one that directly connects human and animal health with the health of the planet [93] so as to improve the lives of individuals, families and communities in Nigeria and beyond
