**6. Pedestrian navigation systems**

Pedestrian navigation services enable people to retrieve precise instructions to reach a specific location. As the spatial behavior of people on foot differs in many ways from the driver's performance, common concepts for car navigation services are not suitable for pedestrian navigation. Cars use paved roads with clear borderlines and road signs, and so keeping the car on track is its main role, neglecting obstacles and hazards, unless it is integrated with a social network. However, pedestrians, unlike like cars, may not follow the defined road. This makes personal navigation more complicated and forces us adding special features required for safe navigation. Pedestrian navigation requires very accurate, high-resolution, and realtime response [10]. Solely GPS does not support last moment route changes, such as road detours, significant obstacles, and safety requirements. However, integrating the IoT and GPS via an application generates a solution providing accurate and safe navigation. To enable it, a two-stage personal navigation system is used. In the first stage, the trail is photographed by a navigated drown, and the resulting video is saved in a cloud database. In the second stage, a mobile application is loaded to the pedestrian's mobile phone. Once the pedestrian is about to walk, it activates the mobile application which synchronizes itself with the cloud navigation database, and then instructions from the mobile phone guide the pedestrian along the trail-walk. A more advanced system contains the two stages within the mobile

application. The mobile video camera is activated and captures the trail images in front of the pedestrian, processes it, and guides the pedestrian accordingly. In case of an upcoming obstacle, the application proposes the safest and most effective detour and guides the pedestrian accordingly.

Personal navigation systems are very accurate and safe, operate indoor and outdoor, and are available as long as the mobile phone is connected, and its internal storage is big enough. It provides spatial information for climbing, wandering, or tramping users. It is used for locating casualties, as well as for self-orientation of rescue teams in areas with low visibility. In military and security operations, localization and information technologies are used by soldiers to self-locate, collect, and collate. A similar implementation with the same functionality is a walking stick with embedded micro devices and software as described above and a wearable Bluetooth headset with an embedded camera in front of it.

#### **6.1 Landmark-based pedestrian navigation systems**

Navigation in cities is commonly done by the target address: zip-code, street, and house number. However, in cases where people do not use street and house number as an address but rather use landmarks to identify the route to the target as well as the target location [11], by combining CIS and GPS, the desired landmarks coordinates are loaded to the cloud database, and the corresponding navigation application is modified to identify the landmarks on ground.

A landmark-based navigation system is composed of a video camera to obtain and analyze pedestrian paths, selected reliable landmarks along the main routes, a routing table containing all relevant origins and destinations within the site, positions of view and orientations to assert maximal coverage of interesting spots, thousands of partial routes for the entire recording period, and the detected stops over a whole day for different definitions of a stop. Based on the defined sections and the landmarks and decision points, a routing table is created to define navigational instructions from each origin in the station to each possible destination. Table columns correspond to the original landmarks and the decision points; rows correspond to destination landmarks. The identified landmarks and the defined route instructions are used to develop an audio guiding system using speech recognition and text-tospeech software. The audio guiding system employs verbalisms that are as distinct and clearly recognizable as the visual landmarks and that the users can intuitively combine the description with what they see.

#### **6.2 Shoe navigation based on micro electrical mechanical system**

A micro electrical mechanical system (MEMS) [12] is a family of thumbnail technologies enabling a wide variety of advanced and innovative applications. When such device is mounted on a shoe, it collects the number of steps, average step width, and walking directions. This data is constantly collected and processed, and via signals it guides the person wearing the shoe. Due to the magnetic field, some navigation errors may occur; a special filter offsets it by using a special filter. Experiments show that this approach is applicable and efficient.

## **7. Indoor navigation technologies**

Indoor navigation systems became popular due to the lack of GPS signals indoors and the increase in navigation needs especially in small areas, such as parking garages and huge complex of buildings. Several indoors navigation systems have

**23**

between any two waypoints.

*Expanding Navigation Systems by Integrating It with Advanced Technologies*

already been implemented. Each of them is based on a different technology that complies with the specific requirements and constraints of the location it is expected to navigate in. We assume that each solution has technical and usability limitations. It helps tracking objects by using wireless concepts, optical tracking, ultrasound techniques, sensors, infrared (IR), ultra-wide band (UWB), Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs), Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, radio frequency identification (RFID), assisted GPS (A-GPS), and more. Most solutions have limited capabilities, accuracy,

unreliability, design complexity, low security, and high configuration costs.

NFC technology allows communication over short-range, mobile, and wireless conditions. NFC communication happens when two NFC-capable devices are close to each other. Users use their NFC mobiles to interact with an NFC tag or another NFC mobile. NFC-based indoor navigation system enables users to navigate through a complex of buildings by touching NFC tags spread around and orienting users to the destination [13]. NFC internal has considerable advantages to indoor navigation systems in terms of security, privacy, cost, performance, robustness, complexity, and commercial availability. The application orients the user by receiving the destination name and touching the mobile device to the NFC tags and so

**7.2 Indoor garage navigation based on car-to-infrastructure communication**

**7.3 Autonomous vision-based micro air vehicle (MAV) for indoor and outdoor** 

in complex indoor and outdoor environments [15]. An operator selects target positions in the onboard map, and the system autonomously plans flights to these locations. An onboard stereo camera and an inertial measurement unit (IMU) are the only sensors. The system is independent of external navigation aids like GPS. All navigation tasks are implemented onboard the system. The system is based on FPGA-dense stereo matching images using semi-global matching, locally drift-free visual odometry with key frames and sensor data fusion. It utilizes the available depth images from stereo matching. To save processing time and make large movements or rather low frame rates possible, the system works only on features. A wireless connection is used for sending images and a 3D map to the operator and to receive target locations. The results of a complex, autonomous indoor/ outdoor flight support this approach. The position is controlled by the estimated motion of the sensor. To enable it, a state machine controller, a tracking position system, and a reference generator are implemented. The reference generator is used to create smooth position, velocity, acceleration, and a tracking controller based on a list of waypoints. The flown path is composed of straight line segments

In this section we introduce a quadrotor that performs autonomous navigation

Indoor micro-navigation systems for enclosed parking garages [14] are based on car-to-infrastructure communication providing layout information of the car park and the coordinates of the destination parking lot. It uses unique signal rates. In case a car is detected, the system calculates its position and transmits data to a vehicle to substitute the internal positioning system. With this information the vehicle is guided. Integration to the outdoor navigation system is available to allow smooth

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91203*

**7.1 NFC-based indoor navigation system**

navigates to the desired destination.

transition from/to outdoor/indoor.

**navigation**

*Expanding Navigation Systems by Integrating It with Advanced Technologies DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91203*

already been implemented. Each of them is based on a different technology that complies with the specific requirements and constraints of the location it is expected to navigate in. We assume that each solution has technical and usability limitations. It helps tracking objects by using wireless concepts, optical tracking, ultrasound techniques, sensors, infrared (IR), ultra-wide band (UWB), Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs), Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, radio frequency identification (RFID), assisted GPS (A-GPS), and more. Most solutions have limited capabilities, accuracy, unreliability, design complexity, low security, and high configuration costs.

### **7.1 NFC-based indoor navigation system**

*Geographic Information Systems in Geospatial Intelligence*

detour and guides the pedestrian accordingly.

Bluetooth headset with an embedded camera in front of it.

application is modified to identify the landmarks on ground.

**6.2 Shoe navigation based on micro electrical mechanical system**

Experiments show that this approach is applicable and efficient.

A micro electrical mechanical system (MEMS) [12] is a family of thumbnail technologies enabling a wide variety of advanced and innovative applications. When such device is mounted on a shoe, it collects the number of steps, average step width, and walking directions. This data is constantly collected and processed, and via signals it guides the person wearing the shoe. Due to the magnetic field, some navigation errors may occur; a special filter offsets it by using a special filter.

Indoor navigation systems became popular due to the lack of GPS signals indoors

and the increase in navigation needs especially in small areas, such as parking garages and huge complex of buildings. Several indoors navigation systems have

combine the description with what they see.

**7. Indoor navigation technologies**

**6.1 Landmark-based pedestrian navigation systems**

application. The mobile video camera is activated and captures the trail images in front of the pedestrian, processes it, and guides the pedestrian accordingly. In case of an upcoming obstacle, the application proposes the safest and most effective

Personal navigation systems are very accurate and safe, operate indoor and outdoor, and are available as long as the mobile phone is connected, and its internal storage is big enough. It provides spatial information for climbing, wandering, or tramping users. It is used for locating casualties, as well as for self-orientation of rescue teams in areas with low visibility. In military and security operations, localization and information technologies are used by soldiers to self-locate, collect, and collate. A similar implementation with the same functionality is a walking stick with embedded micro devices and software as described above and a wearable

Navigation in cities is commonly done by the target address: zip-code, street, and house number. However, in cases where people do not use street and house number as an address but rather use landmarks to identify the route to the target as well as the target location [11], by combining CIS and GPS, the desired landmarks coordinates are loaded to the cloud database, and the corresponding navigation

A landmark-based navigation system is composed of a video camera to obtain and analyze pedestrian paths, selected reliable landmarks along the main routes, a routing table containing all relevant origins and destinations within the site, positions of view and orientations to assert maximal coverage of interesting spots, thousands of partial routes for the entire recording period, and the detected stops over a whole day for different definitions of a stop. Based on the defined sections and the landmarks and decision points, a routing table is created to define navigational instructions from each origin in the station to each possible destination. Table columns correspond to the original landmarks and the decision points; rows correspond to destination landmarks. The identified landmarks and the defined route instructions are used to develop an audio guiding system using speech recognition and text-tospeech software. The audio guiding system employs verbalisms that are as distinct and clearly recognizable as the visual landmarks and that the users can intuitively

**22**

NFC technology allows communication over short-range, mobile, and wireless conditions. NFC communication happens when two NFC-capable devices are close to each other. Users use their NFC mobiles to interact with an NFC tag or another NFC mobile. NFC-based indoor navigation system enables users to navigate through a complex of buildings by touching NFC tags spread around and orienting users to the destination [13]. NFC internal has considerable advantages to indoor navigation systems in terms of security, privacy, cost, performance, robustness, complexity, and commercial availability. The application orients the user by receiving the destination name and touching the mobile device to the NFC tags and so navigates to the desired destination.

#### **7.2 Indoor garage navigation based on car-to-infrastructure communication**

Indoor micro-navigation systems for enclosed parking garages [14] are based on car-to-infrastructure communication providing layout information of the car park and the coordinates of the destination parking lot. It uses unique signal rates. In case a car is detected, the system calculates its position and transmits data to a vehicle to substitute the internal positioning system. With this information the vehicle is guided. Integration to the outdoor navigation system is available to allow smooth transition from/to outdoor/indoor.

## **7.3 Autonomous vision-based micro air vehicle (MAV) for indoor and outdoor navigation**

In this section we introduce a quadrotor that performs autonomous navigation in complex indoor and outdoor environments [15]. An operator selects target positions in the onboard map, and the system autonomously plans flights to these locations. An onboard stereo camera and an inertial measurement unit (IMU) are the only sensors. The system is independent of external navigation aids like GPS. All navigation tasks are implemented onboard the system. The system is based on FPGA-dense stereo matching images using semi-global matching, locally drift-free visual odometry with key frames and sensor data fusion. It utilizes the available depth images from stereo matching. To save processing time and make large movements or rather low frame rates possible, the system works only on features. A wireless connection is used for sending images and a 3D map to the operator and to receive target locations. The results of a complex, autonomous indoor/ outdoor flight support this approach. The position is controlled by the estimated motion of the sensor. To enable it, a state machine controller, a tracking position system, and a reference generator are implemented. The reference generator is used to create smooth position, velocity, acceleration, and a tracking controller based on a list of waypoints. The flown path is composed of straight line segments between any two waypoints.
