Pharmacological Potentials

**117**

**Chapter 8**

**Abstract**

A Review of the Antidiabetic

*Gloria Aderonke Otunola and Anthony Jide Afolayan*

Diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder with major health care burden worldwide, is increasing, with 173 million adults being diabetic and over 8 million deaths recorded annually. Undesirable pathological conditions and high rates of secondary failure limit the use of current antidiabetic agents, thus, the need for more effective antidiabetic agents. Medicinal plants such as spices, rich in bioactive components that promote prevention and treatment of chronic conditions such as heart disease, cancer and Type-2 diabetes, are inexpensive with no side effects. The Zingiberaceae family, of which ginger is a member, consists of many species frequently cited for their antidiabetic and hypoglycemic properties. All important scientific literatures from 2000 to 2018 on the antidiabetic potentials of *Zingiber officinale* were evaluated. According to these studies, ginger exerts its antidiabetic effects through restorative effects on pancreatic β-cells, increasing insulin sensitivity, action and peripheral utilization of glucose. Other mechanisms include increased synthesis of hepatic glycogen through the enhancement of glycogen regulatory enzyme expression in the liver, inhibition of carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes, stimulation of pancreatic insulin release and inhibition of hepatic glucose production. Further studies, especially in humans are needed, more so, since ginger

Activities of Ginger

is one of the spices generally regarded as safe.

**1. Introduction**

eating (polyphagia).

**Keywords:** spices, diabetes, ginger, pharmacology, mechanism of action

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is the most common endocrine disorder that affects more than 100 million people worldwide. It is a heterogeneous group of diseases, all of which ultimately lead to an elevation of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia) and loss of glucose in the urine as hyperglycemia increases. It is characterized by increased urine production (polyurea) excessive thirst (polydipsia) and excessive

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder of the endocrine system that is characterized by defects in impaired metabolism of glucose, lipid and protein as well as insulin secretion or insufficiency. Diabetes continues to be a major health care problem worldwide and its prevalence is expected to rise from the current 382–471 million individuals by 2035 [1, 2]. There are three main types of diabetes-Type 1 diabetes (T1D), which is an autoimmune disorder leading to the destruction of pancreatic beta-cells; Type 2 diabetes (T2D), which is much more common and primarily caused by impaired glucose regulation due to a combination of dysfunctional pancreatic beta cells and insulin resistance and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).

#### **Chapter 8**

## A Review of the Antidiabetic Activities of Ginger

*Gloria Aderonke Otunola and Anthony Jide Afolayan*

#### **Abstract**

Diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder with major health care burden worldwide, is increasing, with 173 million adults being diabetic and over 8 million deaths recorded annually. Undesirable pathological conditions and high rates of secondary failure limit the use of current antidiabetic agents, thus, the need for more effective antidiabetic agents. Medicinal plants such as spices, rich in bioactive components that promote prevention and treatment of chronic conditions such as heart disease, cancer and Type-2 diabetes, are inexpensive with no side effects. The Zingiberaceae family, of which ginger is a member, consists of many species frequently cited for their antidiabetic and hypoglycemic properties. All important scientific literatures from 2000 to 2018 on the antidiabetic potentials of *Zingiber officinale* were evaluated. According to these studies, ginger exerts its antidiabetic effects through restorative effects on pancreatic β-cells, increasing insulin sensitivity, action and peripheral utilization of glucose. Other mechanisms include increased synthesis of hepatic glycogen through the enhancement of glycogen regulatory enzyme expression in the liver, inhibition of carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes, stimulation of pancreatic insulin release and inhibition of hepatic glucose production. Further studies, especially in humans are needed, more so, since ginger is one of the spices generally regarded as safe.

**Keywords:** spices, diabetes, ginger, pharmacology, mechanism of action

#### **1. Introduction**

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is the most common endocrine disorder that affects more than 100 million people worldwide. It is a heterogeneous group of diseases, all of which ultimately lead to an elevation of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia) and loss of glucose in the urine as hyperglycemia increases. It is characterized by increased urine production (polyurea) excessive thirst (polydipsia) and excessive eating (polyphagia).

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder of the endocrine system that is characterized by defects in impaired metabolism of glucose, lipid and protein as well as insulin secretion or insufficiency. Diabetes continues to be a major health care problem worldwide and its prevalence is expected to rise from the current 382–471 million individuals by 2035 [1, 2]. There are three main types of diabetes-Type 1 diabetes (T1D), which is an autoimmune disorder leading to the destruction of pancreatic beta-cells; Type 2 diabetes (T2D), which is much more common and primarily caused by impaired glucose regulation due to a combination of dysfunctional pancreatic beta cells and insulin resistance and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).

Different treatments, such as insulin, pharmacotherapy and diet therapies, which exert antidiabetic effects through different mechanisms, are currently used for the management of diabetes. Such mechanisms include stimulation of insulin secretion by sulfonylurea and meglitinides drugs, increase of peripheral absorption of glucose by biguanides and thiazolidinediones, delay in the absorption of carbohydrates from the intestine by alpha-glucosidase and reduction of hepatic gluconeogenesis by biguanides [3–5].

In spite of the appreciable progress that has been made in the management of diabetes through the use of conventional drugs and management strategies, diabetes and its complications continue to be a major medical problem and rising burden of disease. Most synthetic oral hypoglycemic agents available for the treatment of the disease have some disadvantages, including drug resistance, serious side effects, cannot be used during pregnancy, are toxic and also costly [6, 7].

Spices and herbs have played important roles in civilization and history of many nations of the world. Their flavor and pungency makes them indispensable in the preparation of palatable dishes; but beyond adding flavor, spices are reputed to possess several medicinal and pharmacological properties and hence find use in the preparation of a number of medicines. Spices can be the dried leaf (e.g., bay leaf), buds (cloves), bark (cinnamon), rhizome/root (ginger), berries (grains of pepper), seeds (cumin), or even the stigma of the flower (saffron) [8].

The Zingiberaceae plant family consists of many species used as culinary herbs and spices, frequently cited for their antidiabetic and hypoglycemic properties. Ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) belongs to this family, and has a long and wide history of usage both as a culinary spice and in traditional/alternative medicine. This study attempts to update the available scientific information on the antidiabetic and hypoglycemic potentials of ginger.

#### **2. Methodology**

Online published articles from Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Scopus, ResearchGate, PubMed and SciELO were explored for data collection. For literature search, key words such as spices, diabetes, Zingiberaceae, ginger, in vivo, in vitro, pharmacological, medicinal, hypoglycemic and antidiabetic were used. The study reviewed all important literature from 2000 to 2018.

#### **3. Results**

The following sections describe various studies reporting the hypoglycemic and antidiabetic properties of ginger, phytochemical constituents responsible for these properties and its mechanisms of action.

#### **3.1 Ginger (***Zingiber officinale* **Roscoe)**

The ginger (Zingiberaceae) family consists of 53 genera and over 1200 medicinal plants, typically tropical annuals or perennials, often with large rhizomes. This plant family is well-known for its medicinal values and is distributed widely throughout the tropics, particularly in Southeast Asia.

Ginger (**Figure 1**) has been used for thousands of years for the treatment of numerous ailments, such as colds, nausea, arthritis, migraines and hypertension. Several authors have reviewed the medicinal, chemical, and pharmacological properties of ginger [9–13]. Ginger is recognized by the U.S. Food and Drug

**119**

many ailments.

*dp/B01NAJQ6C6 [28].*

**Figure 1.**

pattern [20–27].

**3.2 Antidiabetic properties of ginger**

induced vascular disorders.

*A Review of the Antidiabetic Activities of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88899*

Administration (FDA) as a food additive that is "generally recognized as safe" [14] and has a long history of use as a culinary spice and in herbal medicine to treat

*Zingiber officinale (ginger) rhizomes. Source: www.amazon.com/Culinary-Ginger-Zingiber-Officinalecooking/*

Ginger helps to relieve various inflammatory disorders like gout, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis; as an analgesic, hypoglycemic, cardiotonic, antiemetic, antimicrobial and antifungal. Other uses include as an antidiabetic, antidyslipid-

In addition, the spice has shown prominent protective effects on diabetic liver, kidney, eye, and neural system complications [19]. Several experimental studies have reported that administration of ginger extracts significantly decreased blood glucose level in Type 1- and Type 2-induced diabetic animals in a dose-dependent

Lamuchi-Deli et al. [29] evaluated the effects of the hydroalcoholic extract of *Zingiber officinale* on arginase I activity and expression in the retina of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. The study showed that blood glucose concentration was significantly decreased, arginase I activity and expression was significantly (*P* < 0.05) down regulated and 400 mg/kg of the extract reduced significant elevation in body weight in diabetic rats compared to untreated diabetic controls (*P* < 0.01). Serum insulin was also significantly increased in diabetic rats treated with 400 mg/kg of the extract compared to diabetic controls (*P* < 0.05). The study suggested that ginger could be a promising therapeutic option for treating diabetes-

A recent study by de Las Heras et al. [30] which evaluated the hypolipidemicand insulin sensitizing effects of hydroethanolic extract of ginger in the liver of high-fat diet (HFD) fed rats, revealed that ginger extract improved lipid profile and attenuated the increase of plasma levels of glucose, insulin, and leptin in HFD rats. Wei et al. [31], also reported that 6-Paradol and 6-Shogaol, the pungent compounds of ginger, promoted glucose utilization in adipocytes and myotubes,

emia, hypotensive, vasodilator, antiobesity and anticancer agent [15–18].

#### **Figure 1.**

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

cannot be used during pregnancy, are toxic and also costly [6, 7].

seeds (cumin), or even the stigma of the flower (saffron) [8].

reviewed all important literature from 2000 to 2018.

throughout the tropics, particularly in Southeast Asia.

properties and its mechanisms of action.

**3.1 Ginger (***Zingiber officinale* **Roscoe)**

genesis by biguanides [3–5].

hypoglycemic potentials of ginger.

**2. Methodology**

**3. Results**

Different treatments, such as insulin, pharmacotherapy and diet therapies, which exert antidiabetic effects through different mechanisms, are currently used for the management of diabetes. Such mechanisms include stimulation of insulin secretion by sulfonylurea and meglitinides drugs, increase of peripheral absorption of glucose by biguanides and thiazolidinediones, delay in the absorption of carbohydrates from the intestine by alpha-glucosidase and reduction of hepatic gluconeo-

In spite of the appreciable progress that has been made in the management of diabetes through the use of conventional drugs and management strategies, diabetes and its complications continue to be a major medical problem and rising burden of disease. Most synthetic oral hypoglycemic agents available for the treatment of the disease have some disadvantages, including drug resistance, serious side effects,

Spices and herbs have played important roles in civilization and history of many nations of the world. Their flavor and pungency makes them indispensable in the preparation of palatable dishes; but beyond adding flavor, spices are reputed to possess several medicinal and pharmacological properties and hence find use in the preparation of a number of medicines. Spices can be the dried leaf (e.g., bay leaf), buds (cloves), bark (cinnamon), rhizome/root (ginger), berries (grains of pepper),

The Zingiberaceae plant family consists of many species used as culinary herbs and spices, frequently cited for their antidiabetic and hypoglycemic properties. Ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) belongs to this family, and has a long and wide history of usage both as a culinary spice and in traditional/alternative medicine. This study attempts to update the available scientific information on the antidiabetic and

Online published articles from Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Scopus, ResearchGate, PubMed and SciELO were explored for data collection. For literature search, key words such as spices, diabetes, Zingiberaceae, ginger, in vivo, in vitro, pharmacological, medicinal, hypoglycemic and antidiabetic were used. The study

The following sections describe various studies reporting the hypoglycemic and antidiabetic properties of ginger, phytochemical constituents responsible for these

The ginger (Zingiberaceae) family consists of 53 genera and over 1200 medicinal plants, typically tropical annuals or perennials, often with large rhizomes. This plant family is well-known for its medicinal values and is distributed widely

Ginger (**Figure 1**) has been used for thousands of years for the treatment of numerous ailments, such as colds, nausea, arthritis, migraines and hypertension. Several authors have reviewed the medicinal, chemical, and pharmacological properties of ginger [9–13]. Ginger is recognized by the U.S. Food and Drug

**118**

*Zingiber officinale (ginger) rhizomes. Source: www.amazon.com/Culinary-Ginger-Zingiber-Officinalecooking/ dp/B01NAJQ6C6 [28].*

Administration (FDA) as a food additive that is "generally recognized as safe" [14] and has a long history of use as a culinary spice and in herbal medicine to treat many ailments.

Ginger helps to relieve various inflammatory disorders like gout, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis; as an analgesic, hypoglycemic, cardiotonic, antiemetic, antimicrobial and antifungal. Other uses include as an antidiabetic, antidyslipidemia, hypotensive, vasodilator, antiobesity and anticancer agent [15–18].

In addition, the spice has shown prominent protective effects on diabetic liver, kidney, eye, and neural system complications [19]. Several experimental studies have reported that administration of ginger extracts significantly decreased blood glucose level in Type 1- and Type 2-induced diabetic animals in a dose-dependent pattern [20–27].

#### **3.2 Antidiabetic properties of ginger**

Lamuchi-Deli et al. [29] evaluated the effects of the hydroalcoholic extract of *Zingiber officinale* on arginase I activity and expression in the retina of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. The study showed that blood glucose concentration was significantly decreased, arginase I activity and expression was significantly (*P* < 0.05) down regulated and 400 mg/kg of the extract reduced significant elevation in body weight in diabetic rats compared to untreated diabetic controls (*P* < 0.01). Serum insulin was also significantly increased in diabetic rats treated with 400 mg/kg of the extract compared to diabetic controls (*P* < 0.05). The study suggested that ginger could be a promising therapeutic option for treating diabetesinduced vascular disorders.

A recent study by de Las Heras et al. [30] which evaluated the hypolipidemicand insulin sensitizing effects of hydroethanolic extract of ginger in the liver of high-fat diet (HFD) fed rats, revealed that ginger extract improved lipid profile and attenuated the increase of plasma levels of glucose, insulin, and leptin in HFD rats. Wei et al. [31], also reported that 6-Paradol and 6-Shogaol, the pungent compounds of ginger, promoted glucose utilization in adipocytes and myotubes,

and 6-paradol reduced blood glucose in HFD-fed mice. Al-Qudah et al. [32] reported that aqueous extract of ginger was effective in lowering serum glucose, restoration of hematological indices to normal and repair damaged pancreas in alloxan-induced diabetic rats.

In another study, Oludoyin and Adegoke [33] investigated the effect of ginger extracts on blood glucose in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. The authors reported that the fasting blood glucose in diabetic rats was reduced to normal by both raw and cooked ginger extracts in a manner comparable to glibenclamide. Evaluation of the nutritional and antidiabetic activity of ginger powder, its aqueous and methanolic extract, as well as the essential oil in streptozotocininduced diabetic rats [34] revealed reduction in levels of alanine and aspartate aminotransferase (ALT and AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), liver total lipid and cholesterol of diabetic rats; and increased levels of liver glycogen and triglyceride compared to positive control group. In the study, ginger oil showed the best antidiabetic activity, followed by ginger extracts. Again, another study reported that ginger extract administered at 200 mg/kg/day/kg body weight for 10 weeks to male Sprague-Dawley diabetic rats, exhibited protective activity against insulin resistance [34].

Al-Noory et al. [35] showed that fresh ginger extracts led to decrease in the levels of total cholesterol (TC) and low density lipoprotein (LDL) in the serum of alloxan-induced diabetic rats, compared with the control groups; and previous extracts caused reduction in LDL to levels comparable to normal group and equal to the effect of atorvastatin given at a dosage of 10 mg/day. Similarly, oral administration of aqueous ginger extract to streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats for a period of 30 days was reported to give a dose-dependent antihyperglycemic effect, 68% decrease in plasma glucose level at a daily dose of 500 mg/kg body weight, indicating that ginger is a potential phytomedicine for the treatment of diabetes [36]. Iranloye et al. [37] also showed that ginger effectively reduced fasting blood glucose, malondialdehyde levels and enhanced insulin sensitivity in alloxaninduced and insulin-resistant diabetic rats compared to control rats.

Treatment of streptozotocin-induced Type I diabetic rats with *Z. officinale* juice (4 mL kg<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> , p.o. daily for 6 weeks) was reported to produce a significant increase in insulin levels, decrease in fasting glucose levels, as well as significant decrease in the area under the curve of glucose in an oral glucose tolerance test [38]. According to Nammi et al. [23], treatment with an ethanolic extract of ginger at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg for 6 weeks, significantly reduced the marked increase in body weight, serum glucose, insulin, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, free fatty acid and phospholipids induced by high-fat diet.

The study conducted by Al-Amin et al. [39] on the antidiabetic and hypolipidemic properties of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats revealed that raw ginger at a dose of 500 mg/kg, was significantly effective in lowering serum glucose, cholesterol and triacylglycerol as well as reduction in urine protein (reversal of diabetic proteinuria) levels, of diabetic rats. Ethanolic extracts of *Zingiber officinale* (200 mg/kg) given orally for 20 days was reported to produce significant antihyperglycemic effect (*P* < 0.01) in diabetic rats, while also lowering serum total cholesterol and triglycerides, coupled with increased HDL-cholesterol levels when compared with pathogenic diabetic rats [40].

Hypoglycemic effect of ginger (4 and 8 g/kg), administered intraperitoneally to rats after 30 min of diabetes induction, with the effect being more pronounced after 2 h has been reported. In another study, Otunola and Afolayan [41], showed that aqueous extract of a spice mixture containing ginger at 500 mg/kg body weight extract significantly (*p* < 0.05) lowered the elevated fasting blood glucose, lipid and hematological indices of alloxan-induced diabetic rats at equipotent level with glibenclamide.

**121**

**Table 1.**

*A Review of the Antidiabetic Activities of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88899*

have also been reported (**Table 2**).

selina-4(14),7(11)-diene (1.03%).

hepatic glucose production [55, 56].

[6]-Shogaol or [6]-gingerol

Ethyl acetate extract of ginger on L6 myotube cell

Aqueous extract of ginger at 5, 10, 20, 40 g/L incubated with (PBS), glucose + BSA

*In vitro hypoglycemic potentials of ginger and its bioactive constituents.*

on 3 T3-L1 cells

surface

for 5 weeks

**3.4 Mechanism of action**

especially 6-shogaol have been reported (**Table 1**).

**3.3 Phytochemical components of** *Zingiber officinale*

Several in vitro hypoglycemic potentials of ginger and its bioactive constituents

The capacity of ginger for hypoglycemic, antidiabetic, insulogenic, better glucose tolerance, increased serum insulin levels, reduction in elevated lipid levels, and prevention of weight loss associated with diabetes in human diabetic patients

GC-MS profiling of diethyl extracts as reported by Koch et al. [46] showed the presence of monoterpenes such as (α-pinene, camphene, myrcene, and α-phellandrene), oxygenated monoterpenes (geranial, citronellal, neral, linalool, borneol, and α-terpineol), and sesquiterpenes (α-and β-farnesene, ar-curcumene, zingiberene, zingiberenol, copaene, or cadinene). The most abundant substances in the extracts were α-zingiberene (37.9%), β-sesquiphellandrene (11.4%), (E,E)-αfarnesene (9.6%), geranial (8.2%), ar-curcumene (6.3%), and γ-terpinene (5.1%). Similarly, Sharma et al. [47] reported that the essential oil of fresh ginger rhizome was characterized by high percentage of sesquiterpenes (66.66%), monoterpenes (17.28%) and aliphatic compounds (13.58%). The predominant sesquiterpene was zingiberene (46.71%) followed by valencene (7.61%), β-funebrene (3.09%) and

Various mechanisms have been proposed for the antidiabetic and hypoglycemic

activities of medicinal plants. These include peripheral utilization of glucose, increased synthesis of hepatic glycogen by enhancement of glycogen regulatory enzyme expression in the liver, inhibition of carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes, stimulation of pancreatic insulin release, insulomimetic actions and inhibition of

According to Dearlove et al. [57], spices such as cinnamon, cloves, oregano, and allspice possess bioactive compounds that have (1) antiglycation properties which inhibit the formation of AGEs; (2) antioxidant activities that neutralize the

**In vitro study Result/outcome References**

expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

α-glucosidase (IC50 = 180.1 μg/mL)

Significant inhibition of TNF-α-mediated adiponectin

Stimulated glucose uptake and GLUT4 expression in L6 myotube cell surface, reduced lipid content in 3T3 adipocyte, and inhibited protein glycation. Inhibited α-amylase (IC50 = 980.2 μg/mL) and

[6]-Shogaol acted as a peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor (PPAR)γ agonist, while [6]-gingerol acted by suppressing TNF-α-induced JNKs signaling

Dose-dependent, antidiabetic activity through inhibition of glucose diffusion and reduced glycation Sekiya et al. [42]

Isa et al. [43]

Rani et al., [44]

Sattar et al., [45]

[6]-Gingerol on 3 T3-L1 cells Enhanced differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and insulin-sensitive glucose uptake

#### *A Review of the Antidiabetic Activities of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88899*

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

alloxan-induced diabetic rats.

tance [34].

(4 mL kg<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

and 6-paradol reduced blood glucose in HFD-fed mice. Al-Qudah et al. [32] reported that aqueous extract of ginger was effective in lowering serum glucose, restoration of hematological indices to normal and repair damaged pancreas in

In another study, Oludoyin and Adegoke [33] investigated the effect of ginger extracts on blood glucose in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. The authors reported that the fasting blood glucose in diabetic rats was reduced to normal by both raw and cooked ginger extracts in a manner comparable to glibenclamide. Evaluation of the nutritional and antidiabetic activity of ginger powder, its aqueous and methanolic extract, as well as the essential oil in streptozotocininduced diabetic rats [34] revealed reduction in levels of alanine and aspartate aminotransferase (ALT and AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), liver total lipid and cholesterol of diabetic rats; and increased levels of liver glycogen and triglyceride compared to positive control group. In the study, ginger oil showed the best antidiabetic activity, followed by ginger extracts. Again, another study reported that ginger extract administered at 200 mg/kg/day/kg body weight for 10 weeks to male Sprague-Dawley diabetic rats, exhibited protective activity against insulin resis-

Al-Noory et al. [35] showed that fresh ginger extracts led to decrease in the levels of total cholesterol (TC) and low density lipoprotein (LDL) in the serum of alloxan-induced diabetic rats, compared with the control groups; and previous extracts caused reduction in LDL to levels comparable to normal group and equal to the effect of atorvastatin given at a dosage of 10 mg/day. Similarly, oral administration of aqueous ginger extract to streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats for a period of 30 days was reported to give a dose-dependent antihyperglycemic effect, 68% decrease in plasma glucose level at a daily dose of 500 mg/kg body weight, indicating that ginger is a potential phytomedicine for the treatment of diabetes [36]. Iranloye et al. [37] also showed that ginger effectively reduced fasting blood glucose, malondialdehyde levels and enhanced insulin sensitivity in alloxan-

Treatment of streptozotocin-induced Type I diabetic rats with *Z. officinale* juice

in insulin levels, decrease in fasting glucose levels, as well as significant decrease in the area under the curve of glucose in an oral glucose tolerance test [38]. According to Nammi et al. [23], treatment with an ethanolic extract of ginger at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg for 6 weeks, significantly reduced the marked increase in body weight, serum glucose, insulin, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, free

The study conducted by Al-Amin et al. [39] on the antidiabetic and hypolipidemic properties of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats revealed that raw ginger at a dose of 500 mg/kg, was significantly effective in lowering serum glucose, cholesterol and triacylglycerol as well as reduction in urine protein (reversal of diabetic proteinuria) levels, of diabetic rats. Ethanolic extracts of *Zingiber officinale* (200 mg/kg) given orally for 20 days was reported to produce significant antihyperglycemic effect (*P* < 0.01) in diabetic rats, while also lowering serum total cholesterol and triglycerides, coupled with increased HDL-cholesterol

Hypoglycemic effect of ginger (4 and 8 g/kg), administered intraperitoneally to rats after 30 min of diabetes induction, with the effect being more pronounced after 2 h has been reported. In another study, Otunola and Afolayan [41], showed that aqueous extract of a spice mixture containing ginger at 500 mg/kg body weight extract significantly (*p* < 0.05) lowered the elevated fasting blood glucose, lipid and hematological indices of alloxan-induced diabetic rats at equipotent level with glibenclamide.

, p.o. daily for 6 weeks) was reported to produce a significant increase

induced and insulin-resistant diabetic rats compared to control rats.

fatty acid and phospholipids induced by high-fat diet.

levels when compared with pathogenic diabetic rats [40].

**120**

Several in vitro hypoglycemic potentials of ginger and its bioactive constituents especially 6-shogaol have been reported (**Table 1**).

The capacity of ginger for hypoglycemic, antidiabetic, insulogenic, better glucose tolerance, increased serum insulin levels, reduction in elevated lipid levels, and prevention of weight loss associated with diabetes in human diabetic patients have also been reported (**Table 2**).

#### **3.3 Phytochemical components of** *Zingiber officinale*

GC-MS profiling of diethyl extracts as reported by Koch et al. [46] showed the presence of monoterpenes such as (α-pinene, camphene, myrcene, and α-phellandrene), oxygenated monoterpenes (geranial, citronellal, neral, linalool, borneol, and α-terpineol), and sesquiterpenes (α-and β-farnesene, ar-curcumene, zingiberene, zingiberenol, copaene, or cadinene). The most abundant substances in the extracts were α-zingiberene (37.9%), β-sesquiphellandrene (11.4%), (E,E)-αfarnesene (9.6%), geranial (8.2%), ar-curcumene (6.3%), and γ-terpinene (5.1%).

Similarly, Sharma et al. [47] reported that the essential oil of fresh ginger rhizome was characterized by high percentage of sesquiterpenes (66.66%), monoterpenes (17.28%) and aliphatic compounds (13.58%). The predominant sesquiterpene was zingiberene (46.71%) followed by valencene (7.61%), β-funebrene (3.09%) and selina-4(14),7(11)-diene (1.03%).

#### **3.4 Mechanism of action**

Various mechanisms have been proposed for the antidiabetic and hypoglycemic activities of medicinal plants. These include peripheral utilization of glucose, increased synthesis of hepatic glycogen by enhancement of glycogen regulatory enzyme expression in the liver, inhibition of carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes, stimulation of pancreatic insulin release, insulomimetic actions and inhibition of hepatic glucose production [55, 56].

According to Dearlove et al. [57], spices such as cinnamon, cloves, oregano, and allspice possess bioactive compounds that have (1) antiglycation properties which inhibit the formation of AGEs; (2) antioxidant activities that neutralize the


#### **Table 1.**

*In vitro hypoglycemic potentials of ginger and its bioactive constituents.*


#### **Table 2.**

*Clinical (human) trials of the antidiabetic potentials of ginger.*

effects of ROS; and (3) anti-inflammatory potentials. Some studies associate the antidiabetic action of ginger to its bioactive principles such as gingerol and shogaol which have the capacity to enhance glucose uptake in rat's skeletal muscle cells, and promote increased expression and translocation of GLUT-4 glucose transporter to the plasma membrane of the cells thus clearing excess glucose from the serum [34].

Another mechanism proposed was the inhibition of key enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism-α-glucosidase and α-amylase by phenolic compounds (gingerols and shogaols) present in ginger [23, 45]; while other authors showed that ginger increases muscle and liver glycogen stores by enhancing peripheral utilization of glucose, thus limiting gluconeogenesis in the liver and kidney in a manner similar to insulin [37].

Son et al. [58], posits that-gingerol exerts its antidiabetic effects through multiple mechanisms that include—(1) increased glucose uptake in the absence

**123**

*A Review of the Antidiabetic Activities of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88899*

**4. Conclusion**

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

of insulin, (2) induction of 5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase phosphorylation, (3) promotion of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) translocation to plasma membrane, (4) suppression of advanced glycation end product-induced rise of ROS levels in pancreatic β-cells, (5) reduction of fasting blood glucose levels and improved glucose intolerance, (6) regulation of hepatic gene expression of enzymes involved in glucose metabolism toward decreased gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, while increasing glycogenesis, thereby reducing blood glucose concentrations.

This study presented an update on the antidiabetic potentials of ginger from the Zingiberaceae family. Although several in vivo and in vitro reports were available, there were relatively few clinical (human) trials. The doses and outcomes also varied; as well as the mechanism of action through which antidiabetic effects were mediated. Although these reports are indicative of the anti-diabetic or hypoglycemic potentials of ginger, the doses and outcomes also varied; most importantly, the mechanisms of action through which anti-diabetic effects are mediated were highlighted. Ginger, according to these studies, exerts its anti-diabetic effects through restorative effects on pancreatic β-cells, increasing insulin sensitivity, insulin-like action and peripheral utilization of glucose. Other mechanisms include increased synthesis of hepatic glycogen through the enhancement of glycogen regulatory enzyme expression in the liver, inhibition of carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes, stimulation of pancreatic insulin release, and inhibition of hepatic glucose production. However, further studies, especially in humans are therefore needed and the oral safety of the various extracts under prolonged usage must be confirmed, more

so, since ginger is one of the spices generally regarded as safe.

Development Centre, University of Fort Hare.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The authors acknowledge the support of Govan Mbeki Research and

*A Review of the Antidiabetic Activities of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88899*

of insulin, (2) induction of 5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase phosphorylation, (3) promotion of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) translocation to plasma membrane, (4) suppression of advanced glycation end product-induced rise of ROS levels in pancreatic β-cells, (5) reduction of fasting blood glucose levels and improved glucose intolerance, (6) regulation of hepatic gene expression of enzymes involved in glucose metabolism toward decreased gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, while increasing glycogenesis, thereby reducing blood glucose concentrations.

#### **4. Conclusion**

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

Type 2 diabetic men (40–60 years) given 3 g/day of dry ginger powder in divided doses for 30 days. Number-8

Randomized double-blind placebocontrolled trial, patients with Type 2 diabetes, given 2 g/day of ginger extract supplementation. Number-28

Randomized controlled trial of Type 2 diabetic men between 30 and 70 years given 1.6 g/day of ginger or wheat flour capsule. Number-33

Randomized controlled trial of Type 2 diabetic patients (30–70years) given either 3 g/day ginger or cellulose microcrystalline capsules for 8 weeks. Number-40 T2D, 41Placebo

Randomized, double-blind, placebocontrolled, clinical trial where Type 2 diabetic patients received 2 g/day of ginger powder supplement or lactose as placebo for 12 weeks. Number-22

Randomized controlled trial of Type 2 diabetic patients (20–60y) T2DM given 3 g ginger or lactose capsule/ day for 3 months. Number-22 T2D,

Double-blind placebo-controlled trials of Type 2 diabetic patients were randomly allocated to 2000 mg/day of ginger or placebo for 10 weeks. Number-25 T2D, 25 placebo

*Clinical (human) trials of the antidiabetic potentials of ginger.*

T2D, 8 placebo

T2D, 30 Placebo

T2D, 30 Placebo

T2D, 19 placebo

23 Placebo

**Table 2.**

**Human trials/dosage Results References**

VLDL cholesterol

resistance index

Significant reduction of blood glucose, triglyceride, total cholesterol, LDL and

Significantly lowered levels of insulin, LDL-C, TG, HOMA index and increased the QUICKI index; no significant changes in FPG, TC, HDL-C and HbA1c; improved insulin sensitivity

Decreased fasting blood glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin, fasting insulin, homeostasis model assessmentinsulin resistance index, total cholesterol and triglyceride. No change in BMI, LDL-C, LDL-C and HDL-C

Significant reduction in fasting blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin; no change in BMI, fasting insulin and homeostasis model assessment-insulin

Significant reduction of fasting blood sugar, hemoglobin A1c, apolipoprotein B, apolipoprotein B/apolipoprotein A-I and malondialdehyde in ginger group compared to baseline and control group, while increasing apolipoprotein A-I in Type 2 diabetic patients

Reduced fasting blood glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin, fasting insulin, homeostasis model assessment-

Reduced serum levels of fasting blood glucose, hemoglobin A1C compared to placebo group, reduced ratio of LDL-C/ HDL-C; but no significant change in serum concentrations of triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL-C, and HDL-C

insulin resistance index

Andallu et al. [48]

Mahluji et al. [49]

Arablou et al. [50]

Mozaffari-Khosravi

Khandouzi et al. [52]

Shidfar et al. [53]

Arzatii et al. [54]

et al. [51]

effects of ROS; and (3) anti-inflammatory potentials. Some studies associate the antidiabetic action of ginger to its bioactive principles such as gingerol and shogaol which have the capacity to enhance glucose uptake in rat's skeletal muscle cells, and promote increased expression and translocation of GLUT-4 glucose transporter to the plasma membrane of the cells thus clearing excess glucose from the serum [34]. Another mechanism proposed was the inhibition of key enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism-α-glucosidase and α-amylase by phenolic compounds (gingerols and shogaols) present in ginger [23, 45]; while other authors showed that ginger increases muscle and liver glycogen stores by enhancing peripheral utilization of glucose, thus limiting gluconeogenesis in the liver and kidney in a manner similar to

Son et al. [58], posits that-gingerol exerts its antidiabetic effects through multiple mechanisms that include—(1) increased glucose uptake in the absence

**122**

insulin [37].

This study presented an update on the antidiabetic potentials of ginger from the Zingiberaceae family. Although several in vivo and in vitro reports were available, there were relatively few clinical (human) trials. The doses and outcomes also varied; as well as the mechanism of action through which antidiabetic effects were mediated. Although these reports are indicative of the anti-diabetic or hypoglycemic potentials of ginger, the doses and outcomes also varied; most importantly, the mechanisms of action through which anti-diabetic effects are mediated were highlighted. Ginger, according to these studies, exerts its anti-diabetic effects through restorative effects on pancreatic β-cells, increasing insulin sensitivity, insulin-like action and peripheral utilization of glucose. Other mechanisms include increased synthesis of hepatic glycogen through the enhancement of glycogen regulatory enzyme expression in the liver, inhibition of carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes, stimulation of pancreatic insulin release, and inhibition of hepatic glucose production. However, further studies, especially in humans are therefore needed and the oral safety of the various extracts under prolonged usage must be confirmed, more so, since ginger is one of the spices generally regarded as safe.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The authors acknowledge the support of Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre, University of Fort Hare.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Author details**

Gloria Aderonke Otunola\* and Anthony Jide Afolayan Medicinal Plants and Economic Development (MPED) Research Centre, Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: gotunola@ufh.ac.za

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**125**

*A Review of the Antidiabetic Activities of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88899*

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[9] Afzal M, Al-Hadidi D, Menon M, Pesek J, Dhabi MSG. An ethnomedicinal,

[10] Bode AM, Dong Z. The amazing and mighty ginger. In: Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S, editors. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2011. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

chemical and pharmacological review. Drug Metabolism and Drug Interactions. 2001;**18**:159-190

2010;**51**(1):13-28

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[13] Ghayur MN, Gilani AH.

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[14] Nicoll R, Henein MY. Ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Roscoe): A hot remedy for cardiovascular disease? International Journal of Cardiology.

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**Author details**

Gloria Aderonke Otunola\* and Anthony Jide Afolayan

\*Address all correspondence to: gotunola@ufh.ac.za

provided the original work is properly cited.

Medicinal Plants and Economic Development (MPED) Research Centre, Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

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[11] Grzanna R, Lindmark L, Frondoza CG. Ginger—An herbal medicinal product with broad antiinflammatory actions. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2005;**8**(2):125-132

[12] Ali BH, Blunden G, Tanira MO, Nemmar A. Some phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Roscoe): A review of recent research. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2008;**46**(2):409-420

[13] Ghayur MN, Gilani AH. Pharmacological basis for the medicinal use of ginger in gastrointestinal disorders. Digestive Diseases and Sciences. 2005;**50**:1889-1897. DOI: 10.1007/s10620-005-2957-2

[14] Nicoll R, Henein MY. Ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Roscoe): A hot remedy for cardiovascular disease? International Journal of Cardiology. 2009;**131**:408-409

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[22] Kalejaiye OF, Iwalewa EO, Omobuwajo OR, Oyedapo OO. Hypoglycaemic effects of Nigerian *Zingiber officinale* rhizome on experimental diabetic rats. Nigerian Journal of Natural Products and Medicine. 2002;**6**(1):33-35

[23] Nammi S, Satyanarayana S, Basil DR. Protective effects of ethanolic extract of *Zingiber officinale* rhizome on the development of metabolic syndrome in high-fat diet-fed rats. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 2009;**104**(5):366-373

[24] Abdulrazaq NB, Maung MC, Ni NW, Rahela Z, Mohammad TR. Beneficial effects of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) on carbohydrate metabolism in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. British Journal of Nutrition. 2012;**108**(7):1194-1201

[25] Jafri SA, Sohail A, Muhammad Q. Hypoglycemic effect of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) in alloxan induced diabetic rats (*Rattus norvagicus)*. Pakistan Veterinary Journal. 2011;**31**(2):160-162

[26] Morakinyo AO, Akindele AJ, Ahmed Z. Modulation of antioxidant enzymes and inflammatory cytokines: Possible mechanism of anti-diabetic effect of ginger extracts. African Journal of Biomedical Research. 2011;**14**(3):195-202

[27] Lindstedt I. Ginger and diabetes: A mini-review. Archives of General Internal Medicine. 2018;**2**(2):29-33

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[29] Lamuchi-Deli N, Mohammad A, Hossein B-R, Ghorban M. Effects of the hydroalcoholic extract of *Zingiber officinale* on arginase I activity and expression in the retina of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2017;**15**(2)

[30] de La Heras N, Munoz VM, Fernandez MB, Ballesteros S, Farre LA, Roso RB, et al. Molecular factors involved in the hypolipidemic- and insulin-sensitizing effects of a ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Roscoe) extract

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[40] Bhandari U, Kanojia R, Pillai K. Effect of ethanolic extract of *Zingiber officinale* on dyslipidaemia in diabetic rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2005;**97**:227-230. DOI: 10.1016/j.

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Science. 2015;**8**(4):314-323

2004;**22**(1-4):153-156

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[43] Isa Y, Miyakawa Y, Yanagisawa M, et al. [6]-Shogaol and [6]-gingerol, the pungent of ginger, inhibit TNFalpha mediated downregulation of adiponectin expression via different mechanisms in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2008;**373**(3):429-434

Antidiabetic effect of combined spices of *Allium sativum, Zingiber officinale* and *Capsicum frutescens* in alloxaninduced diabetic rats. Frontiers in Life

2004;**56**:101-105

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Journal of Molecular Sciences.

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[33] Oludoyin AP, Adegoke SR. Effect of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) extracts on blood glucose in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. International Journal of Clinical

[34] Anfenan MLK. Evaluation of nutritional and antidiabetic activity of different forms of ginger in rats. Middle-East Journal of Scientific

[35] Al-Noory AS, Amreen AN, Hymoor S. Antihyperlipidemic effects of ginger extracts in alloxan-induced diabetes and propylthiouracilinduced hypothyroidism in (rats). Pharmacognosy Resarch. 2013;**5**:157-161

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S0007114511006635

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*A Review of the Antidiabetic Activities of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88899*

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

[23] Nammi S, Satyanarayana S,

[24] Abdulrazaq NB, Maung MC, Ni NW, Rahela Z, Mohammad TR. Beneficial effects of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) on carbohydrate metabolism in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. British Journal of Nutrition.

[25] Jafri SA, Sohail A, Muhammad Q. Hypoglycemic effect of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) in alloxan induced diabetic rats (*Rattus norvagicus)*. Pakistan Veterinary Journal. 2011;**31**(2):160-162

[26] Morakinyo AO, Akindele AJ, Ahmed Z. Modulation of antioxidant enzymes and inflammatory cytokines: Possible mechanism of anti-diabetic effect of ginger extracts. African Journal of Biomedical Research.

[27] Lindstedt I. Ginger and diabetes: A mini-review. Archives of General Internal Medicine. 2018;**2**(2):29-33

[28] www.amazon.com/Culinary-Ginger-Zingiber-Officinalecooking/dp/ B01NAJQ6C6 [Accessed: 18 July 2018]

[29] Lamuchi-Deli N, Mohammad A, Hossein B-R, Ghorban M. Effects of the hydroalcoholic extract of *Zingiber officinale* on arginase I

activity and expression in the retina of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. International Journal of Endocrinology

Fernandez MB, Ballesteros S, Farre LA, Roso RB, et al. Molecular factors involved in the hypolipidemic- and insulin-sensitizing effects of a ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Roscoe) extract

and Metabolism. 2017;**15**(2)

[30] de La Heras N, Munoz VM,

2009;**104**(5):366-373

2012;**108**(7):1194-1201

2011;**14**(3):195-202

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[16] Qian QH, Yue W, Wang YX, Yang ZH, Liu ZT, Chen WH. Gingerol inhibits cisplatininduced vomiting by down regulating 5-hydroxytryptamine, dopamine and substance P expression in minks. Archives of Pharmacal Research.

[17] Ojewole JAO. Analgesic, anti

inflammatory and hypoglycaemic effects of ethanol extract of *Zingiber officinale* (Roscoe) rhizomes (Zingiberaceae) in mice and rats. Phytotherapy Research.

[18] Elkhishin IA, Ibrahim AA. A study of the cardiovascular toxic effects of *Zingiber officinale* (ginger) in adult male albino rats and its possible mechanisms of action. Mansoura Journal of Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology.

[19] Singh A, Sanjiv D, Jaswinder S, Shankar K. Experimental advances in pharmacology of gingerol and analogues. Pharmacy Global:

International Journal of Comprehensive

[20] Salim KS. Hypoglycemic property of ginger and green tea and their possible mechanisms in diabetes mellitus. Open Conference Proceedings

[21] Yiming L, Van HT, Colin CD, Basil DR. Preventive and protective properties of *Zingiber officinale* (ginger) in diabetes mellitus, diabetic complications, and associated lipid and other metabolic disorders: A brief review. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012:10.

[22] Kalejaiye OF, Iwalewa EO, Omobuwajo OR, Oyedapo OO. Hypoglycaemic effects of Nigerian *Zingiber officinale* rhizome on experimental diabetic rats. Nigerian Journal of Natural Products and Medicine. 2002;**6**(1):33-35

2009;**32**(4):565-573

2006;**20**(9):764-772

2009;**17**(2):109-127

Pharmacy. 2010;**2**(4)

Journal. 2014;**5**:13-19

Article ID 516870

**126**

in rats fed a high-fat diet. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 2017;**42**:209-215

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[32] Al-Qudah MMA, Moawiya AH, El-Qudah JMF. The effects of aqueous ginger extract on pancreas histology and on blood glucose in normal and alloxan monohydrate-induced diabetic rats. Biomedical Research. 2016;**27**(2)

[33] Oludoyin AP, Adegoke SR. Effect of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) extracts on blood glucose in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. International Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2014;**2**:32-35

[34] Anfenan MLK. Evaluation of nutritional and antidiabetic activity of different forms of ginger in rats. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research. 2014;**21**:56-62

[35] Al-Noory AS, Amreen AN, Hymoor S. Antihyperlipidemic effects of ginger extracts in alloxan-induced diabetes and propylthiouracilinduced hypothyroidism in (rats). Pharmacognosy Resarch. 2013;**5**:157-161

[36] Abdulrazaq N, Cho M, Win N, Zaman R, Rahman M. Beneficial effects of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) on carbohydrate metabolism in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. British Journal of Nutrition. 2012;**108**(7):1194-1201. DOI: 10.1017/ S0007114511006635

[37] Iranloye BO, Arikawe AP, Rotimi G, Sogbade AO. Anti-diabetic and antioxidant effects of *Zingiber officinale* on

alloxan-induced and insulin-resistant diabetic male rats. Nigerian Journal of Physiological Sciences. 2011;**26**(1)

[38] Akhani SP, Vishwakarma SL, Goyal RK. Anti-diabetic activity of *Zingiber officinale* in streptozotocininduced type I diabetic rats. The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2004;**56**:101-105

[39] Al-Amin ZM, Thomson M, Al-Qattan KK, Peltonen-Shalaby R, Ali M. Anti-diabetic and hypolipidaemic properties of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. British Journal of Nutrition. 2006;**96**(4):660-666

[40] Bhandari U, Kanojia R, Pillai K. Effect of ethanolic extract of *Zingiber officinale* on dyslipidaemia in diabetic rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2005;**97**:227-230. DOI: 10.1016/j. jep.2004.11.011

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[42] Sekiya K, Ohtani A, Kusano S. Enhancement of insulin sensitivity in adipocytes by ginger. Bio Factors. 2004;**22**(1-4):153-156

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[53] Koch W, Kukula-Koch W, Marzec Z, Kasperek E, Wyszogrodzka-Koma L, Szwerc W, et al. Application of chromatographic and spectroscopic methods towards the quality assessment of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) rhizomes from ecological plantations. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2017;**18**(2):452

[54] Sharma PK, Singh V, Ali M. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of fresh rhizome essential oil of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe. Pharmacognosy Journal. 2016;**8**(3):185-190

[55] Bnouham M, Ziyyat A, Mekhfi H, Tahri A, Legssyer A. Medicinal plants with potential antidiabetic activity—A review of ten years of herbal medicine research (1990-2000). International Journal of Diabetes and Metabolism. 2006;**14**:1-25

[56] Yatoo MI, Saxena A, Gopalakrishnan A, Alagawany M, Dhama K. Promising antidiabetic drugs, medicinal plants and herbs: An update. International Journal de Pharmacologie. 2017;**13**:732-745

[57] Dearlove RP, Greenspan P, Hartle DK, Swanson RB, Hargrove JL. Inhibition of protein glycation

**129**

*A Review of the Antidiabetic Activities of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88899*

by extracts of culinary herbs and spices. Journal of Medicinal Food.

[58] Son MJ, Miura Y, Yagasaki K. Mechanisms for antidiabetic effect of gingerol in cultured cells and obese diabetic model mice. Cytotechnology.

2008;**11**(2):275-281

2015;**67**:641

*A Review of the Antidiabetic Activities of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88899*

by extracts of culinary herbs and spices. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2008;**11**(2):275-281

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

[51] Shidfar F, Rajab A, Rahideh T, Khandouzi N, Hosseini S, Shidfar S. The effect of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) on glycemic markers in patients with type 2 diabetes. Journal of Complementary

and Integrative Medicine. 2015;**12**(2):165-170

DOI: 10.5812/ijem.57927

of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*)

[54] Sharma PK, Singh V, Ali M. Chemical composition and

Sciences. 2017;**18**(2):452

2016;**8**(3):185-190

2006;**14**:1-25

2017;**13**:732-745

[56] Yatoo MI, Saxena A,

Gopalakrishnan A, Alagawany M, Dhama K. Promising antidiabetic drugs, medicinal plants and herbs: An update. International Journal de Pharmacologie.

[57] Dearlove RP, Greenspan P,

Inhibition of protein glycation

Hartle DK, Swanson RB, Hargrove JL.

[52] Arzati MM, Honarvar NM, Saedisomeolia A, Anvari S,

Effatpanah M, Arzati RM, et al. The effects of ginger on fasting blood sugar, hemoglobin A1c, and lipid profiles in patients with type 2 diabetes. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2017;**15**(4):e57927.

[53] Koch W, Kukula-Koch W, Marzec Z, Kasperek E, Wyszogrodzka-Koma L, Szwerc W, et al. Application of chromatographic and spectroscopic methods towards the quality assessment

rhizomes from ecological plantations. International Journal of Molecular

antimicrobial activity of fresh rhizome essential oil of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe. Pharmacognosy Journal.

[55] Bnouham M, Ziyyat A, Mekhfi H, Tahri A, Legssyer A. Medicinal plants with potential antidiabetic activity—A review of ten years of herbal medicine research (1990-2000). International Journal of Diabetes and Metabolism.

differentiation: An in vitro study. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2012;**92**(9):1948-1955

[45] Sattar NA, Hussain F, Iqbal T, Sheikh MA. Determination of in vitro

antidiabetic effects of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe. Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences.

2012;**48**(4):601-607

[46] Andallu B, Radhika B,

[48] Arablou T, Aryaeian N,

[49] Mozaffari-Khosravi H, Talaei B, Jalali BA, Najarzadeh A, Mozayan MR. The effect of ginger powder supplementation on insulin resistance and glycemic indices in patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomized, double-blind, placebocontrolled trial. Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 2014;**22**(1):9-16

[50] Khandouzi N, Farzad S, Asadollah R, Tayebeh R, Payam H, Mohsen MT. The effects of ginger on fasting blood sugar, hemoglobin A1c, apolipoprotein B, apolipoprotein AI and malondialdehyde in type 2 diabetic patients. Iranian Journal of Pharmacy

Research. 2015;**14**(1):131

Valizadeh M, Sharifi F, Hosseini A, Djalali M. The effect of ginger

consumption on glycemic status, lipid profile and some inflammatory markers in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 2014;**65**(4):515-520

Suryakantham V. Effect of aswagandha, ginger and mulberry on hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2003;**58**(3):1-7

[47] Mahluji S, Attari VE, Mobasseri M, Payahoo L, Ostadrahimi A, Golzari SEJ. Effects of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) on plasma glucose level, HbA1c and insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic patients. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 2013;**64**(6):682-686. DOI: 10.3109/09637486.2013.775223

**128**

[58] Son MJ, Miura Y, Yagasaki K. Mechanisms for antidiabetic effect of gingerol in cultured cells and obese diabetic model mice. Cytotechnology. 2015;**67**:641

**131**

**Chapter 9**

**Abstract**

Ginger

Pharmacological Potentials of

*Fatai Oladunni Balogun, Esther Tayo AdeyeOluwa* 

*Zingiber officinale*, belonging to the family Zingiberaceae, is a popular spice and herb used as delicacy and to manage numerous diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, cancer, ulcer, diarrhea, cold, cough, spasm, vomiting, etc. in folk medicine from China, India, and Arabia Peninsula to other continents of the world including Africa (Nigeria, Egypt, and so on). Though this review is aimed at summarizing the pharmacological potentials of this well-endowed spice, interestingly, we found out that these reported ethnobotanical uses are attributed to a number of inherent chemical constituents including gingerol, 6-, 8-, 10-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 6-hydroshogaol, oleoresin, etc., eliciting various pharmacological effects, not limited to antioxidant, antitumor/anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycemic, antihypertensive, anticholesterolemic, antibiotic/antimicrobial, neuroprotective, antiulcer/gastroprotective, antiemetic, hepatoprotective, and antiplatelet aggregation, safety profiles established through a number of studies (in vitro, in vivo, and cell lines), though some of these potentials are yet to be explored. Sadly, even few of these established effects are yet to be experimented in clinical trials, and only until these are intensified would there be prospect toward drug development for preventive and curative treatments. In conclusion, we are able to highlight and sum up the therapeutic implications of ginger and its related derivatives in the management of

**Keywords:** ginger, spice, pharmacological potentials, gingerol, 6-, 8-, 10-gingerol,

Ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Roscoe) is a well-known herbal spice believed to have originated from either India [1] or Southeast Asia [2]. It is a sterile plant, thus reproduced by rhizomes, not by seeds [3], and grows well in tropical and subtropical regions of the world [4]. It is used for culinary purposes, as a seasoning or condiment and as a therapeutic agent [5]. It is known to be an effective spasmolytic, antipyretic, antiemetic, antioxidant, antiulcer, analgesic, hypotensive, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory agent [6, 7] containing scented essential oils and spicy oleoresins [8]. Ginger has long been in use therapeutically and currently still validated as a potent medicinal spice for the treatment of various ailments. Indigenously, it has been used against colds [9], sore throats [10], and *Staphylococcus aureus* [11] and tested effectively against cancer cells [12]. Ginger can be used as a dietary

*and Anofi Omotayo Tom Ashafa*

ailments confronting humanity.

**1. Introduction**

6-shogaol, 6-hydroshogaol, oleoresin

#### **Chapter 9**

## Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger

*Fatai Oladunni Balogun, Esther Tayo AdeyeOluwa and Anofi Omotayo Tom Ashafa*

#### **Abstract**

*Zingiber officinale*, belonging to the family Zingiberaceae, is a popular spice and herb used as delicacy and to manage numerous diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, cancer, ulcer, diarrhea, cold, cough, spasm, vomiting, etc. in folk medicine from China, India, and Arabia Peninsula to other continents of the world including Africa (Nigeria, Egypt, and so on). Though this review is aimed at summarizing the pharmacological potentials of this well-endowed spice, interestingly, we found out that these reported ethnobotanical uses are attributed to a number of inherent chemical constituents including gingerol, 6-, 8-, 10-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 6-hydroshogaol, oleoresin, etc., eliciting various pharmacological effects, not limited to antioxidant, antitumor/anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycemic, antihypertensive, anticholesterolemic, antibiotic/antimicrobial, neuroprotective, antiulcer/gastroprotective, antiemetic, hepatoprotective, and antiplatelet aggregation, safety profiles established through a number of studies (in vitro, in vivo, and cell lines), though some of these potentials are yet to be explored. Sadly, even few of these established effects are yet to be experimented in clinical trials, and only until these are intensified would there be prospect toward drug development for preventive and curative treatments. In conclusion, we are able to highlight and sum up the therapeutic implications of ginger and its related derivatives in the management of ailments confronting humanity.

**Keywords:** ginger, spice, pharmacological potentials, gingerol, 6-, 8-, 10-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 6-hydroshogaol, oleoresin

#### **1. Introduction**

Ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Roscoe) is a well-known herbal spice believed to have originated from either India [1] or Southeast Asia [2]. It is a sterile plant, thus reproduced by rhizomes, not by seeds [3], and grows well in tropical and subtropical regions of the world [4]. It is used for culinary purposes, as a seasoning or condiment and as a therapeutic agent [5]. It is known to be an effective spasmolytic, antipyretic, antiemetic, antioxidant, antiulcer, analgesic, hypotensive, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory agent [6, 7] containing scented essential oils and spicy oleoresins [8]. Ginger has long been in use therapeutically and currently still validated as a potent medicinal spice for the treatment of various ailments. Indigenously, it has been used against colds [9], sore throats [10], and *Staphylococcus aureus* [11] and tested effectively against cancer cells [12]. Ginger can be used as a dietary

supplement and as additives in the production of various snacks and merchantable products [13]. Additionally, it is considered a safe herbal drug [14], as the spices have been categorized to be generally regarded as safe: "GRAS."

#### **2. Botanical description, occurrence, and distribution**

*Zingiber officinale* (Roscoe), ginger of the family Zingiberaceae, is an herbaceous (available as rhizomes) perennial plant growing as tall as 90 cm. The leaves, lanceolate, appear to be simple, alternate, distichous, narrow, long possessing sheathing bases with 2–3 cm broad, while the rhizomes (7–15 cm long and 1–1.5 cm broad) are aromatic, thick lobed with pale yellow coloration. The flowers are small, have calyx that are lofty, have sepals very united, are three toothed, and split open on a side with three subequal corolla forming an oblong to lanceolate connate segment with green coloration [15, 16]. Ginger give rise to numerous lateral clump shoot which on maturation appeared dry. Ginger originate from Southeast Asia predominately in India but now well distributed or cultivated in China, Bangladesh, Australia, and Nigeria [17].

#### **3. Ethnobotanical uses**

Ginger had been used medicinally since time immemorial with documented use from Sanskrit, Chinese, Greek, Arabic, and Roman ethnomedicine book. However, in the ninth century, Europe recognized the indigenous use of this wonderful spice, and England followed suit in the tenth century. Ginger is used in folkloric medicine for indigestion, high blood pressure, arthritis, intestinal and throat infections, vomiting, nausea, lung diseases, cold, cough, pain, swellings, etc. [15, 17, 18]. Other nutritional uses are found in condiment, beer, wine, and so on [18].

#### **4. Phytochemistry of ginger**

Ginger, a spice of diverse health benefits, has been found to be rich in nonnutritive and biologically active compounds known as phytochemicals [19, 20], which have been linked to its health functions. The nutritional and therapeutic values have been recognized in its nutraceutical benefits linked to the presence of certain phytochemicals contained in it. The use of ginger as a nutraceutical agent is not only attributed to its health-augmenting benefits but also to its availability, affordability, and safety.

More than 400 compounds have been found in the chemical analyses of ginger [21]. These compounds includes alkaloids; saponins; flavonoids; steroids; tannins; carbohydrates; glycosides; proteins; amino acids; dietary fiber; ash; phytosterols; vitamins A, B, and C; minerals; and terpenoids [22–24] while detected to be devoid of acid compounds and reducing sugars [23].

The main components of the ginger rhizome are in the order carbohydrates, lipids, terpenes, and phenolic compounds [25]. The terpenes and the phenolic compounds make up the two foremost classes of phytochemicals in ginger [26]. Phenolic compounds of ginger are also referred to as its nonvolatile components, which have been incriminated in its pharmacological activity. They consist of gingerols and its 6, 8, and 10 derivatives and the corresponding series of homologous shogaol and zingerone, obtained from heat or alkali treated gingerols [26]. Shogaol, paradol, and gingerols have been depicted to be responsible for the pungent taste and smell of ginger [1, 27]. The terpene components of ginger, sesquiterpenes and

**133**

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

the major essential oil derived in ginger [8].

inotropic activity [24].

**5.1 Antioxidant**

**5. Pharmacological potentials**

monoterpenes, are believed to be the volatile fractions [27]. The sesquiterpenes are thought to be a major contributor to the savor of ginger, while the monoterpenes are referred to as the most abundant terpenes in fresh ginger oil [24]. The main sesquiterpenes, zingiberene and β-bisabolene, are responsible for its aromatic scent, while

Phenolic compounds of ginger are majorly derived from fresh ginger rhizomes, while the terpenes are derived from distillation of ginger oils [26] although their quantity has been found to vary depending on the region of germination. This may be dependent on climate or edaphic conditions as well as genetic variations [28]. The pungent compounds (gingerols, methyl gingerols, shogaols, paradol, and gingerdiones), volatile oil, and other compounds extracted by means of ethanol or acetone constitute the oleoresin [29, 30]. Volatile oils are about 1–4%, lipids about 6–8%, proteins about 9%, and carbohydrates about 50–80% [28] while geraniol is

Zingerone, geraniol, gingerols, shogaols, gingerdiols, gingerdiones, and dehydrogingerdiones have been reported to have antioxidant activity; 6-, 8-, and 10-gingerol and 6-gingerdiol possessed antifungal activity. While 6-gingerol had established antidiabetic and reno-protective activities, zingerone, 6-shogaol, 6-gingerol (anticancer, anti-obesity, and gastroprotective activities), and gingerol and its pungent derivatives (anti-inflammatory activity), 6-shogaol (analgesic, neuroprotective, and strong gastroprotective activities), 6-gingerol, and 6-shogaol, acted against platelet aggregation; 10-gingerol had larvicidal activity; and 6-, 8-, 10-gingerol possessed

The review from most countries of the world such as Egypt [20], Korea [17], Pakistan [15], India [16, 31, 32], Oman [5], Brazil [33], Canada [34] etc. had established the pharmacological potentials of this popular plant, *Zingiber officinale* (Roscoe), used most times as spice. Additionally, while some reports centers on the action of ginger, others point to the effect of its active components as they target specific diseases including but not limited to diabetes [35], inflammation [25], cancer [22], emetics [36], nausea and vomiting [37] and so on. Thus, the pharmacological potentials (antioxidant, anticancer, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycemic, antihypertensive, anticholesterolemic, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, antiulcer, antiemetic, hepatoprotective) and toxicity profiles of ginger

The overproduction of free radicals (ROS) in situation where the antioxidant defense mechanism is compromised results into a state of oxidative stress. In order to overcome the excessive free radical (FR) generation and oxidative stress, antioxidants play an important role. Numerous medicinal plants (MPs) and/or their constituents have established their prominence in preventing the onset of diseases particularly those triggered by FR. Ginger, a good example of MPs with excellent antioxidative effect, has been found to exert this action by lowering peroxidation of lipid such as the inhibition of ascorbate/ferrous complex in rat liver microsomes as cited by Rahmani et al. [20] and Mele [17] in the report of Reddy and Lokesh [38] using a concentration of 150 mM (**Table 1**). Ginger or its derivatives (extracts, compounds, or active components) and gingerol are found to have good scavenging effect against superoxide anion and hydroxyl radicals [63–65]. In fact, further

as submitted in these reports are presented one after the other below.

others include α-farnesene, β-sesquiphellandrene, and α-curcumene [21].

#### *Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

have been categorized to be generally regarded as safe: "GRAS."

**2. Botanical description, occurrence, and distribution**

**3. Ethnobotanical uses**

**4. Phytochemistry of ginger**

of acid compounds and reducing sugars [23].

supplement and as additives in the production of various snacks and merchantable products [13]. Additionally, it is considered a safe herbal drug [14], as the spices

*Zingiber officinale* (Roscoe), ginger of the family Zingiberaceae, is an herbaceous (available as rhizomes) perennial plant growing as tall as 90 cm. The leaves, lanceolate, appear to be simple, alternate, distichous, narrow, long possessing sheathing bases with 2–3 cm broad, while the rhizomes (7–15 cm long and 1–1.5 cm broad) are aromatic, thick lobed with pale yellow coloration. The flowers are small, have calyx that are lofty, have sepals very united, are three toothed, and split open on a side with three subequal corolla forming an oblong to lanceolate connate segment with green coloration [15, 16]. Ginger give rise to numerous lateral clump shoot which on maturation appeared dry. Ginger originate from Southeast Asia predominately in India but now well distributed or cultivated in China, Bangladesh, Australia, and Nigeria [17].

Ginger had been used medicinally since time immemorial with documented use from Sanskrit, Chinese, Greek, Arabic, and Roman ethnomedicine book. However, in the ninth century, Europe recognized the indigenous use of this wonderful spice, and England followed suit in the tenth century. Ginger is used in folkloric medicine for indigestion, high blood pressure, arthritis, intestinal and throat infections, vomiting, nausea, lung diseases, cold, cough, pain, swellings, etc. [15, 17, 18]. Other

Ginger, a spice of diverse health benefits, has been found to be rich in nonnutritive and biologically active compounds known as phytochemicals [19, 20], which have been linked to its health functions. The nutritional and therapeutic values have been recognized in its nutraceutical benefits linked to the presence of certain phytochemicals contained in it. The use of ginger as a nutraceutical agent is not only attributed to its health-augmenting benefits but also to its availability, affordability,

More than 400 compounds have been found in the chemical analyses of ginger [21]. These compounds includes alkaloids; saponins; flavonoids; steroids; tannins; carbohydrates; glycosides; proteins; amino acids; dietary fiber; ash; phytosterols; vitamins A, B, and C; minerals; and terpenoids [22–24] while detected to be devoid

The main components of the ginger rhizome are in the order carbohydrates, lipids, terpenes, and phenolic compounds [25]. The terpenes and the phenolic compounds make up the two foremost classes of phytochemicals in ginger [26]. Phenolic compounds of ginger are also referred to as its nonvolatile components, which have been incriminated in its pharmacological activity. They consist of gingerols and its 6, 8, and 10 derivatives and the corresponding series of homologous shogaol and zingerone, obtained from heat or alkali treated gingerols [26]. Shogaol, paradol, and gingerols have been depicted to be responsible for the pungent taste and smell of ginger [1, 27]. The terpene components of ginger, sesquiterpenes and

nutritional uses are found in condiment, beer, wine, and so on [18].

**132**

and safety.

monoterpenes, are believed to be the volatile fractions [27]. The sesquiterpenes are thought to be a major contributor to the savor of ginger, while the monoterpenes are referred to as the most abundant terpenes in fresh ginger oil [24]. The main sesquiterpenes, zingiberene and β-bisabolene, are responsible for its aromatic scent, while others include α-farnesene, β-sesquiphellandrene, and α-curcumene [21].

Phenolic compounds of ginger are majorly derived from fresh ginger rhizomes, while the terpenes are derived from distillation of ginger oils [26] although their quantity has been found to vary depending on the region of germination. This may be dependent on climate or edaphic conditions as well as genetic variations [28]. The pungent compounds (gingerols, methyl gingerols, shogaols, paradol, and gingerdiones), volatile oil, and other compounds extracted by means of ethanol or acetone constitute the oleoresin [29, 30]. Volatile oils are about 1–4%, lipids about 6–8%, proteins about 9%, and carbohydrates about 50–80% [28] while geraniol is the major essential oil derived in ginger [8].

Zingerone, geraniol, gingerols, shogaols, gingerdiols, gingerdiones, and dehydrogingerdiones have been reported to have antioxidant activity; 6-, 8-, and 10-gingerol and 6-gingerdiol possessed antifungal activity. While 6-gingerol had established antidiabetic and reno-protective activities, zingerone, 6-shogaol, 6-gingerol (anticancer, anti-obesity, and gastroprotective activities), and gingerol and its pungent derivatives (anti-inflammatory activity), 6-shogaol (analgesic, neuroprotective, and strong gastroprotective activities), 6-gingerol, and 6-shogaol, acted against platelet aggregation; 10-gingerol had larvicidal activity; and 6-, 8-, 10-gingerol possessed inotropic activity [24].

#### **5. Pharmacological potentials**

The review from most countries of the world such as Egypt [20], Korea [17], Pakistan [15], India [16, 31, 32], Oman [5], Brazil [33], Canada [34] etc. had established the pharmacological potentials of this popular plant, *Zingiber officinale* (Roscoe), used most times as spice. Additionally, while some reports centers on the action of ginger, others point to the effect of its active components as they target specific diseases including but not limited to diabetes [35], inflammation [25], cancer [22], emetics [36], nausea and vomiting [37] and so on. Thus, the pharmacological potentials (antioxidant, anticancer, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycemic, antihypertensive, anticholesterolemic, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, antiulcer, antiemetic, hepatoprotective) and toxicity profiles of ginger as submitted in these reports are presented one after the other below.

#### **5.1 Antioxidant**

The overproduction of free radicals (ROS) in situation where the antioxidant defense mechanism is compromised results into a state of oxidative stress. In order to overcome the excessive free radical (FR) generation and oxidative stress, antioxidants play an important role. Numerous medicinal plants (MPs) and/or their constituents have established their prominence in preventing the onset of diseases particularly those triggered by FR. Ginger, a good example of MPs with excellent antioxidative effect, has been found to exert this action by lowering peroxidation of lipid such as the inhibition of ascorbate/ferrous complex in rat liver microsomes as cited by Rahmani et al. [20] and Mele [17] in the report of Reddy and Lokesh [38] using a concentration of 150 mM (**Table 1**). Ginger or its derivatives (extracts, compounds, or active components) and gingerol are found to have good scavenging effect against superoxide anion and hydroxyl radicals [63–65]. In fact, further


**135**

**Ginger/derivatives**

Ginger oil

Ginger Ginger

Antidiabetic

Standard spectrophotometric methods (glycation inhibition, glucose diffusion)

Streptozotocin-induced

In vivo

25, 50 mg/kg bw

Aqueous

Malaysia

Sukalingam et al., [52]

6-gingerol Ginger, 6-, 8-, and

Antihypertensive

Pentothal -induced

In vivo

3–10 mg/kg

Aqueous

Pakistan

Ghayur et al., [53]

10-gingerol, while

6-shogaol

Ginger Ginger Oleoresin, essential oil

Antifungi and

Disc diffusion

In vitro

NI (3 uL)

antibacterial

(antimicrobial)

Antibacterial

Disc diffusion

In vitro

0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0%

Ethanol,

Nigeria

Malu et al., [55]

Ekwenye and

Elegalam, [56]

Sebiomo et al.,

[57]

Nigeria

ethyl

acetate,

n-hexane

aqueous,

ethanol

aqueous,

ethanol

NI

Algeria

Bellik, [44]

35.25, 75, 250, 500 mg/ml

20, 40, 60, 80, 100 g/ml

Anticholesterolemic

NI

In vivo

50, 500 mg/kg

Aqueous

Kuwait

Thompson et al.,

[54]

Antidiabetic

Antiarthritis, anti-inflammatory

Hind paw

In vivo

33 mk/kg

NI

Malaysia

Sharma et al., [49]

Antidiabetic

Streptozotocin -induced

In vivo In vitro

5, 10, 20, 40 g/L

Aqueous

Pakistan

100, 300, 500 mg/kg bw

Aqueous

Malaysia

**Potentials**

**Assay(s) employed**

**Type of study**

**Concentration(s) tested**

**Extracts (if any)**

**Country (where the report is published)**

**References** 

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

Abdul Razaq et al., [50]

Sattar et al., [51]

#### *Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

#### *Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

**134**

**Ginger/derivatives**

Ginger Ginger extracts

Ginger extracts

6-gingerol

Ginger Oleoresin, 6-gingerol,

Antioxidant,

Nitric oxide, ABTS, DPPH,

In vitro

NI

NI

India, Algeria

Dugasani et al.,

[42]; Li et al., [43];

Bellik, [44]

Disc diffusion

antimicrobial,

anti-inflammatory

8-gingerol,

10-gingerol, 6-shogaol,

6-hydroshogaol

Ginger Ginger extracts

Anticancer (pancreas)

Anti-inflammatory,

Hind paw

analgesic, hypoglycemic,

safety profile

Panc-1 cells

Anticancer (prostrate

0.1% ethionine-induced

In vitro

100 mg/kg

NI

USA, Malaysia

Karna et al., [45];

Habib et al., [46]

and

in vivo

Cell

NI

Ethanol

Japan

Akimoto et al.,

[47]

lines,

in vivo

In vitro

50–800 mg/kg

Ethanol

South Africa

Ojewole, [48]

and

in vivo

and liver)

Antioxidant, antidiabetic

MDA, FRAP

streptozotocin-induced

Antiproliferative

Antioxidant,

anti-inflammatory

Hep G2 cells UVB-induced intracellular

In vitro

NI (200 μL)

and

in vivo

(mice)

In vitro

5% ginger in daily foods

NI

Iran

Afshari et al., [41]

and

in vivo

(rats)

reactive oxygen species

levels

Hepatoprotective

Thioacetamide-induced

(200 mg/kg i.p)

Antioxidant

Lipid peroxidation

In vivo

150 mM

NI

India

Reddy and

Lokesh, [38]

(rats)

In vivo

250, 500 mg/kg

Ethanol

Malaysia

Bardi et al., [39]

(rats)

Cell lines

NI

Ethanol Acetone

South Korea

Kim et al., [40]

Malaysia

Bardi et al., [39]

**Potentials**

**Assay(s) employed**

**Type of** 

**Concentration(s) tested**

**Extracts** 

**Country** 

**References** 

**(where the** 

**report is** 

**published)**

**(if any)**

**study**



**Table 1.**

**137**

progression [20].

**5.3 Anti-inflammatory**

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger*

**5.2 Antitumor/anticancer**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

*albicans*, *Penicillium* spp., and *Aspergillus niger* [42–44].

reports indicated that upon further heating (ginger), this activity remained unaffected [66]. Furthermore, it diminishes the ultraviolet B (UVB)-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 in in vitro and in vivo studies [40]. Other derivatives of ginger such as oleoresin, 6-shogaol, 6-dehydroshogaol, 1-dehydro-6-gingerdione, 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol, and essential oil possess pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, etc., against 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), hydroxyl radical, and microbial strains such as *Bacillus subtilis*, *Bacillus cereus*, *Staphylococcus aureus*, *Escherichia coli*, *Candida* 

Cancer is one of the noncommunicable diseases with great negative impact on global population. It is caused by persistent increase in abnormal human body cells leading to the formation of tumors (of malignant cells) with the possibility to be metastatic [67]. The continuous multiplication of these cells is sometimes associated to influence oxidative stress. A number of treatment (chemotherapy, radiotherapy, synthetic drugs, etc.) are currently available; however, they come with one or several side effects (nausea, hair fall), hence, the need for alternative form of treatment or therapy particularly from MPs. In recent times, quite a number of plant species had found their relevance in the prevention and treatment of cancer, and efforts of researchers to continually develop new moieties are overwhelming. Ginger is a great example of such MPs with excellent prophylactic and curative anticancer properties. Although it must be noted that these effects are not available for all cancer types, several reports on ginger and its derivative (gingerol) have established numerous effects on different types of cancer (lung, colon, ovarian, prostrate, etc.) in a study conducted in the United States by Karna et al. [45] however, daily oral administration of ginger at a concentration of 100 mg/kg body weight (bw) inhibited PC-3 xenograft growth, indicating its effect against prostate cancer in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, the same concentration in another study [46] reduced the increased activity of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) due to the blockage of rat's liver cancer. Its effect on Panc-1 cells and other cell lines in an in vitro and animal model had been established against cancer of the pancreas, while combining the spice with other spices such as garlic and turmeric provided effectiveness against breast cancer [68]. In line with the aforementioned effects, derivatives of ginger, e.g., 6-shogaol, 8-shogaol, 10-shogaols, 6-gingerol, 6-paradol, and zingerone in several studies had also exhibited activities against different form of cancer including lung, colon, colorectal, ovarian, prostrate as cited by Rahmani et al. [20] and Gunathilake and Rupasinghe [34] from numerous studies. Interestingly, ginger was also reported to hinder tumor growth achieved through different molecular mechanism such as upregulation of suppressor gene, apoptosis, induction, and inactivation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (molecular pathways), a tumor angiogenic factor that triggers tumor development and

Inflammation is a response (defense) felt by the body to dangerous stimuli such as injury to tissues or allergens. However, when these responses are beyond normal, it manifest into arrays of derangements including but not limited to allergies, cancer, autoimmune disorder, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular diseases [69]. Interestingly, there are reports of relationship between oxidative stress-triggered FR

*Pharmacological potentials of ginger and its derivatives.*

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

Abdullah et al.,

2016

Ajith et al., [62]

**136**

**Ginger/derivatives**

Ginger Ginger

Gastroprotective

6-gingerol

6-gingerol, 6-shogaol

Ginger *NI: Not indicated*

**Table 1.**

*Pharmacological potentials of ginger and its derivatives.*

Hepatoprotective

Carbon

In vivo

100 mg/kg (singly),

NI

Egypt

India

Aqueous

ethanol

50 mg/kg (combination

with 100 mg/kg

curcumin)

200, 400 mg/kg

In vivo

tetrachloride-induced

Acetaminophen-induced

Gastric suppression

Hexobarbital induced

In situ

1.75–3.5 mg/kg (i.v),

NI

Japan

Suwekawa et al.,

[60, 61]

70–140 mg/kg (oral)

Neuroprotective

Monosodium

In vivo

100 mg/kg

Aqueous

Saudi Arabia

Waggas, [58]

glutamate-induced

HCl-ethanol induced

In vivo

1000 mg/kg

Acetone

Japan

Johji et al., [59]

100 mg/kg

**Potentials**

**Assay(s) employed**

**Type of** 

**Concentration(s) tested**

**Extracts** 

**Country** 

**References** 

**(where the** 

**report is** 

**published)**

**(if any)**

**study**

reports indicated that upon further heating (ginger), this activity remained unaffected [66]. Furthermore, it diminishes the ultraviolet B (UVB)-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 in in vitro and in vivo studies [40]. Other derivatives of ginger such as oleoresin, 6-shogaol, 6-dehydroshogaol, 1-dehydro-6-gingerdione, 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol, and essential oil possess pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, etc., against 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), hydroxyl radical, and microbial strains such as *Bacillus subtilis*, *Bacillus cereus*, *Staphylococcus aureus*, *Escherichia coli*, *Candida albicans*, *Penicillium* spp., and *Aspergillus niger* [42–44].

#### **5.2 Antitumor/anticancer**

Cancer is one of the noncommunicable diseases with great negative impact on global population. It is caused by persistent increase in abnormal human body cells leading to the formation of tumors (of malignant cells) with the possibility to be metastatic [67]. The continuous multiplication of these cells is sometimes associated to influence oxidative stress. A number of treatment (chemotherapy, radiotherapy, synthetic drugs, etc.) are currently available; however, they come with one or several side effects (nausea, hair fall), hence, the need for alternative form of treatment or therapy particularly from MPs. In recent times, quite a number of plant species had found their relevance in the prevention and treatment of cancer, and efforts of researchers to continually develop new moieties are overwhelming. Ginger is a great example of such MPs with excellent prophylactic and curative anticancer properties. Although it must be noted that these effects are not available for all cancer types, several reports on ginger and its derivative (gingerol) have established numerous effects on different types of cancer (lung, colon, ovarian, prostrate, etc.) in a study conducted in the United States by Karna et al. [45] however, daily oral administration of ginger at a concentration of 100 mg/kg body weight (bw) inhibited PC-3 xenograft growth, indicating its effect against prostate cancer in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, the same concentration in another study [46] reduced the increased activity of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) due to the blockage of rat's liver cancer. Its effect on Panc-1 cells and other cell lines in an in vitro and animal model had been established against cancer of the pancreas, while combining the spice with other spices such as garlic and turmeric provided effectiveness against breast cancer [68]. In line with the aforementioned effects, derivatives of ginger, e.g., 6-shogaol, 8-shogaol, 10-shogaols, 6-gingerol, 6-paradol, and zingerone in several studies had also exhibited activities against different form of cancer including lung, colon, colorectal, ovarian, prostrate as cited by Rahmani et al. [20] and Gunathilake and Rupasinghe [34] from numerous studies. Interestingly, ginger was also reported to hinder tumor growth achieved through different molecular mechanism such as upregulation of suppressor gene, apoptosis, induction, and inactivation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (molecular pathways), a tumor angiogenic factor that triggers tumor development and progression [20].

#### **5.3 Anti-inflammatory**

Inflammation is a response (defense) felt by the body to dangerous stimuli such as injury to tissues or allergens. However, when these responses are beyond normal, it manifest into arrays of derangements including but not limited to allergies, cancer, autoimmune disorder, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular diseases [69]. Interestingly, there are reports of relationship between oxidative stress-triggered FR

and inflammation. The use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is employed to ameliorate acute and chronic types of inflammation. NSAIDs exhibit this action by inhibiting the enzyme (cyclooxygenase, COX 1 and 2, and/or lipoxygenase, 5, 10, 15) involved in the breakdown of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. Unfortunately, there are numerous side effects emanating from the use of NSAIDs, hence the search for alternative form of treatment with minimal or no side effects in natural products. Intriguingly, numerous MPs have shown to be effective against inflammatory diseases. Ginger, an example of such MPs including its derivatives, has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory potentials [17] in vitro and in vivo studies [34]. Ojewole [48] submitted the analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and safety effect of ginger extract at a dose range of 50–800 mg/kg bw (**Table 1**). Thirty-three mg/kg bw ginger oil given to rats also alleviated acute and chronic arthritis [49]. Interestingly, ginger exhibits its anti-inflammatory activity in other solvents aside water (used in folkloric medicine), as the reports of Rani et al. [70] corroborate this when ethyl acetate-extracted ginger revealed the best anti-inflammatory effect better than water, methanol (polar solvents), and hexane (nonpolar) against cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase known as anti-inflammatory enzymes as cited by Gunathilake and Rupasinghe [34] and Mele [17] from various reports. Additionally, ginger plays a very good role in regulating the release of mediators (nitric oxide, prostaglandins), cytokines, TNF, and interleukin (IL)-1, IL-8, via several biochemical pathways attributed to inflammation, etc. [17, 20, 25, 33, 34].

#### **5.4 Antihyperglycemic**

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is one of the noncommunicable diseases with major prevalence globally. It is an endocrine disorder or metabolic derangement characterized by hyperglycemia (elevated level of glucose in the blood) due to insufficient or ineffective insulin arising from abnormalities in carbohydrate, lipid, and protein. The treatment or management of DM could be non-pharmacological (exercise, dietary regimen) or pharmacological which entails the use of oral hypoglycemic agents (OHAs) such as sulphonyl ureas, biguanides, and so on. However, the use of these chemicals or synthetic agents is prone to side effects (obesity), unavailability, and unaffordability, hence the dire need for alternative form of treatment with little or no side effects. Surprisingly, these qualities are now found in medicinal plants. In fact, the World Health Organization in a number of their technical reports advocated and encouraged the use of MPs for diabetic control and management. It is interesting to note that quite avalanches of MPs have found their relevance as antidote to curing diabetes [71] and some of its related complications. Ginger is one of such MPs traditionally used to salvage diabetes. In fact, numerous reports are available in the literature [17, 34, 35] establishing the potential of this spice in in vitro and in vivo studies. A similar example is the report of Ojewole [48] as submitted previously in a section (above) of this report. Similarly, 500 mg/kg bw of its aqueous extract lowers plasma sugar level following streptozotocin induction [50] in animal model and in vitro [51]. Since there is a report of correlation between oxidative stress and DM [20] as well as other complications of DM such as hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, retinopathy, and neuropathy, various publications had revealed the potentials of ginger and its derivatives against these complications as cited by Gunathilake and Rupasinghe [34].

#### **5.5 Antihypertensive**

Hypertension, a silent killer (because it shows no symptoms), is characterized by continuous increase in blood pressure in the arteries of a person. It occurs

**139**

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger*

tors and calcium channel blockage.

ing from hepatic lesion or inflammation [83].

**5.7 Antibiotic/antimicrobial**

**5.6 Anticholesterolemic**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

when the systolic and diastolic blood pressures rise above 140/90 mmHg, respectively. Findings revealed excessive salt intake, smoking, alcohol consumption, narrowing of the kidney, and use of birth control pills as some of the causes of hypertension, a risk factor to many cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Like diabetes, the treatment option may be non-pharmacological (lifestyle modification, etc.) or pharmacological involving the use of synthetic moieties such as diuretics, beta blockers (atenolol), angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (Lisinopril), calcium channel blockers, etc. [72]. However, sadly too, all these antihypertensive agents bring about grievous adverse effects such as angioedema, dry cough, weakness, headaches, etc.; thus, there is need for a substitute form of therapy for sufferers of high blood pressure (HBP). Herbal products from MPs have come very handy in the fight geared toward treating HBP, and a notable example of such plant is ginger. In a study involving rats and guinea pigs, extracts of ginger at concentration range of 0.3–3 mg/kg lower the arterial blood pressure of these animals [34]. Additionally, similar study using ginger aqueous extract and its derivatives revealed similar action [53] (**Table 1**). The activity of ginger as antihypertensive agent was also corroborated in a study [73] involving human subject when twice daily intake of 10 g of the spice reduced the arterial blood pressure to 94.80 mmHg after 2 months. It is worthy of mention that the mechanism of the established action of this spice was through the stimulation of muscarinic recep-

Cholesterol is a constituent of the plasma membranes (eukaryotic) representing sterols [74], needed for growth and development of higher organism. Hypercholesterolemia occurs when there is an elevated level of cholesterol though it suffices to say that there are good (high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c)) and bad (low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c)) cholesterol. Hypercholesterolemia is a risk factor to many diseases including CVD, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction (MI), etc. [75] and there are reports of high level of cholesterol in the blood on the influence of excessive production of FRs [76–78]. The use of herbal medicines or MPs for therapeutic/curative or preventive measures against diseases is an age-long tradition [79]. Ginger is one of such herbal medicine with cholesterol-lowering properties. In a study by Thomson et al. [80] as cited by Gunathilake and Rupasinghe [34], oral administration of 500 mg/kg bw of aqueous extract brought down elevated level of cholesterol in Wistar rats. Another study using mice revealed a 29% reduction in the cholesterol level and other lipid profiles on the administration of 250 μmkg ethanolic extract studied on rabbits [81] and rats (100, 400 mg/kg bw) in a high-fat diet-fed rodents [82]. In the same vein, a study on human subject revealed a positive coadministration of atorvastatin (low dose) and ginger reducing cholesterol level in the blood particularly those subjects suffer-

Infectious diseases are becoming the fastest cause of death globally. A number of bacterial etiological agents cause infections, and the use of antibiotics has become a panacea treatment to the ravishing effects of these microbiological agents. However, it is worthy of mention that the use of antibiotics despite their side effects is in recent times becoming ineffective due to the resistance of these microorganisms which is rapidly increasing [20]. In fact, as a result of these unpalatable trend in the antibiotics use, ongoing efforts have embraced the use of MPs in treating infectious

#### *Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

and inflammation. The use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is employed to ameliorate acute and chronic types of inflammation. NSAIDs exhibit this action by inhibiting the enzyme (cyclooxygenase, COX 1 and 2, and/or lipoxygenase, 5, 10, 15) involved in the breakdown of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. Unfortunately, there are numerous side effects emanating from the use of NSAIDs, hence the search for alternative form of treatment with minimal or no side effects in natural products. Intriguingly, numerous MPs have shown to be effective against inflammatory diseases. Ginger, an example of such MPs including its derivatives, has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory potentials [17] in vitro and in vivo studies [34]. Ojewole [48] submitted the analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and safety effect of ginger extract at a dose range of 50–800 mg/kg bw (**Table 1**). Thirty-three mg/kg bw ginger oil given to rats also alleviated acute and chronic arthritis [49]. Interestingly, ginger exhibits its anti-inflammatory activity in other solvents aside water (used in folkloric medicine), as the reports of Rani et al. [70] corroborate this when ethyl acetate-extracted ginger revealed the best anti-inflammatory effect better than water, methanol (polar solvents), and hexane (nonpolar) against cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase known as anti-inflammatory enzymes as cited by Gunathilake and Rupasinghe [34] and Mele [17] from various reports. Additionally, ginger plays a very good role in regulating the release of mediators (nitric oxide, prostaglandins), cytokines, TNF, and interleukin (IL)-1, IL-8, via several biochemical pathways attributed to inflammation, etc. [17, 20, 25, 33, 34].

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is one of the noncommunicable diseases with major prevalence globally. It is an endocrine disorder or metabolic derangement characterized by hyperglycemia (elevated level of glucose in the blood) due to insufficient or ineffective insulin arising from abnormalities in carbohydrate, lipid, and protein. The treatment or management of DM could be non-pharmacological (exercise, dietary regimen) or pharmacological which entails the use of oral hypoglycemic agents (OHAs) such as sulphonyl ureas, biguanides, and so on. However, the use of these chemicals or synthetic agents is prone to side effects (obesity), unavailability, and unaffordability, hence the dire need for alternative form of treatment with little or no side effects. Surprisingly, these qualities are now found in medicinal plants. In fact, the World Health Organization in a number of their technical reports advocated and encouraged the use of MPs for diabetic control and management. It is interesting to note that quite avalanches of MPs have found their relevance as antidote to curing diabetes [71] and some of its related complications. Ginger is one of such MPs traditionally used to salvage diabetes. In fact, numerous reports are available in the literature [17, 34, 35] establishing the potential of this spice in in vitro and in vivo studies. A similar example is the report of Ojewole [48] as submitted previously in a section (above) of this report. Similarly, 500 mg/kg bw of its aqueous extract lowers plasma sugar level following streptozotocin induction [50] in animal model and in vitro [51]. Since there is a report of correlation between oxidative stress and DM [20] as well as other complications of DM such as hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, retinopathy, and neuropathy, various publications had revealed the potentials of ginger and its derivatives against these complications

Hypertension, a silent killer (because it shows no symptoms), is characterized

by continuous increase in blood pressure in the arteries of a person. It occurs

**138**

**5.5 Antihypertensive**

**5.4 Antihyperglycemic**

as cited by Gunathilake and Rupasinghe [34].

when the systolic and diastolic blood pressures rise above 140/90 mmHg, respectively. Findings revealed excessive salt intake, smoking, alcohol consumption, narrowing of the kidney, and use of birth control pills as some of the causes of hypertension, a risk factor to many cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Like diabetes, the treatment option may be non-pharmacological (lifestyle modification, etc.) or pharmacological involving the use of synthetic moieties such as diuretics, beta blockers (atenolol), angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (Lisinopril), calcium channel blockers, etc. [72]. However, sadly too, all these antihypertensive agents bring about grievous adverse effects such as angioedema, dry cough, weakness, headaches, etc.; thus, there is need for a substitute form of therapy for sufferers of high blood pressure (HBP). Herbal products from MPs have come very handy in the fight geared toward treating HBP, and a notable example of such plant is ginger. In a study involving rats and guinea pigs, extracts of ginger at concentration range of 0.3–3 mg/kg lower the arterial blood pressure of these animals [34]. Additionally, similar study using ginger aqueous extract and its derivatives revealed similar action [53] (**Table 1**). The activity of ginger as antihypertensive agent was also corroborated in a study [73] involving human subject when twice daily intake of 10 g of the spice reduced the arterial blood pressure to 94.80 mmHg after 2 months. It is worthy of mention that the mechanism of the established action of this spice was through the stimulation of muscarinic receptors and calcium channel blockage.

#### **5.6 Anticholesterolemic**

Cholesterol is a constituent of the plasma membranes (eukaryotic) representing sterols [74], needed for growth and development of higher organism. Hypercholesterolemia occurs when there is an elevated level of cholesterol though it suffices to say that there are good (high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c)) and bad (low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c)) cholesterol. Hypercholesterolemia is a risk factor to many diseases including CVD, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction (MI), etc. [75] and there are reports of high level of cholesterol in the blood on the influence of excessive production of FRs [76–78]. The use of herbal medicines or MPs for therapeutic/curative or preventive measures against diseases is an age-long tradition [79]. Ginger is one of such herbal medicine with cholesterol-lowering properties. In a study by Thomson et al. [80] as cited by Gunathilake and Rupasinghe [34], oral administration of 500 mg/kg bw of aqueous extract brought down elevated level of cholesterol in Wistar rats. Another study using mice revealed a 29% reduction in the cholesterol level and other lipid profiles on the administration of 250 μmkg ethanolic extract studied on rabbits [81] and rats (100, 400 mg/kg bw) in a high-fat diet-fed rodents [82]. In the same vein, a study on human subject revealed a positive coadministration of atorvastatin (low dose) and ginger reducing cholesterol level in the blood particularly those subjects suffering from hepatic lesion or inflammation [83].

#### **5.7 Antibiotic/antimicrobial**

Infectious diseases are becoming the fastest cause of death globally. A number of bacterial etiological agents cause infections, and the use of antibiotics has become a panacea treatment to the ravishing effects of these microbiological agents. However, it is worthy of mention that the use of antibiotics despite their side effects is in recent times becoming ineffective due to the resistance of these microorganisms which is rapidly increasing [20]. In fact, as a result of these unpalatable trend in the antibiotics use, ongoing efforts have embraced the use of MPs in treating infectious

ailments, and a number of plants such as ginger are endowed with established antimicrobial effects as reflected in arrays of in vitro, in vivo, and preclinical studies using different solvents of extraction (ethanol, ethyl acetate, hexane) to inhibit microbial growth as presented by Rahmani et al. [20] and Gunathilake and Rupasinghe [34] from many submissions. Ginger derivatives such as 6-dehydrogingerdione, 6-gingerol, 10-gingerol, and 6-shogaol have established antibacterial effects against strains of bacteria and mycobacterial including *Acinetobacter baumannii*, *Helicobacter pylori*, *Mycobacterium avium*, and *M. tuberculosis* [17, 20, 34]. Interestingly, to corroborate the effectiveness of ginger and/or its derivatives, a report of potency surpassing common synthetic antibiotics in the fight against infectious diseases is noted [17, 34, 57].

#### **5.8 Neuroprotective**

Neuroprotection refers to the way and manner the central nervous system (CNS) is shielded from neuronal damages resulting from acute and/or chronic neurodegenerative disorders (such as stroke, Alzheimer's, Huntington's, Parkinson's diseases) as a consequence of CNS neurons breakdown and/or worsening of the cognitive or intellectual reasoning of the patients [84]. Intriguingly, the emergence of neurodegenerative diseases (NDD) is age-related, i.e., as individual age, so the possibility of suffering from NDD [85]. Medicinal plants such as ginger have continued to find its place in the management and/or treatment of diseases particularly NDD, and these effects are attributed to its inherent phenolic and flavonoid compounds [17, 20]. A root extract of ginger at 100 mg/kg bw extenuates the effect of monosodium glutamate-induced toxicity in rats (**Table 1**). The emergence or onset of many diseases is triggered by the production of FRs; similarly, since one of the complications of DM is neuropathy, hence, a relationship between FR, NDD, and diabetes is noted. Actually, ginger in separate studies was reported to promote or strengthen the antioxidant defense mechanism of the rat's brain following streptozotocin induction [86–88]. Furthermore, 6-shogaol was studied to inhibit microglia in transient global ischemia [89].

#### **5.9 Antiulcer/gastroprotective**

Ulcer (gastric or duodenal) is also a disease affecting majority of the populations of the world for more than ten (10) decades now [90], caused by discrepancies between the protective factors (bicarbonates, prostaglandins, mucin, nitric oxide) and aggressive factors (acid and pepsin) leading to a great deal of mortality and morbidity. Several factors [etiologic (*Helicobacter pylori*) or otherwise, e.g., sedentary lifestyle, diet, drug (NSAIDs), smoking, bacterial infection, free radicals, etc.] influence the emergence and/or progression of ulcer. The treatment involves the use of antimicrobial drugs (metronidazole, tetracycline, amoxicillin, etc.) geared toward eliminating *H. pylori*, antisecretory agents (omeprazole and so on), antagonist of H2 receptors (cimetidine, ranitidine, etc.), and other agents targeting the disruption of the cell wall or membrane of the bacteria (bismuth salt). However, these series of therapies bring about toxicities, thus the clamor for the alternative form of treatment with little or no toxicities, qualities found in medicinal plants such as ginger. The antiulcerative action of ginger is achieved via the elevation of mucin production [20] and enzyme (thromboxane synthetase) inhibition [17]. A number of studies proving the gastroprotective properties of ginger and some of its constituents such as 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol had been established as compiled or presented in the work of Rahmani et al. [20].

**141**

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger*

available in the literature [93].

et al. [20] in several studies.

**5.13 Other pharmacological activities**

**5.12 Toxicity profiles**

**5.11 Hepatoprotective**

**5.10 Antiemetic**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

Ginger in a study using rodents was found to possess anti-serotonin and 5-HT3 receptor antagonism effect in inducing nausea and vomiting during post-surgery [91]. Derivatives of ginger such as gingerol, shogaols, galanolactone, and diterpenoid were also established to reduce nausea and vomiting [92]. Others revealed that the reports of management of nausea and vomiting in cancer patients are also

The liver is the second largest organ (after the skin) in the body where metabolism of drugs or chemical substance occurs. Hence, important attention is required for this organ for good health status and well-being. Liver ailments also constitute a major health problem in the world today caused sometimes by exposure or ingestion of toxic chemicals (carbon tetrachloride, thioacetamide, certain antibiotics, excessive alcohol intake, etc.), and the use of conventional drugs for the treatment of liver diseases is ineffective and comes with side effects. However, solace has been found with MPs such as ginger as alternative means to treating these ailments. Report of relief from liver cirrhosis following carbon tetrachloride-induced liver toxicity in rats as ginger singly or either in combination with curcumin at 100 mg/ kg bw ameliorated the liver injury to the animal [94]. Additionally, ginger in another report at 200, 400 mg/kg bw fortified the activity of antioxidants enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase) while lowering the activity of liver function enzymes (alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase) in the acetaminophen-induced hepatic injury [62] as also corroborated by Rahmani

Toxicity may be acute, subacute, chronic, and subchronic [95]. These studies are carried out to provide information about the safety profile of a substance. Medicinal plants are used as a form of therapeutic measure over a long period against numerous diseases. In fact, despite the fact that the active precursors of a number of chemical moieties or drugs are obtained from plant, the acceptance of herbal medicine and/or formulations are exceedingly growing globally. Intriguingly, 80% of the entire global population are using herbal products for the maintenance of their health due to their perceived thought of originating from nature, lesser side effects, efficacy, safety, affordability, etc., although in some quarters, a very few of these medicinal plants have been reported to cause one form of illness (to the liver and kidney). However, report from several studies has not linked ginger in a way to any of these injuries. This fact is corroborated in reports ascertaining the safety of ginger in different concentrations, 0.5–1.0 g, 2.5 g/kg, 100, 333, 500, 1000, 2000 mg/kg bw, in animal studies for different experimental study period ranging from 10 days, 35 days, 3 months to 2 and half years as nontoxic [20] even during pregnancy (rats) and gynecological operation as revealed by a clinical study [34].

The effectiveness of ginger against diseases affecting the eye and other ailments such as osteoarthritis, migraine attack, platelet aggregation, gastrointestinal distur-

bances, nematode invasion, etc. has been established [15, 17, 18, 20, 34].

#### **5.10 Antiemetic**

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

infectious diseases is noted [17, 34, 57].

in transient global ischemia [89].

**5.9 Antiulcer/gastroprotective**

presented in the work of Rahmani et al. [20].

**5.8 Neuroprotective**

ailments, and a number of plants such as ginger are endowed with established antimicrobial effects as reflected in arrays of in vitro, in vivo, and preclinical studies using different solvents of extraction (ethanol, ethyl acetate, hexane) to inhibit microbial growth as presented by Rahmani et al. [20] and Gunathilake and Rupasinghe [34] from many submissions. Ginger derivatives such as 6-dehydrogingerdione, 6-gingerol, 10-gingerol, and 6-shogaol have established antibacterial effects against strains of bacteria and mycobacterial including *Acinetobacter baumannii*, *Helicobacter pylori*, *Mycobacterium avium*, and *M. tuberculosis* [17, 20, 34]. Interestingly, to corroborate the effectiveness of ginger and/or its derivatives, a report of potency surpassing common synthetic antibiotics in the fight against

Neuroprotection refers to the way and manner the central nervous system (CNS) is shielded from neuronal damages resulting from acute and/or chronic neurodegenerative disorders (such as stroke, Alzheimer's, Huntington's, Parkinson's diseases) as a consequence of CNS neurons breakdown and/or worsening of the cognitive or intellectual reasoning of the patients [84]. Intriguingly, the emergence of neurodegenerative diseases (NDD) is age-related, i.e., as individual age, so the possibility of suffering from NDD [85]. Medicinal plants such as ginger have continued to find its place in the management and/or treatment of diseases particularly NDD, and these effects are attributed to its inherent phenolic and flavonoid compounds [17, 20]. A root extract of ginger at 100 mg/kg bw extenuates the effect of monosodium glutamate-induced toxicity in rats (**Table 1**). The emergence or onset of many diseases is triggered by the production of FRs; similarly, since one of the complications of DM is neuropathy, hence, a relationship between FR, NDD, and diabetes is noted. Actually, ginger in separate studies was reported to promote or strengthen the antioxidant defense mechanism of the rat's brain following streptozotocin induction [86–88]. Furthermore, 6-shogaol was studied to inhibit microglia

Ulcer (gastric or duodenal) is also a disease affecting majority of the populations

of the world for more than ten (10) decades now [90], caused by discrepancies between the protective factors (bicarbonates, prostaglandins, mucin, nitric oxide) and aggressive factors (acid and pepsin) leading to a great deal of mortality and morbidity. Several factors [etiologic (*Helicobacter pylori*) or otherwise, e.g., sedentary lifestyle, diet, drug (NSAIDs), smoking, bacterial infection, free radicals, etc.] influence the emergence and/or progression of ulcer. The treatment involves the use of antimicrobial drugs (metronidazole, tetracycline, amoxicillin, etc.) geared toward eliminating *H. pylori*, antisecretory agents (omeprazole and so on), antagonist of H2 receptors (cimetidine, ranitidine, etc.), and other agents targeting the disruption of the cell wall or membrane of the bacteria (bismuth salt). However, these series of therapies bring about toxicities, thus the clamor for the alternative form of treatment with little or no toxicities, qualities found in medicinal plants such as ginger. The antiulcerative action of ginger is achieved via the elevation of mucin production [20] and enzyme (thromboxane synthetase) inhibition [17]. A number of studies proving the gastroprotective properties of ginger and some of its constituents such as 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol had been established as compiled or

**140**

Ginger in a study using rodents was found to possess anti-serotonin and 5-HT3 receptor antagonism effect in inducing nausea and vomiting during post-surgery [91]. Derivatives of ginger such as gingerol, shogaols, galanolactone, and diterpenoid were also established to reduce nausea and vomiting [92]. Others revealed that the reports of management of nausea and vomiting in cancer patients are also available in the literature [93].

#### **5.11 Hepatoprotective**

The liver is the second largest organ (after the skin) in the body where metabolism of drugs or chemical substance occurs. Hence, important attention is required for this organ for good health status and well-being. Liver ailments also constitute a major health problem in the world today caused sometimes by exposure or ingestion of toxic chemicals (carbon tetrachloride, thioacetamide, certain antibiotics, excessive alcohol intake, etc.), and the use of conventional drugs for the treatment of liver diseases is ineffective and comes with side effects. However, solace has been found with MPs such as ginger as alternative means to treating these ailments. Report of relief from liver cirrhosis following carbon tetrachloride-induced liver toxicity in rats as ginger singly or either in combination with curcumin at 100 mg/ kg bw ameliorated the liver injury to the animal [94]. Additionally, ginger in another report at 200, 400 mg/kg bw fortified the activity of antioxidants enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase) while lowering the activity of liver function enzymes (alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase) in the acetaminophen-induced hepatic injury [62] as also corroborated by Rahmani et al. [20] in several studies.

#### **5.12 Toxicity profiles**

Toxicity may be acute, subacute, chronic, and subchronic [95]. These studies are carried out to provide information about the safety profile of a substance. Medicinal plants are used as a form of therapeutic measure over a long period against numerous diseases. In fact, despite the fact that the active precursors of a number of chemical moieties or drugs are obtained from plant, the acceptance of herbal medicine and/or formulations are exceedingly growing globally. Intriguingly, 80% of the entire global population are using herbal products for the maintenance of their health due to their perceived thought of originating from nature, lesser side effects, efficacy, safety, affordability, etc., although in some quarters, a very few of these medicinal plants have been reported to cause one form of illness (to the liver and kidney). However, report from several studies has not linked ginger in a way to any of these injuries. This fact is corroborated in reports ascertaining the safety of ginger in different concentrations, 0.5–1.0 g, 2.5 g/kg, 100, 333, 500, 1000, 2000 mg/kg bw, in animal studies for different experimental study period ranging from 10 days, 35 days, 3 months to 2 and half years as nontoxic [20] even during pregnancy (rats) and gynecological operation as revealed by a clinical study [34].

#### **5.13 Other pharmacological activities**

The effectiveness of ginger against diseases affecting the eye and other ailments such as osteoarthritis, migraine attack, platelet aggregation, gastrointestinal disturbances, nematode invasion, etc. has been established [15, 17, 18, 20, 34].

### **6. Conclusion**

The world is filled with enormous diseases causing major setbacks to the health status of humanity. Unfortunately, the synthetic moieties adopted for therapeutic and preventive measures are not helping (at all) as they are characterized with side effects. Medicinal plants such as ginger are now being embraced as the alternative options for combating various simple or life-threatening ailments. Since various efforts had established the effectiveness of ginger and its corresponding derivatives on a number of ill-health (though lacking clinical reports), there is much hope in the future that ginger might be able to rescue humankind from these evolving derangements causing setbacks to their living and/or survival.

### **Acknowledgements**

The authors acknowledge Directorate Research and Development, University of Free State, South Africa, for the Postdoctoral Research Fellowship granted by Dr. FO Balogun tenable in the research group of Phytomedicine and Phytopharmacology at the Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of the Free State, Qwaqwa, Free State.

#### **Author details**

Fatai Oladunni Balogun\*, Esther Tayo AdeyeOluwa and Anofi Omotayo Tom Ashafa Phytomedicine and Phytopharmacology Research Group, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Department of Plant Sciences, University of the Free State, Phuthadijthaba, Qwaqwa, Free State, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: balogunfo@yahoo.co.uk

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**143**

2011;**3**:25-30

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger*

[1] Wakchaure R, Ganguly S.

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*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

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[8] Gupta M. Pharmacological

10.1080/10942910902963271

[9] Raal A, Volmer D, Sõukand R, Hratkevitš S, Kalle R. Complementary treatment of the common cold and flu with medicinal plants—results from two samples of pharmacy customers in Estonia. PLoS One. 2013;**8**:e58642. DOI:

10.1371/journal.pone.0058642

10.1155/2014/792708

[11] Gull I, Saeed M, Shaukat H, Aslam SM, Samra Z, Athar AM. Inhibitory effect of *Allium sativum* and *Zingiber officinale* extracts on clinically important drug resistant pathogenic bacteria. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 2012;**11**:8. DOI: 10.1186/1476-0711-11-8

[12] Lee SH, Cekanova M, Baek SJ. Multiple mechanisms are involved in 6-gingerol-induced cell growth arrest and apoptosis in human colorectal cancer cells. Molecular Carcinogenesis.

2008;**47**:197-208. DOI: 10.1002/

[14] Weidner MS, Sigwart K. Investigation of the teratogenic potential of *Zingiber officinale* extract in the rat. Reproductive Toxicology. 2000;**15**:75-80. DOI: 10.1016/ S0890-6238(00)00116-7

[13] Maxwell I. Let's make ginger beer.

mc.20374

Dave's Garden. 2008

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[5] Ali BH, Blunden G, Tanira MO, Nemmar A. Some phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Roscoe): A review of recent research. Food and Chemical Toxicology.

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#### **References**

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

derangements causing setbacks to their living and/or survival.

The world is filled with enormous diseases causing major setbacks to the health status of humanity. Unfortunately, the synthetic moieties adopted for therapeutic and preventive measures are not helping (at all) as they are characterized with side effects. Medicinal plants such as ginger are now being embraced as the alternative options for combating various simple or life-threatening ailments. Since various efforts had established the effectiveness of ginger and its corresponding derivatives on a number of ill-health (though lacking clinical reports), there is much hope in the future that ginger might be able to rescue humankind from these evolving

The authors acknowledge Directorate Research and Development, University of Free State, South Africa, for the Postdoctoral Research Fellowship granted by Dr. FO Balogun tenable in the research group of Phytomedicine and

Phytopharmacology at the Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Natural and

Phytomedicine and Phytopharmacology Research Group, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Department of Plant Sciences, University of the Free State,

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Agricultural Sciences, University of the Free State, Qwaqwa, Free State.

Fatai Oladunni Balogun\*, Esther Tayo AdeyeOluwa and

\*Address all correspondence to: balogunfo@yahoo.co.uk

Phuthadijthaba, Qwaqwa, Free State, South Africa

provided the original work is properly cited.

**6. Conclusion**

**Acknowledgements**

**Author details**

Anofi Omotayo Tom Ashafa

**142**

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[2] Park EJ, Pizzuto JM. Botanicals in cancer chemoprevention. Cancer and Metastasis Reviews. 2002;**21**:231-255

[3] Rout GR, Das P, Goel S, Raina SN. Determination of genetic stability of micropropagated plants of ginger using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Botanical Bulletin- Academia Sinica. 1998;**39**:23-37

[4] Nair KPP. The agronomy and economy of ginger. In: Nair KPP, editor. The Agronomy and Economy of Turmeric and Ginger. Edinburgh, United Kingdom: Elsevier; 2013. pp. 225-292

[5] Ali BH, Blunden G, Tanira MO, Nemmar A. Some phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Roscoe): A review of recent research. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2008;**46**:409-420

[6] Sharma PC, Yelne MB, Dennis TJ. Database on Medicinal Plants used in Ayurveda. New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, Department of Indian system of medicine. Govt. of India; 2001; 1: 152 2: 177; 4: 90, 213, 404

[7] Morakinyo AO, Oludare GO, Aderinto OT, Tasdup A. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of aqueous and ethanol extracts of *Zingiber officinale*. Biologie et Médecine. 2011;**3**:25-30

[8] Gupta M. Pharmacological properties and traditional therapeutic uses of important Indian spices: A Review. International Journal of Food Properties. 2010;**13**(5):1092-1116. DOI: 10.1080/10942910902963271

[9] Raal A, Volmer D, Sõukand R, Hratkevitš S, Kalle R. Complementary treatment of the common cold and flu with medicinal plants—results from two samples of pharmacy customers in Estonia. PLoS One. 2013;**8**:e58642. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058642

[10] Khayat S, Kheirkhah M, Behboodi Moghadam Z, Fanaei H, Kasaeian A, Javadimehr M. Effect of treatment with ginger on the severity of premenstrual syndrome symptoms. International Scholarly Research Notices: Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2014;**2014**:79708. DOI: 10.1155/2014/792708

[11] Gull I, Saeed M, Shaukat H, Aslam SM, Samra Z, Athar AM. Inhibitory effect of *Allium sativum* and *Zingiber officinale* extracts on clinically important drug resistant pathogenic bacteria. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 2012;**11**:8. DOI: 10.1186/1476-0711-11-8

[12] Lee SH, Cekanova M, Baek SJ. Multiple mechanisms are involved in 6-gingerol-induced cell growth arrest and apoptosis in human colorectal cancer cells. Molecular Carcinogenesis. 2008;**47**:197-208. DOI: 10.1002/ mc.20374

[13] Maxwell I. Let's make ginger beer. Dave's Garden. 2008

[14] Weidner MS, Sigwart K. Investigation of the teratogenic potential of *Zingiber officinale* extract in the rat. Reproductive Toxicology. 2000;**15**:75-80. DOI: 10.1016/ S0890-6238(00)00116-7

[15] Rehman R, Akram M, Akhtar N, Jabeen Q, Saeed T, Shah A, et al. *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe (pharmacological activity). Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 2011;**5**(3):344-348

[16] Pratap SR, Gangadharappa HV, Mruthunjaya K. Ginger: A potential nutraceutical, an updated review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research. 2017;**9**(9):1227-1238

[17] Mele MA. Bioactive compounds and biological activity of ginger. Journal of Multidisciplinary Science. 2019;**1**(1):1-7

[18] Gupta SK, Sharma A. Medicinal properties of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe—A Review. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. 2014;**9**(5):124-129

[19] Sheetal G, Jamuna P. Studies on Indian green leafy vegetables for their antioxidants activity. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2009;**64**:39-45

[20] Rahmani AH, Shabrmi FM, Aly SM. Active ingredients of ginger as potential candidates in the prevention and treatment of diseases via modulation of biological activities. International Journal of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Pharmacology. 2014;**6**:125-136

[21] Prasad S, Tyagi AK. Ginger and its constituents: Role in prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal cancer. Gastroenterology Research and Practice. 2015;**2015**:142979. DOI: 10.1155/2015/142979

[22] Shukla Y, Singh M. Cancer preventive properties of ginger: A brief review. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2007;**45**(5):683-690

[23] Ugwoke CEC, Nzekwe U. Phytochemistry and proximate composition of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*). Journal of Pharmaceutical and Allied Sciences. 2010;**7**(5). DOI: 10.4314/jophas.v7i5.63462

[24] Dhanik J, Arya N, Nand V. A review on *Zingiber officinale*. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2017;**6**(3):174-184

[25] Grzanna R, Lindmark L, Frondoza CG. Ginger—an herbal medicinal product with broad antiinflammatory actions. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2005;**8**(2):125-132

[26] Ashraf K, Sultan S, Shah SAA. Phytochemistry, phytochemical, pharmacological and molecular study of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe: A review. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2017;**9**(11):8-16. DOI: 10.22159/ ijpps.2017v9i11.19613

[27] Butt MS, Sultan MT. Ginger and its health claims: Molecular aspects. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2011;**51**(5):383-393. DOI: 10.1080/10408391003624848

[28] Ravindran PN. Ginger (*Zingiber officinale*). In: Jain S, Russel R, editors. Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices. Vol. 1. Glasgow: Bell and Bain; 2016. pp. 397- 409. Available from: https://Iccn.loc. gov/2016029187

[29] Connell DW. The pungent principles of ginger and their importance in certain ginger products. Food Technology. 1969;**21**:570-575

[30] Govindarajan VS. Ginger-chemistry, technology, and quality evaluation. Part 1. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 1982;**17**:1-96

[31] Ahmad B, Rehman MU, Amin I, Arif A, Rasool S, Bhat SA, et al. A review on pharmacological properties of Zingerone (4-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-butanone). The Scientific World Journal. 2015;**2015**: 816364. DOI: 10.1155/2015/816364

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review. Phytotherapy Research. 2018;**32**(10):1885-1907. DOI: 10.1002/

[34] Gunathilake KDPP, Vasantha Rupasinghe HP. Recent perspectives on the medicinal potential of ginger. Botanics: Targets and Therapy.

[35] Roufogalis BD. *Zingiber officinale* (Ginger): A future outlook on its potential in prevention and treatment of diabetes and prediabetic states. New Journal of Science. 2014;**2014**:674684.

[36] Chaiyakunapruk N, Kitikannakorn N,

[37] Ali A, Gilani AH. Medicinal value of ginger with focus on its use in nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. International Journal of Food

Properties. 2007;**10**(2):269-278. DOI:

[38] Reddy AA, Lokesh BR. Studies on spice principles as antioxidants in the inhibition of lipid peroxidation of rat liver microsomes. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry. 1992;**111**:117-124

[39] Bardi DA, Halabi MF, Abdullah NA, Rouhollahi E, Hajrezaie M, Abdulla MA.

10.1080/10942910601045297

Nathisuwan S, Leeprakobboon K, Leelasettagool C. The efficacy of ginger for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology.

DOI: 10.1155/2014/674684

ptr.6134

2015;**5**:55-63

2006;**194**:95-99

Research. 2016;**4**(1):1-18

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

*In vivo* evaluation of ethanolic extract

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[41] Afshari AT, Alireza S, Amirabbas F, Saadatian R, Rasmi Y, Saboory E, et al. The effect of ginger on diabetic nephropathy, plasma antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation in rats. Food Chemistry. 2007;**101**(1):148-153

Nadarajah VD, Balijepalli MK, Tandra S, Korlakunta JN. Comparative antioxidant

Ethnopharmacology. 2010;**127**:515-520

[44] Bellik Y. Total antioxidant activity and antimicrobial potency of the essential oil and oleoresin of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease. 2014;**4**:40-44

[45] Karna P, Chagani S, Gundala SR, Rida PC, Asif G, Sharma V, et al. Benefits of whole ginger extract in prostate cancer. The British Journal of Nutrition. 2012;**107**(4):473-484

[46] Habib SHM, Makpol S, Hamid NAA, Das S, Ngah WZW, Yusof YAM. Ginger extract (*Zingiber officinale*) has anti-cancer and

[42] Dugasani S, Pichika MR,

and [6]-shogaol. Journal of

[43] Li F, Wang Y, Parkin KL, Nitteranon V, Liang J, Yang W, et al. Isolation of quinone reductase (QR) inducing agents from ginger rhizome and their *in vitro* anti-inflammatory activity. Food Research International.

2011;**44**:1597-1603

and anti-inflammatory effects of [6]-gingerol, [8]-gingerol, [10]-gingerol

of *Zingiber officinale* rhizomes for its protective effect against liver cirrhosis. BioMed Research International. 2013;**2013**:918460. DOI:

10.1155/2013/918460

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

and Allied Sciences. 2010;**7**(5). DOI:

[24] Dhanik J, Arya N, Nand V. A review on *Zingiber officinale*. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry.

[25] Grzanna R, Lindmark L, Frondoza CG. Ginger—an herbal medicinal product with broad antiinflammatory actions. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2005;**8**(2):125-132

[26] Ashraf K, Sultan S, Shah SAA. Phytochemistry, phytochemical, pharmacological and molecular study of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe: A review. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2017;**9**(11):8-16. DOI: 10.22159/

[27] Butt MS, Sultan MT. Ginger and its health claims: Molecular aspects. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2011;**51**(5):383-393. DOI: 10.1080/10408391003624848

[28] Ravindran PN. Ginger (*Zingiber officinale*). In: Jain S, Russel R, editors. Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices. Vol. 1. Glasgow: Bell and Bain; 2016. pp. 397- 409. Available from: https://Iccn.loc.

[29] Connell DW. The pungent principles of ginger and their

Nutrition. 1982;**17**:1-96

World Journal. 2015;**2015**:

importance in certain ginger products. Food Technology. 1969;**21**:570-575

[30] Govindarajan VS. Ginger-chemistry, technology, and quality evaluation. Part 1. Critical Reviews in Food Science and

[31] Ahmad B, Rehman MU, Amin I, Arif A, Rasool S, Bhat SA, et al. A review on pharmacological properties of Zingerone (4-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-butanone). The Scientific

816364. DOI: 10.1155/2015/816364

10.4314/jophas.v7i5.63462

2017;**6**(3):174-184

ijpps.2017v9i11.19613

gov/2016029187

[15] Rehman R, Akram M, Akhtar N, Jabeen Q, Saeed T, Shah A, et al. *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe (pharmacological activity). Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 2011;**5**(3):344-348

[16] Pratap SR, Gangadharappa HV, Mruthunjaya K. Ginger: A potential nutraceutical, an updated review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research.

[17] Mele MA. Bioactive compounds and biological activity of ginger. Journal of Multidisciplinary Science. 2019;**1**(1):1-7

[18] Gupta SK, Sharma A. Medicinal properties of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe—A Review. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences.

[19] Sheetal G, Jamuna P. Studies on Indian green leafy vegetables for their antioxidants activity. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2009;**64**:39-45

[20] Rahmani AH, Shabrmi FM, Aly SM. Active ingredients of ginger as potential candidates in the prevention

and treatment of diseases via modulation of biological activities. International Journal of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Pharmacology.

[21] Prasad S, Tyagi AK. Ginger and its constituents: Role in prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal cancer. Gastroenterology Research and Practice. 2015;**2015**:142979. DOI:

2017;**9**(9):1227-1238

2014;**9**(5):124-129

2014;**6**:125-136

10.1155/2015/142979

2007;**45**(5):683-690

[22] Shukla Y, Singh M. Cancer

[23] Ugwoke CEC, Nzekwe U. Phytochemistry and proximate composition of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*). Journal of Pharmaceutical

preventive properties of ginger: A brief review. Food and Chemical Toxicology.

**144**

[32] Gupta R, Singh PK, Singh R, Singh RL. Pharmacological activities of *Zingiber officinale* (ginger) and its active ingredients: a review. International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research. 2016;**4**(1):1-18

[33] de Lima RMT, Dos Reis AC, de Menezes APM, Santos JVO, Filho JWGO, Ferreira JRO, et al. Protective and therapeutic potential of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) extract and [6]-gingerol in cancer: A comprehensive review. Phytotherapy Research. 2018;**32**(10):1885-1907. DOI: 10.1002/ ptr.6134

[34] Gunathilake KDPP, Vasantha Rupasinghe HP. Recent perspectives on the medicinal potential of ginger. Botanics: Targets and Therapy. 2015;**5**:55-63

[35] Roufogalis BD. *Zingiber officinale* (Ginger): A future outlook on its potential in prevention and treatment of diabetes and prediabetic states. New Journal of Science. 2014;**2014**:674684. DOI: 10.1155/2014/674684

[36] Chaiyakunapruk N, Kitikannakorn N, Nathisuwan S, Leeprakobboon K, Leelasettagool C. The efficacy of ginger for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2006;**194**:95-99

[37] Ali A, Gilani AH. Medicinal value of ginger with focus on its use in nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. International Journal of Food Properties. 2007;**10**(2):269-278. DOI: 10.1080/10942910601045297

[38] Reddy AA, Lokesh BR. Studies on spice principles as antioxidants in the inhibition of lipid peroxidation of rat liver microsomes. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry. 1992;**111**:117-124

[39] Bardi DA, Halabi MF, Abdullah NA, Rouhollahi E, Hajrezaie M, Abdulla MA. *In vivo* evaluation of ethanolic extract of *Zingiber officinale* rhizomes for its protective effect against liver cirrhosis. BioMed Research International. 2013;**2013**:918460. DOI: 10.1155/2013/918460

[40] Kim JK, Kim Y, Na KM, Surh YJ, Kim TY. [6]-Gingerol prevents UVBinduced ROS production and COX-2 expression *in vitro* and *in vivo*. Free Radical Research. 2007;**41**(5):603-614

[41] Afshari AT, Alireza S, Amirabbas F, Saadatian R, Rasmi Y, Saboory E, et al. The effect of ginger on diabetic nephropathy, plasma antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation in rats. Food Chemistry. 2007;**101**(1):148-153

[42] Dugasani S, Pichika MR, Nadarajah VD, Balijepalli MK, Tandra S, Korlakunta JN. Comparative antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of [6]-gingerol, [8]-gingerol, [10]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2010;**127**:515-520

[43] Li F, Wang Y, Parkin KL, Nitteranon V, Liang J, Yang W, et al. Isolation of quinone reductase (QR) inducing agents from ginger rhizome and their *in vitro* anti-inflammatory activity. Food Research International. 2011;**44**:1597-1603

[44] Bellik Y. Total antioxidant activity and antimicrobial potency of the essential oil and oleoresin of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease. 2014;**4**:40-44

[45] Karna P, Chagani S, Gundala SR, Rida PC, Asif G, Sharma V, et al. Benefits of whole ginger extract in prostate cancer. The British Journal of Nutrition. 2012;**107**(4):473-484

[46] Habib SHM, Makpol S, Hamid NAA, Das S, Ngah WZW, Yusof YAM. Ginger extract (*Zingiber officinale*) has anti-cancer and

anti-inflammatory effects on ethionineinduced hepatoma rats. Clinics. 2008;**63**(6):807-813

[47] Akimoto M, Iizuka M, Kanematsu R, Yoshida M, Takenaga K. Anticancer effect of ginger extract against pancreatic cancer cells mainly through reactive oxygen species-mediated autotic cell death. PLoS One. 2015;**10**(5):e0126605

[48] Ojewole JA. Analgesic, antiinflammatory and hypoglycaemic effects of ethanol extract of *Zingiber officinale* (Roscoe) rhizomes (Zingiberaceae) in mice and rats. Phytotherapy Research. 2006;**20**(9):764-772

[49] Sharma JN, Srivastava KC, Gan EK. Suppressive effects of eugenol and ginger oil on arthritic rats. Pharmacology. 1994;**49**(5):314-318

[50] Abdul Razaq NB, Cho MM, Win NN, Zaman R, Rahman MT. Beneficial effects of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) on carbohydrate metabolism in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. The British Journal of Nutrition. 2012;**108**(7):1194-1201

[51] Sattar NA, Hussain F, Iqbal T, Sheikh MA. Determination of *in vitro* antidiabetic effects of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe. Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2012;**48**(4):601-607

[52] Sukalingama K, Ganesana K, Ganib SB. Hypoglycemic effect of 6-gingerol, an active principle of ginger in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Research and Reviews : Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicological Studies. 2013;**96**:660-666

[53] Ghayur MN, Anwarul HG, Afridi MB, Houghton PJ. Cardiovascular effects of ginger aqueous extract and its phenolic constituents are mediated through multiple pathways. Vascular Pharmacology. 2005;**43**(4):234-241

[54] Thompson M, Al-Qattan KK, Al-Sawan SW, Al-Nageeb MA, Khan I, et al. The use of ginger as a potential anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic agent, Prostagladin, leukotriens and essential fatty acids. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes & Essential Fatty Acids. 2002;**67**(6):475-478

[55] Malu SP, Obochi GO, Tawo EN, Nyong BE. Antibacterial activity and medicinal properties of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*). Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences. 2008;**15**(3):365-368

[56] Ekwenye UN, Elegalam NN. Antibacterial activity of ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Roscoe) and garlic (*Allium sativum* L) extracts on *Escherichia coli* and *Salmonella typhi*. Journal of Molecular Medicine and Advance Sciences. 2005;**1**(4):411-416

[57] Sebiomo A, Awofodu AD, Awosanya AO, Awotona FE, Ajayi AJ. Comparative studies of antibacterial effect of some antibiotics and ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) on two pathogenic bacteria. Journal of Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 2011;**3**(1):18-22

[58] Waggas AM. Neuroprotective evaluation of extract of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) root in monosodium glutamate induced toxicity in different brain areas male albino rats. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences. 2009;**12**(3):201-212

[59] Johji Y, Michihiko M, Rong HQ, Hisashi M, Hajime F. The anti-ulcer effect in rats of ginger constituents. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1988;**23**(2-3):299-304

[60] Suekawa M, Ishige A, Yuasa K, Sudo K, Aburada M, Hosoya E. Pharmacological studies on ginger. I. Pharmacological actions of pungent constituents, (6)-gingerol and (6)-shogaol. Journal of Pharmacobio-Dynamics. 1984;**7**:13-18

[61] Suekawa M, Ishige A, Yuasa K, Sudo K, Aburada M, Hosoya E. Pharmacological

**147**

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger*

1984;**7**(11):836-848

1993;**30**:133-134

Tsa Chih. 1993;**8**:750-764

2019;**64**(2):143-147

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

[69] Ghasemian M, Owlia S, Owlia MB. Review of anti-inflammatory herbal medicines. Advances in Pharmacological Sciences. 2016;**2016**:9130979. DOI:

10.1155/2016/9130979

[70] Rani PM, Padmakumari KP, Sankarikutty B, Lijo Cherian O,

and induced oxidative stress.

[71] Parmar I, Rupasinghe HPV.

Medica. 2019;**85**:312-334

2015;**8**:11-28

(abstract)

2015;**5**:85-e91

2010;**61**:355-363

Nisha VM, Raghu KG. Inhibitory potential of ginger extracts against enzymes linked to type 2 diabetes, inflammation

International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 2011;**62**(2):106-110

Antioxidant capacity and anti-diabetic activity of wild berry stem infusions. European Journal of Medicinal Plants.

[72] Balogun FO, Ashafa AOT. A review of plants in South African traditional medicine used in the prevention and management of hypertension. Planta

[73] Aming SN. The effect of twice a day intake of ginger tea on the blood pressure of hypertensive individuals in Barangay La Victoria, Aurora, Zamboanga Del Sur. Herdin Record #: R09-ZCHRD-12043023205433. 2006

[74] Kuppusamy P, David RS, Raj P,

[75] Iffiu-Soltesz Z, Wanecq E, Lomba A, Portilio MP, Pellati F, Szoto E. Chronic benzylamine administration in the drinking water improves glucose tolerance, reduces body weight gain and circulating cholesterol in high-fat dietfed mice. Pharmacological Research.

Ilavenil S, Kaleeswaran B, Govindan N, et al. Evaluation of antihypercholesterolemic effect using *Memecylon edule* Roxb. ethanolic extract in cholesterol-induced Swiss albino mice. Journal of Acute Medicine.

studies on ginger. I. Pharmacological actions of pungent constituents,(6) gingerol and (6)-shogaol. Journal of Pharmacobio-Dynamics.

[62] Ajith TA, Hema U, Aswathy MS. *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe prevents acetaminophen-induced acute hepatotoxicity by enhancing hepatic antioxidant status. Food and Chemical

Toxicology. 2007;**45**:2267-2272

[63] Krishnakantha TP, Lokesh BR. Scavenging of superoxide anions by spice principles. Indian Journal of Biochemistry & Biophysics.

[64] Cao ZF, Chen ZG, Guo P, Zhang SM, Lian LX, Luo L, et al. Scavenging effects of ginger on superoxide anion and hydroxyl radical. Chung Kuo Chung Yao

[65] Stoilova I, Krastanov A, Stoyanova A, Denev P, Gargova S. Antioxidant activity of a ginger extract (*Zingiber officinale*). Food Chemistry. 2007;**102**(3):764-770

[66] Sueishi Y, Masamoto H, Kotake Y. Heat treatments of ginger root modify but not diminish its antioxidant activity as measured with multiple free radical scavenging (MULTIS) method. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition.

[67] Greenwell M, Rahman PKSM. Medicinal plants: Their use in anticancer treatment. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. 2015;**6**(10):4103-4112. DOI: 10.13040/ IJPSR.0975-8232.6(10).4103-12

[68] Vemuri SK, Banala RR,

Sciences. 2017;**4**(4):332-344

Subbaiah GPV, Srivastava SK, Reddy AG, Malarvili T. Anti-cancer potential of a mix of natural extracts of turmeric, ginger and garlic: A cell-based study. Egyptian Journal of Basic and Applied

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

[54] Thompson M, Al-Qattan KK, Al-Sawan SW, Al-Nageeb MA, Khan I, et al. The use of ginger as a potential anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic agent, Prostagladin, leukotriens and essential fatty acids. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes & Essential Fatty Acids.

[55] Malu SP, Obochi GO, Tawo EN, Nyong BE. Antibacterial activity and medicinal properties of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*). Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences. 2008;**15**(3):365-368

[56] Ekwenye UN, Elegalam NN.

[57] Sebiomo A, Awofodu AD,

Awosanya AO, Awotona FE, Ajayi AJ. Comparative studies of antibacterial effect of some antibiotics and ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) on two pathogenic bacteria. Journal of Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 2011;**3**(1):18-22

[58] Waggas AM. Neuroprotective evaluation of extract of ginger (*Zingiber* 

glutamate induced toxicity in different brain areas male albino rats. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences.

[59] Johji Y, Michihiko M, Rong HQ, Hisashi M, Hajime F. The anti-ulcer effect in rats of ginger constituents. Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

[60] Suekawa M, Ishige A, Yuasa K, Sudo K, Aburada M, Hosoya E. Pharmacological studies on ginger. I. Pharmacological actions of pungent constituents,

(6)-gingerol and (6)-shogaol. Journal of Pharmacobio-Dynamics. 1984;**7**:13-18

[61] Suekawa M, Ishige A, Yuasa K, Sudo K, Aburada M, Hosoya E. Pharmacological

*officinale*) root in monosodium

2009;**12**(3):201-212

1988;**23**(2-3):299-304

Antibacterial activity of ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Roscoe) and garlic (*Allium sativum* L) extracts on *Escherichia coli* and *Salmonella typhi*. Journal of Molecular Medicine and Advance Sciences. 2005;**1**(4):411-416

2002;**67**(6):475-478

anti-inflammatory effects on ethionine-

[47] Akimoto M, Iizuka M, Kanematsu R, Yoshida M, Takenaga K. Anticancer effect of ginger extract against

pancreatic cancer cells mainly through reactive oxygen species-mediated autotic cell death. PLoS One.

[48] Ojewole JA. Analgesic, antiinflammatory and hypoglycaemic effects of ethanol extract of *Zingiber officinale* (Roscoe) rhizomes (Zingiberaceae) in mice and rats. Phytotherapy Research.

[49] Sharma JN, Srivastava KC,

and ginger oil on arthritic rats. Pharmacology. 1994;**49**(5):314-318

Gan EK. Suppressive effects of eugenol

[50] Abdul Razaq NB, Cho MM, Win NN, Zaman R, Rahman MT. Beneficial effects of ginger (*Zingiber officinale*) on carbohydrate metabolism in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. The British Journal of Nutrition.

induced hepatoma rats. Clinics.

2008;**63**(6):807-813

2015;**10**(5):e0126605

2006;**20**(9):764-772

2012;**108**(7):1194-1201

2012;**48**(4):601-607

Studies. 2013;**96**:660-666

[51] Sattar NA, Hussain F, Iqbal T, Sheikh MA. Determination of *in vitro* antidiabetic effects of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe. Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences.

[52] Sukalingama K, Ganesana K, Ganib SB. Hypoglycemic effect of 6-gingerol, an active principle of ginger in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Research and Reviews : Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicological

[53] Ghayur MN, Anwarul HG, Afridi MB, Houghton PJ. Cardiovascular effects of ginger aqueous extract and its phenolic constituents are mediated through multiple pathways. Vascular Pharmacology. 2005;**43**(4):234-241

**146**

studies on ginger. I. Pharmacological actions of pungent constituents,(6) gingerol and (6)-shogaol. Journal of Pharmacobio-Dynamics. 1984;**7**(11):836-848

[62] Ajith TA, Hema U, Aswathy MS. *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe prevents acetaminophen-induced acute hepatotoxicity by enhancing hepatic antioxidant status. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2007;**45**:2267-2272

[63] Krishnakantha TP, Lokesh BR. Scavenging of superoxide anions by spice principles. Indian Journal of Biochemistry & Biophysics. 1993;**30**:133-134

[64] Cao ZF, Chen ZG, Guo P, Zhang SM, Lian LX, Luo L, et al. Scavenging effects of ginger on superoxide anion and hydroxyl radical. Chung Kuo Chung Yao Tsa Chih. 1993;**8**:750-764

[65] Stoilova I, Krastanov A, Stoyanova A, Denev P, Gargova S. Antioxidant activity of a ginger extract (*Zingiber officinale*). Food Chemistry. 2007;**102**(3):764-770

[66] Sueishi Y, Masamoto H, Kotake Y. Heat treatments of ginger root modify but not diminish its antioxidant activity as measured with multiple free radical scavenging (MULTIS) method. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition. 2019;**64**(2):143-147

[67] Greenwell M, Rahman PKSM. Medicinal plants: Their use in anticancer treatment. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. 2015;**6**(10):4103-4112. DOI: 10.13040/ IJPSR.0975-8232.6(10).4103-12

[68] Vemuri SK, Banala RR, Subbaiah GPV, Srivastava SK, Reddy AG, Malarvili T. Anti-cancer potential of a mix of natural extracts of turmeric, ginger and garlic: A cell-based study. Egyptian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences. 2017;**4**(4):332-344

[69] Ghasemian M, Owlia S, Owlia MB. Review of anti-inflammatory herbal medicines. Advances in Pharmacological Sciences. 2016;**2016**:9130979. DOI: 10.1155/2016/9130979

[70] Rani PM, Padmakumari KP, Sankarikutty B, Lijo Cherian O, Nisha VM, Raghu KG. Inhibitory potential of ginger extracts against enzymes linked to type 2 diabetes, inflammation and induced oxidative stress. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 2011;**62**(2):106-110

[71] Parmar I, Rupasinghe HPV. Antioxidant capacity and anti-diabetic activity of wild berry stem infusions. European Journal of Medicinal Plants. 2015;**8**:11-28

[72] Balogun FO, Ashafa AOT. A review of plants in South African traditional medicine used in the prevention and management of hypertension. Planta Medica. 2019;**85**:312-334

[73] Aming SN. The effect of twice a day intake of ginger tea on the blood pressure of hypertensive individuals in Barangay La Victoria, Aurora, Zamboanga Del Sur. Herdin Record #: R09-ZCHRD-12043023205433. 2006 (abstract)

[74] Kuppusamy P, David RS, Raj P, Ilavenil S, Kaleeswaran B, Govindan N, et al. Evaluation of antihypercholesterolemic effect using *Memecylon edule* Roxb. ethanolic extract in cholesterol-induced Swiss albino mice. Journal of Acute Medicine. 2015;**5**:85-e91

[75] Iffiu-Soltesz Z, Wanecq E, Lomba A, Portilio MP, Pellati F, Szoto E. Chronic benzylamine administration in the drinking water improves glucose tolerance, reduces body weight gain and circulating cholesterol in high-fat dietfed mice. Pharmacological Research. 2010;**61**:355-363

[76] Huseini HF, Kianbakht S, Hajiaghaee R, Dabaghian FH. Antihyperglycemic and anti-hypercholesterolemic effects of *Aloe vera* leaf gel in hyperlipidemic type 2 diabetic patients: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Planta Medica. 2012;**78**:311-316

[77] Balogun FO, Ashafa AOT. Aqueous roots extract of *Dicoma anomala* (Sond.) ameliorates isoproterenol – induced myocardial infarction in Wistar rats. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2016a;**15**(8):1651-1657

[78] Balogun FO, Ashafa AOT. Protective action of aqueous leaf extract of *Gazania krebsiana* (Less.) 'Asteraceae' antagonizes isoproterenol-triggered myocardial infarction in *Rattus norvegicus*. Comparative Clinical Pathology. 2018;**27**:461-470

[79] Duke JA. Handbook of Medicinal Herbs. Maryland, USA: CRC Press; 2002

[80] Thomson M, Al-Qattan KK, Al-Sawan SM, Alnaqeeb MA, Khan I, Ali M. The use of ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Rosc) as a potential antiinflammatory and antithrombotic agent. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids. 2002;**67**(6):475-478

[81] Bhandari U, Kanojia R, Pillai KK. Effect of ethanolic extract of *Zingiber officinale* on dyslipidaemia in diabetic rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2005;**97**(2):227-230

[82] Nammi S, Sreemantula S, Roufogalis BD. Protective effects of ethanolic extract of *Zingiber officinale* rhizome on the development of metabolic syndrome in high-fat diet-fed rats. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 2009;**104**(5):366-373

[83] Heeba GH, Abd-Elghany MI. Effect of combined administration of ginger

(*Zingiber officinale*) and atorvastatin on the liver of rats. Phytomedicine. 2010;**17**(14):1076-1081

[84] Elufioye TO, Berida TI, Habtemariam S. Plants-derived neuroprotective agents: Cutting the cycle of cell death through multiple mechanisms. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2017;**2017**:3574012. DOI: 10.1155/2017/3574012

[85] Uddin R, Kim HH, Lee J, Park SU. Neuroprotective effects of medicinal plants. EXCLI Journal. 2013;**12**:541-545

[86] Shanmugam KR, Mallikarjuna K, Kesireddy N, Sathyavelu RK. Neuroprotective effect of ginger on anti-oxidant enzymes in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2011;**49**:893-897

[87] Sharma P, Singh R. Neuroprotective effect of ginger juice against dichlorvos and lindane induced toxicity in wistar rats. Planta Medica. 2011;**77**:122

[88] El-Akabawy G, El-Kholy W. Neuroprotective effect of ginger in the brain of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Annals of Anatomy. 2014;**196**(2-3):119-128

[89] Ha SK, Moon E, Ju MS, Kim DH, Ryu JH, Oh MS, et al. 6-Shogaol, a ginger product, modulates neuroinflammation: A new approach to neuroprotection. Neuropharmacology. 2012;**63**(2):211-223

[90] Asnaashari S, Dastmalchi S, Javadzadeh Y. Gastroprotective effects of herbal medicines (roots). International Journal of Food Properties. 2018;**21**(1):902-920

[91] Vutyavanich T, Kraisarin T, Ruangsri RA. Ginger for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: Randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled

**149**

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger*

trial. Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[92] Bhattarai S, Tran VH, Duke CC. The stability of gingerol and shogaol

[93] Revol B, Gautier-Veyret E, Arrivé C, Fouilhé Sam-Laï N, McLeer-Florin A, Pluchart H, et al. Pharmacokinetic herb-drug interaction between ginger and crizotinib. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2019:1-2

[94] Abd-Allah GA, El-Bakry KA, Bahnasawy MH, El-Khodary ER. Protective effects of curcumin and ginger on liver cirrhosis induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats.

2016;**12**:361-369

10.1155/2016/3509323

International Journal of Pharmacology.

[95] Balogun FO, Ashafa AOT. Acute and sub-chronic oral toxicity evaluation of aqueous roots extract of *Dicoma anomala* (Sond.) in Wistar rats. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2016b;**2016**:3509323. DOI:

in aqueous solutions. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2001;**90**(10):1658-1664

2001;**97**(4):577-582

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

*Pharmacological Potentials of Ginger DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88848*

trial. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2001;**97**(4):577-582

*Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials*

(*Zingiber officinale*) and atorvastatin on the liver of rats. Phytomedicine.

2010;**17**(14):1076-1081

10.1155/2017/3574012

2013;**12**:541-545

2011;**49**:893-897

[85] Uddin R, Kim HH, Lee J, Park SU. Neuroprotective effects of medicinal plants. EXCLI Journal.

Kesireddy N, Sathyavelu RK. Neuroprotective effect of ginger on anti-oxidant enzymes in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology.

[86] Shanmugam KR, Mallikarjuna K,

[87] Sharma P, Singh R. Neuroprotective effect of ginger juice against dichlorvos and lindane induced toxicity in wistar rats. Planta Medica. 2011;**77**:122

[88] El-Akabawy G, El-Kholy W. Neuroprotective effect of ginger in the brain of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Annals of Anatomy.

[89] Ha SK, Moon E, Ju MS, Kim DH, Ryu JH, Oh MS, et al. 6-Shogaol, a ginger product, modulates

neuroinflammation: A new approach to neuroprotection. Neuropharmacology.

[90] Asnaashari S, Dastmalchi S, Javadzadeh Y. Gastroprotective effects

of herbal medicines (roots). International Journal of Food Properties. 2018;**21**(1):902-920

[91] Vutyavanich T, Kraisarin T, Ruangsri RA. Ginger for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: Randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled

2014;**196**(2-3):119-128

2012;**63**(2):211-223

[84] Elufioye TO, Berida TI, Habtemariam S. Plants-derived neuroprotective agents: Cutting the cycle of cell death through multiple mechanisms. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2017;**2017**:3574012. DOI:

[76] Huseini HF, Kianbakht S, Hajiaghaee R, Dabaghian FH. Antihyperglycemic and anti-hypercholesterolemic effects of *Aloe vera* leaf gel in hyperlipidemic type 2 diabetic patients: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Planta

Medica. 2012;**78**:311-316

[77] Balogun FO, Ashafa AOT. Aqueous roots extract of *Dicoma anomala* (Sond.) ameliorates isoproterenol – induced myocardial infarction in Wistar rats. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical

[78] Balogun FO, Ashafa AOT. Protective

[79] Duke JA. Handbook of Medicinal Herbs. Maryland, USA: CRC Press; 2002

[80] Thomson M, Al-Qattan KK, Al-Sawan SM, Alnaqeeb MA, Khan I, Ali M. The use of ginger (*Zingiber officinale* Rosc) as a potential antiinflammatory

and antithrombotic agent. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids. 2002;**67**(6):475-478

[81] Bhandari U, Kanojia R,

[82] Nammi S, Sreemantula S, Roufogalis BD. Protective effects of ethanolic extract of *Zingiber officinale* rhizome on the development of

metabolic syndrome in high-fat diet-fed rats. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 2009;**104**(5):366-373

[83] Heeba GH, Abd-Elghany MI. Effect of combined administration of ginger

of *Zingiber officinale* on dyslipidaemia in diabetic rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

2005;**97**(2):227-230

Pillai KK. Effect of ethanolic extract

Research. 2016a;**15**(8):1651-1657

action of aqueous leaf extract of *Gazania krebsiana* (Less.) 'Asteraceae' antagonizes isoproterenol-triggered myocardial infarction in *Rattus norvegicus*. Comparative Clinical Pathology. 2018;**27**:461-470

**148**

[92] Bhattarai S, Tran VH, Duke CC. The stability of gingerol and shogaol in aqueous solutions. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2001;**90**(10):1658-1664

[93] Revol B, Gautier-Veyret E, Arrivé C, Fouilhé Sam-Laï N, McLeer-Florin A, Pluchart H, et al. Pharmacokinetic herb-drug interaction between ginger and crizotinib. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2019:1-2

[94] Abd-Allah GA, El-Bakry KA, Bahnasawy MH, El-Khodary ER. Protective effects of curcumin and ginger on liver cirrhosis induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats. International Journal of Pharmacology. 2016;**12**:361-369

[95] Balogun FO, Ashafa AOT. Acute and sub-chronic oral toxicity evaluation of aqueous roots extract of *Dicoma anomala* (Sond.) in Wistar rats. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2016b;**2016**:3509323. DOI: 10.1155/2016/3509323

### *Edited by Haiping Wang*

Ginger is well known as a spice and flavor. It has been a traditional medical plant in many cultures for thousands of years. To uncover the miraculous plant, this book not only gives you the plant's origins, where the plant is grown now, but also provides current studies on its utilization, cultivation, breeding, and therapeutic benefits.

Published in London, UK © 2020 IntechOpen © jremes84 / iStock

Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials

Ginger Cultivation and

Its Antimicrobial and

Pharmacological Potentials

*Edited by Haiping Wang*