*5.1.1 Managing soil nutrients*

In agriculture, healthy nutrition of the plants and increasing the use of fertilizers depends on the application of nutrients at the time of need, with sufficient and correct methods. Correct plant nutrition management is in interaction with many factors. For example, increasing fertilizer usage efficiency depends on reducing the losses of plant nutrients from soil due to leaching, denitrification, evaporation, surface flow. In fertilizer applications not suitable for the technique, the nitrogen is leaching from the soil or away from the gaseous state and the nutrients such as phosphorus and potassium are transformed into non-volatile forms. As a matter of fact, while 50% of the nitrogen applied to the soil is lost in various ways, 90% of the phosphorus cannot be taken by plants [10, 11]. Studies have shown that fertilizer nitrogen use efficiency is very low for wheat, paddy and corn, and nitrogen

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period of time and increased usage efficiency.

of sustainable soil fertility and plant nutrition management.

tive and quantitative fertilizers of the field subfields is determined.

*5.1.2 Managing soil physical conditions*

eutrophication.

utilization rate is between 29 and 42% [12]. High nitrogen losses lead to significant environmental problems such as groundwater pollution, lake and river water

On the other hand, soil quality, soil organic matter and nutrient availability also show significant differences between methods such as minimum soil tillage, conventional tillage, conservational tillage and no-till agricultural systems. Totally used soil quality indicators in minimum data sets include total organic carbon, volume weight, aggregate resistance, usable moisture content, pH and EC [13]. Soil water retention capacity, soil water movement in soil, soil compaction and soil temperature also show significant changes depending on the agricultural system. Therefore, soil management has a special place in terms of fertilizer usage efficiency. In this respect, soil management includes more factors such as chemical fertilizers and the use of organic fertilizers (applied fertilizer type, dose, fertilizer application time, method) and irrigation. Fertilizer application methods are extremely important in terms of fertilizer economy. With the method to be applied, the efficiency of the fertilizers is increased and the larger areas can be fertilized with less fertilizer. In the case of slow and controlled conversion of fertilizers into a useful form, the loss of nutrients, especially nitrogen, is prevented and the plant will be used for a longer

Soil analysis and soil sampling technique are very important in terms of fertilizer usage efficiency. In fact, it is a known fact that the physical and chemical properties of soils are highly variable in agricultural areas. Regionally, even on field level, soil properties show significant differences depending on distance. In fertilization without considering this feature of the land, some parts of the land will be applied more than the need and in some places less fertilizer will be applied. In this case, fertilizer will be deposited or washed in the soil in areas where fertilizer is given, and in areas where less fertilizer is needed, the yield will be low. Increased fertilizer use efficiency and the decrease in nutrient loss are proportional to each other [14]. Therefore, precision farming practices are one of the most important components

The aim of this course is to evaluate the soil conditions, product characteristics and the variable productivity related to agricultural conditions within the boundaries of agricultural land in variable rate fertilization technologies in precision farming and to determine the time and amount of fertilization. Variable Rate Fertilization Maps used in this direction indicate the variable applications to different geographical coordinates based on the analysis of these conditions. This technology is also effective in deciding the nature of the fertilizer to be used. Different areas within the field can be evaluated separately and variable nutritional needs can be calculated. With the use of advanced technologies, the topographic structure of the field (different slope levels and depressions), the soil color which varies according to the organic matter content and the temporal yield variability in the field are taken into consideration. With the inclusion of land sampling data, all information is classified and analyzed in different databases; accordingly, the need for qualita-

The soils under natural vegetation normally support the population of organisms and soil animals in an active biological activity. They live in plant roots and trash, digging and loosening the soil and use it as a nest. The vegetation is normally compressed by exposure to the effects of rain and soil processing and the effects of humans, animals and machinery. A certain proportion of compaction makes it suitable for the growth of plant roots in the soil and increases the ability of plants

*Sustainable Crop Production*

as follows:

this risk.

animal species.

cannot survive.

is not always clear.

*5.1.1 Managing soil nutrients*

International Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Land Management definitions by FAO, sustainable land management combines socio-economic principles with environmentally sensitive technologies, policies and activities [9]. In order for sustainable land management to be feasible, five objectives have been identified as Efficiency, Security, Protection, Vitality and Acceptability, and the implementation and findings of the SLM regulation have been identified as the main pillars to be tested and monitored. Each target has its own characteristics and can be explained

• Efficiency: The return obtained from SLM is more than just evaluating with financial gains, it is evaluated to include the benefits that will be obtained from

• Security: The management models that support the balance between land use and the existing environmental conditions reduce the production risks, whereas only those approaches that emphasize commercial anxiety increase

• Protection: Soil and water resources should be taken under strict protection for future generations. Locally, there may be additional protection priorities, such as the protection of genetic diversity or the need to protect specific plant or

• Vitality: If the applied land uses do not match the local conditions, the use

• Acceptability: If the social effects of land use methods are negative, it is inevitable to fail over time. The part directly affected by social and economic impact

Considering this framework, it should be produced safely in the field, established a production model that will protect the natural resources, the model should be economically feasible and socially acceptable. However, it should also be accepted that the system cannot be sustainable with the practices where the agricultural structure is not properly managed and the land is constantly destroyed. This method requires, in principle, to protect and improve soil fertility, to prevent and

In agriculture, healthy nutrition of the plants and increasing the use of fertilizers

depends on the application of nutrients at the time of need, with sufficient and correct methods. Correct plant nutrition management is in interaction with many factors. For example, increasing fertilizer usage efficiency depends on reducing the losses of plant nutrients from soil due to leaching, denitrification, evaporation, surface flow. In fertilizer applications not suitable for the technique, the nitrogen is leaching from the soil or away from the gaseous state and the nutrients such as phosphorus and potassium are transformed into non-volatile forms. As a matter of fact, while 50% of the nitrogen applied to the soil is lost in various ways, 90% of the phosphorus cannot be taken by plants [10, 11]. Studies have shown that fertilizer nitrogen use efficiency is very low for wheat, paddy and corn, and nitrogen

correct soil degradation and to prevent environmental damage.

**5.1 Maintaining and improving soil productivity**

the protective, health and esthetic purposes of land use.

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utilization rate is between 29 and 42% [12]. High nitrogen losses lead to significant environmental problems such as groundwater pollution, lake and river water eutrophication.

On the other hand, soil quality, soil organic matter and nutrient availability also show significant differences between methods such as minimum soil tillage, conventional tillage, conservational tillage and no-till agricultural systems. Totally used soil quality indicators in minimum data sets include total organic carbon, volume weight, aggregate resistance, usable moisture content, pH and EC [13]. Soil water retention capacity, soil water movement in soil, soil compaction and soil temperature also show significant changes depending on the agricultural system. Therefore, soil management has a special place in terms of fertilizer usage efficiency. In this respect, soil management includes more factors such as chemical fertilizers and the use of organic fertilizers (applied fertilizer type, dose, fertilizer application time, method) and irrigation. Fertilizer application methods are extremely important in terms of fertilizer economy. With the method to be applied, the efficiency of the fertilizers is increased and the larger areas can be fertilized with less fertilizer. In the case of slow and controlled conversion of fertilizers into a useful form, the loss of nutrients, especially nitrogen, is prevented and the plant will be used for a longer period of time and increased usage efficiency.

Soil analysis and soil sampling technique are very important in terms of fertilizer usage efficiency. In fact, it is a known fact that the physical and chemical properties of soils are highly variable in agricultural areas. Regionally, even on field level, soil properties show significant differences depending on distance. In fertilization without considering this feature of the land, some parts of the land will be applied more than the need and in some places less fertilizer will be applied. In this case, fertilizer will be deposited or washed in the soil in areas where fertilizer is given, and in areas where less fertilizer is needed, the yield will be low. Increased fertilizer use efficiency and the decrease in nutrient loss are proportional to each other [14]. Therefore, precision farming practices are one of the most important components of sustainable soil fertility and plant nutrition management.

The aim of this course is to evaluate the soil conditions, product characteristics and the variable productivity related to agricultural conditions within the boundaries of agricultural land in variable rate fertilization technologies in precision farming and to determine the time and amount of fertilization. Variable Rate Fertilization Maps used in this direction indicate the variable applications to different geographical coordinates based on the analysis of these conditions. This technology is also effective in deciding the nature of the fertilizer to be used. Different areas within the field can be evaluated separately and variable nutritional needs can be calculated. With the use of advanced technologies, the topographic structure of the field (different slope levels and depressions), the soil color which varies according to the organic matter content and the temporal yield variability in the field are taken into consideration. With the inclusion of land sampling data, all information is classified and analyzed in different databases; accordingly, the need for qualitative and quantitative fertilizers of the field subfields is determined.

#### *5.1.2 Managing soil physical conditions*

The soils under natural vegetation normally support the population of organisms and soil animals in an active biological activity. They live in plant roots and trash, digging and loosening the soil and use it as a nest. The vegetation is normally compressed by exposure to the effects of rain and soil processing and the effects of humans, animals and machinery. A certain proportion of compaction makes it suitable for the growth of plant roots in the soil and increases the ability of plants

to retain the water they need to survive. Exposing the soil to compressing and then drying may cause the surfaces to crust. This reduces the water penetration rate and may cause water to flow from the surface and soil erosion.

Larger land resources were needed to supply food to the growing population, and soils were put under intensive use for overproduction. On the other hand, as a result of the pressure of increasing population, the deterioration in the fertile soil resources and the result of the structuralization show the effects of the loss of the area. As a result of the increase in the need for land resources, many countries around the world need to map their land in detail and use the land according to their capabilities. When the sustainability of natural resources is mentioned, first of all, soil erosion and its negative effects on the environment are one of the first issues that come to mind. Under normal conditions, climate, soil, topography and vegetation are the main elements that complement each other. Soil erosion is the result of this interaction. It is clear that the risk of erosion in agricultural areas is high, and if the conservation measures required by sustainable agricultural techniques are not taken, it will be possible to reach irreversible levels. Moreover, our resources, which are already limited by accelerated soil erosion, may be under great threat in the future.

Managing the physical properties of the soil includes the protection of the soil structure necessary for agricultural production, as well as the application of agricultural techniques and processing techniques to increase the long-term efficiency of the soil. Under these conditions, environment-friendly, healthy, economic and quality production conditions will be provided. Soil cultivation is also important for weed control, and this is usually one of the most important reasons for cultivating the soil. However, the introduction of herbicides has resulted in zero or minimum soil tillage techniques that eliminate the need to soil cultivation. Zero and minimum soil tillage techniques protect the soil from the direct impact of rain and wind by leaving crop remains on the surface. Surface residues prevent soil aggregates from being dispersed, transported by water or wind, the infiltration capacity of the soil is preserved, consequently there is no flow on the soil surface and erosion problem decreases. Generally, 56% water and 28% wind erosion are effective in soil degradation types. Among these reasons, agriculture has an important place with 28% (**Figure 2**) [15].

Intensive and timeless machine operations cause compression on the soil surface, especially in deeper layers and deterioration of the soil structure. Soil compaction is a state of degradation of soil aggregates and reduced pores between aggregates. Reduction of pore density reduces soil aeration, water drainage and water penetration into the deep layers, causing surface flow in rainy conditions. Soil compaction also complicates germination of the seed, limits the growth of plant roots, affects the biodiversity of the soil and causes the surface soil crusting.

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*Soil Management in Sustainable Agriculture DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88319*

operations.

necessary.

should be favored.

*5.1.3 Water management*

physical structure can be listed as follows [15];

plant root area usually results in a decrease in yield.

the following points should be taken into account:

distribution evenness should be ensured.

checked and leaks should be prevented.

perpendicular to the direction of inclination.

contamination.

distance of water resources.

Some of the issues to be taken into consideration for the protection of soil

• Reduce the number and frequency of vehicle traffic, avoid unnecessary

• Select suitable machines for the soil properties and the work to be carried out, check the tire pressure to reduce the pressure on the surface and reduce it if

• Agricultural practices that will increase soil organic matter and encourage soil structure, such as soil aeration, water leakage, heat transfer and root growth

• In grazing systems, grazing intensity and timing should be planned well.

The most important means of ensuring healthy growth of the plant in sustainable agriculture is the sufficient amount of moisture in the root area of the soil during the plant's growing season. The first source of this moisture is the natural rainfall. In cases where sufficient water cannot be met by rainfall, the water needed should be given by irrigation water. Inadequate or too much soil moisture in the

The sustainability of water resources is a social, physical, economic and ecological concept. Sustainable water management encompasses the water needs of future generations, drinking and using, irrigation, industrial and recreational water conservation and ecosystem conservation services. In order to ensure sustainability,

• Irrigation system should be continuously controlled, pumps should be operated at optimum performance, water amount should be measured and water

• The irrigation time and amount should be planned by determining the plant water requirement and the most effective use of water should be ensured.

• Irrigation should be avoided in the middle of day and windy weather, irrigation should be done at night, and if possible drip irrigation method should be used.

• The system should be operated at optimum pressure, pipelines should be

• In any case, water, water sources and drainage channels should be avoided

• To reduce waterborne erosion; it should be ensured that the water is infiltrated to the soil with the principle of agriculture and irrigation method which is

• Production planning should be made considering the water quantity and the

**Figure 2.** *Types and causes of soil degradation [15].*

*Sustainable Crop Production*

to retain the water they need to survive. Exposing the soil to compressing and then drying may cause the surfaces to crust. This reduces the water penetration rate and

Larger land resources were needed to supply food to the growing population, and soils were put under intensive use for overproduction. On the other hand, as a result of the pressure of increasing population, the deterioration in the fertile soil resources and the result of the structuralization show the effects of the loss of the area. As a result of the increase in the need for land resources, many countries around the world need to map their land in detail and use the land according to their capabilities. When the sustainability of natural resources is mentioned, first of all, soil erosion and its negative effects on the environment are one of the first issues that come to mind. Under normal conditions, climate, soil, topography and vegetation are the main elements that complement each other. Soil erosion is the result of this interaction. It is clear that the risk of erosion in agricultural areas is high, and if the conservation measures required by sustainable agricultural techniques are not taken, it will be possible to reach irreversible levels. Moreover, our resources, which are already limited by accelerated soil erosion, may be under great threat in the future. Managing the physical properties of the soil includes the protection of the soil structure necessary for agricultural production, as well as the application of agricultural techniques and processing techniques to increase the long-term efficiency of the soil. Under these conditions, environment-friendly, healthy, economic and quality production conditions will be provided. Soil cultivation is also important for weed control, and this is usually one of the most important reasons for cultivating the soil. However, the introduction of herbicides has resulted in zero or minimum soil tillage techniques that eliminate the need to soil cultivation. Zero and minimum soil tillage techniques protect the soil from the direct impact of rain and wind by leaving crop remains on the surface. Surface residues prevent soil aggregates from being dispersed, transported by water or wind, the infiltration capacity of the soil is preserved, consequently there is no flow on the soil surface and erosion problem decreases. Generally, 56% water and 28% wind erosion are effective in soil degradation types. Among these

may cause water to flow from the surface and soil erosion.

reasons, agriculture has an important place with 28% (**Figure 2**) [15].

Intensive and timeless machine operations cause compression on the soil surface, especially in deeper layers and deterioration of the soil structure. Soil compaction is a state of degradation of soil aggregates and reduced pores between aggregates. Reduction of pore density reduces soil aeration, water drainage and water penetration into the deep layers, causing surface flow in rainy conditions. Soil compaction also complicates germination of the seed, limits the growth of plant roots, affects the biodiversity of the soil and causes the surface soil crusting.

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**Figure 2.**

*Types and causes of soil degradation [15].*

Some of the issues to be taken into consideration for the protection of soil physical structure can be listed as follows [15];

