**Abstract**

A significant proportion of Nigerian households lack access to improved and safe drinking water supplies. This has resulted in high incidences of diarrhoeal-related deaths in the country, especially among young children. Several studies have shown that point-of-use water treatment options such as ceramic filtration are effective in reducing the occurrence of water-borne diseases; however, its use in Nigeria has been significantly low. There is a need to build entrepreneurial capacity among local potters and potteries to drive the scale up of ceramic water filter production across the nation in order to create demand for the filters, seeing that huge potential for its sales abounds. However, the high cost of acquisition of the ceramic water filter press, which is the most essential equipment in the production of the water filters, is a major limitation to the scale up of ceramic water filter production in the country. The goal of the study was to manufacture a ceramic water filter press, by adapting an existing design, using locally sourced materials and manpower, to achieve lower cost. The resulting filter press cost approximately \$1000, proving the viability and cost efficiency of the local manufacture of ceramic water filter presses in Nigeria.

**Keywords:** ceramic water filters, filter press design, household water treatment, manufacturing, Nigeria

### **1. Introduction**

Water is most essential for sustaining life and enhancing the quality of life, but it can transmit diseases. When adequate access to clean, safe water is lacking, incidences of waterborne diseases become rampant [1, 2]. Unsafe drinking water is one of the major causes of diarrhoeal diseases, which are known to be a leading cause of mortality globally especially in children aged five and below [3]. The 2015 WHO/ UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) update reports that 69% of Nigeria's population use improved drinking water sources, which are presumed to be safe [4]. However, due to non-functionality, unsustainability, and lack of proper maintenance of most improved water sources, they are often of non-satisfactory quality [1, 5]. Therefore, the reality is that a lesser percentage of Nigerians than presented actually have access to safe drinking water. Furthermore, even where there is access to safe water, because most of these water sources are not located on premises or

#### *Design and Manufacturing*

piped directly into the houses, there is the risk of contamination in the process of collection, transportation, and storage, thereby leaving the initially safe water unsafe at the point of consumption [2, 6]. It is therefore essential to ensure water is safe for drinking at the point of consumption. Point-of-use water treatment implies any water treatment system that purifies water at the point of consumption and it involves effective treatment and safe storage. It has been identified as an important public health intervention which serves to reduce the faecal-oral transmission of diarrhoeal diseases [7].

The PWB filter press machine design was adopted for this study, whose objective was to design and fabricate a hydraulic filter press unit using locally sourced materials with a view to promote the affordability and availability of this technology for the manufacture of ceramic water filters, consequently increasing

At its inception by Fernando Mazariegos, the ceramic pot water filter was shaped by hand on the potters' wheel. But in the 1980s, the Central American Institute of Industrial Research and Technology (ICAITI) introduced the use of hydraulic presses in the shaping of ceramic water filters resulting in more efficient ceramic water filter production and performance [10]. However, other literature [13] reports that the first press and the first set of moulds were developed to

While the Potters Without Borders (PWB) press design is the most commonly used, other attempts have been made to explore different press designs to improve the workings and efficiency of the presses in the production of ceramic water filters and to meet the specific socio-economic needs of varying localities. The PWB filter press design operates with a 20-ton hydraulic jack and a hand lever for lifting and lowering the H-slide to which the male mould is attached. It produces the flat-

A recent study [14] on a multi-component water treatment, reported that they created a simple plastic press mould to shape the ceramic component of their water filtration system with the aim to improve efficiency and allow for easy replication.

Another study [10] designed a low-cost filter press with the goal of less than \$200 in cost, less manpower requirement and shorter manufacture time. Their work

concentrated on designing and prototyping a low-cost, filter press using

**2. Previous works on ceramic water filter press design**

*Manufacturing a Ceramic Water Filter Press for Use in Nigeria*

standardize the shape of the ceramic water filter (see **Figure 1**).

bottomed ceramic water filters, using a set of aluminium moulds.

access to safe drinking water in Nigeria.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91378*

(see **Figure 2**).

**Figure 1.**

**233**

*Ron Rivera working on the first ceramic filter press [13].*

Recent studies on point-of-use household water treatment systems, suggest that ceramic water filters are the most sustainable and lowest cost options for water purification in developing countries [8]. The essential raw materials, basically clay and combustible bio-wastes, required to make this technology available and accessible in Nigeria are locally available in large quantities. However, there is a wide knowledge gap in the exploration and development of the technology of manufacturing ceramic water filters in the country. As much as there exists a need for household water treatment method such as the ceramic water filters, not many manufacturers engage in the production of ceramic filters. The springing forth of many peri-urban settlements in many Nigerian cities like Akure leaves the nation fraught with an urgent need to explore innovative solutions to put an end in sight to the prevalent water-related health challenges.

While household water treatment and safe storage systems have been considered as effective, low-cost alternatives and a reliable means of achieving safe water at point of use, having shown to significantly reduce diarrhoeal prevalence [6, 7, 9]; very few potters engage in the making of the ceramic water filters. In Nigeria, there are two factories that currently produce ceramic water filters, although production is fraught with many challenges such as understanding the technology behind the working of the filtration system. The major challenge however, to the establishment of a ceramic water filter production facility is the acquisition of the filter press machine.

The ceramic filter press machine is the priority piece of equipment required in the production process of ceramic water filters [10, 11]. The filter press machine, which is mostly hydraulic operated, is used to form the filters into its shape by the application of pressure to the clay mixture in-between a set of moulds. This method of forming is most suitable for making ceramic water filters because a non-plastic material mix is desired and therefore can be only formed successfully by semi-dry pressing techniques. This all-important equipment for the production of ceramic water filters is quite expensive to purchase, with very high shipping and importation costs and tariffs.

Personal communications in a pilot study with operators of ceramic water filter factories in Nigeria reveals that the cost of acquisition of a piece of filter press machine with its corresponding aluminium moulds ranged from \$3000 to \$3500 (USD). This is also confirmed by other researchers [10], stating that the cost of this press is estimated at over \$3000 and therefore is considered a fundamental limiting factor to production of ceramic water filters to meet demands in areas where it is needed. While the Resource Development International - Cambodia (RDIC) approximated the cost at \$2300, excluding shipping and handling costs [12]. This is too high an investment cost for a start-up ceramic/pottery business to bear considering the economic conditions in the country. Therefore the only feasible option to the making of ceramic water filters in Nigeria, to improve access to safe drinking water at the point-of-use, is to resort to the design and fabrication of a filter press machine using locally available materials.

The Potters Without borders (PWB) is one of the organizations that have carried out research on ceramic water filters and design of hydraulic filter press machine [10]. piped directly into the houses, there is the risk of contamination in the process of collection, transportation, and storage, thereby leaving the initially safe water unsafe at the point of consumption [2, 6]. It is therefore essential to ensure water is safe for drinking at the point of consumption. Point-of-use water treatment implies any water treatment system that purifies water at the point of consumption and it involves effective treatment and safe storage. It has been identified as an important public health intervention which serves to reduce the faecal-oral transmission of

Recent studies on point-of-use household water treatment systems, suggest that ceramic water filters are the most sustainable and lowest cost options for water purification in developing countries [8]. The essential raw materials, basically clay and combustible bio-wastes, required to make this technology available and accessible in Nigeria are locally available in large quantities. However, there is a wide

manufacturing ceramic water filters in the country. As much as there exists a need for household water treatment method such as the ceramic water filters, not many manufacturers engage in the production of ceramic filters. The springing forth of many peri-urban settlements in many Nigerian cities like Akure leaves the nation fraught with an urgent need to explore innovative solutions to put an end in sight to

While household water treatment and safe storage systems have been considered as effective, low-cost alternatives and a reliable means of achieving safe water at point of use, having shown to significantly reduce diarrhoeal prevalence [6, 7, 9]; very few potters engage in the making of the ceramic water filters. In Nigeria, there are two factories that currently produce ceramic water filters, although production is fraught with many challenges such as understanding the technology behind the working of the filtration system. The major challenge however, to the establishment of a ceramic water filter production facility is the acquisition of the filter press

The ceramic filter press machine is the priority piece of equipment required in the production process of ceramic water filters [10, 11]. The filter press machine, which is mostly hydraulic operated, is used to form the filters into its shape by the application of pressure to the clay mixture in-between a set of moulds. This method of forming is most suitable for making ceramic water filters because a non-plastic material mix is desired and therefore can be only formed successfully by semi-dry pressing techniques. This all-important equipment for the production of ceramic water filters is quite expensive to purchase, with very high shipping and importa-

Personal communications in a pilot study with operators of ceramic water filter

The Potters Without borders (PWB) is one of the organizations that have carried out research on ceramic water filters and design of hydraulic filter press machine [10].

factories in Nigeria reveals that the cost of acquisition of a piece of filter press machine with its corresponding aluminium moulds ranged from \$3000 to \$3500 (USD). This is also confirmed by other researchers [10], stating that the cost of this press is estimated at over \$3000 and therefore is considered a fundamental limiting factor to production of ceramic water filters to meet demands in areas where it is needed. While the Resource Development International - Cambodia (RDIC) approximated the cost at \$2300, excluding shipping and handling costs [12]. This is too high an investment cost for a start-up ceramic/pottery business to bear considering the economic conditions in the country. Therefore the only feasible option to the making of ceramic water filters in Nigeria, to improve access to safe drinking water at the point-of-use, is to resort to the design and fabrication of a filter press

knowledge gap in the exploration and development of the technology of

the prevalent water-related health challenges.

diarrhoeal diseases [7].

*Design and Manufacturing*

machine.

**232**

tion costs and tariffs.

machine using locally available materials.

The PWB filter press machine design was adopted for this study, whose objective was to design and fabricate a hydraulic filter press unit using locally sourced materials with a view to promote the affordability and availability of this technology for the manufacture of ceramic water filters, consequently increasing access to safe drinking water in Nigeria.
