**2. Previous works on ceramic water filter press design**

At its inception by Fernando Mazariegos, the ceramic pot water filter was shaped by hand on the potters' wheel. But in the 1980s, the Central American Institute of Industrial Research and Technology (ICAITI) introduced the use of hydraulic presses in the shaping of ceramic water filters resulting in more efficient ceramic water filter production and performance [10]. However, other literature [13] reports that the first press and the first set of moulds were developed to standardize the shape of the ceramic water filter (see **Figure 1**).

While the Potters Without Borders (PWB) press design is the most commonly used, other attempts have been made to explore different press designs to improve the workings and efficiency of the presses in the production of ceramic water filters and to meet the specific socio-economic needs of varying localities. The PWB filter press design operates with a 20-ton hydraulic jack and a hand lever for lifting and lowering the H-slide to which the male mould is attached. It produces the flatbottomed ceramic water filters, using a set of aluminium moulds.

A recent study [14] on a multi-component water treatment, reported that they created a simple plastic press mould to shape the ceramic component of their water filtration system with the aim to improve efficiency and allow for easy replication. (see **Figure 2**).

Another study [10] designed a low-cost filter press with the goal of less than \$200 in cost, less manpower requirement and shorter manufacture time. Their work concentrated on designing and prototyping a low-cost, filter press using

**Figure 1.** *Ron Rivera working on the first ceramic filter press [13].*

**Figure 3.**

**Figure 4.**

**235**

*Filter press operated with screw and hydraulic system [11].*

*A low-cost filter press prototype [10].*

*Manufacturing a Ceramic Water Filter Press for Use in Nigeria*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91378*

locally-sourced materials. They attempted to achieve a lower filter formation pressure as a key requirement to reducing the cost, considering that using a 2-ton car jack instead of the 20-ton hydraulic jack used by PWB would greatly reduce cost. The press was designed for the round-bottom filters and adopted an inverted design in which the car jack was mounted to the frame headstock and the female mould was suspended on the underside of the jack elevator while the male mould sat on the base [10]. For the moulds, they improvised with the use of inexpensive aluminium bowls (see **Figure 3**).

A group of researchers [11] in their study described the use of a 30-ton manually operated hydraulic press developed and manufactured by MEC Ltd., India. The press makes use of a screw system to lower and lift the male mould which is attached to the die screw connector plate, while the female mould sits on a base plate which is attached to the hydraulic jack (see **Figure 4**). This press produces the flat-bottomed, frustum shaped filters of 23 cm height with 25.5 cm base diameter.

The Ceramic Filter Manufacturing Manual [15] developed by Pure Home Water, reported two types of press designs for shaping ceramic water filters; the Potters for Peace (PfP) press and the Mani press. The PfP press design as described in the text is a portable press that uses a 20-ton hydraulic jack with a removable female mould while the male mould is attached to a moveable shaft on the frame. It operates a crankshaft system which allows for the lifting and lowering of the shaft that holds

*Manufacturing a Ceramic Water Filter Press for Use in Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91378*

#### **Figure 3.** *A low-cost filter press prototype [10].*

**Figure 4.** *Filter press operated with screw and hydraulic system [11].*

locally-sourced materials. They attempted to achieve a lower filter formation pressure as a key requirement to reducing the cost, considering that using a 2-ton car jack instead of the 20-ton hydraulic jack used by PWB would greatly reduce cost. The press was designed for the round-bottom filters and adopted an inverted design in which the car jack was mounted to the frame headstock and the female mould was suspended on the underside of the jack elevator while the male mould sat on the base [10]. For the moulds, they improvised with the use of inexpensive aluminium

A group of researchers [11] in their study described the use of a 30-ton manually operated hydraulic press developed and manufactured by MEC Ltd., India. The press makes use of a screw system to lower and lift the male mould which is attached to the die screw connector plate, while the female mould sits on a base plate which is attached to the hydraulic jack (see **Figure 4**). This press produces the flat-bottomed, frustum shaped filters of 23 cm height with 25.5 cm base

The Ceramic Filter Manufacturing Manual [15] developed by Pure Home Water, reported two types of press designs for shaping ceramic water filters; the Potters for Peace (PfP) press and the Mani press. The PfP press design as described in the text is a portable press that uses a 20-ton hydraulic jack with a removable female mould while the male mould is attached to a moveable shaft on the frame. It operates a crankshaft system which allows for the lifting and lowering of the shaft that holds

bowls (see **Figure 3**).

*Design and Manufacturing*

*Modelled diagram of the press mould and product [14].*

diameter.

**234**

**Figure 2.**

frame. It uses an 8-ton hydraulic jack and works with a pulley system that operates with a hand crank for lifting and lowering the female mould (see **Figure 6**). The mould in the PfP press described in the Ceramic Filter Manufacturing Manual [15] is made of nylon while the material used to make the Mani press moulds was not stated in their report but can be made of concrete or metal. It, however, concluded that the Mani press delivered greater advantage and ease in use than the portable PfP press. The RDIC manual [12] describes a fully automated hydraulic system-operated ceramic water filter press. It uses a set of metal moulds, most likely aluminium. The male mould is attached to the frame headstock while the female mould is attached to a moveable shaft which is controlled by the

hydraulic system which works with the use of an electric motor (see **Figure 7**). This action controls the press and the release of the clay filter mix in between the

The features of the various designs of ceramic water filter presses reviewed in

After a review of the designs of ceramic water filter presses as discussed hitherto, the PWB ceramic water filter press design was adopted based on the following

A non-electrically operated press was desired to overcome the challenge of poor

the course of this study are presented in **Table 1**.

*Manufacturing a Ceramic Water Filter Press for Use in Nigeria*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91378*

electricity supply within the country;

moulds.

**Figure 7.**

**237**

*An electric motor driven hydraulic press [12].*

considerations:

**Figure 5.** *Operating the portable PfP press with crank system [15].*

the male mould. The hydraulic jack is positioned above the male mould after it has been lowered into the female mould which contains the clay (see **Figure 5**).

The Mani press has both its male and female moulds attached; while the male mould is attached to an extendable table, the female mould is attached to the press

**Figure 6.** *The Mani press [15].*

#### *Manufacturing a Ceramic Water Filter Press for Use in Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91378*

frame. It uses an 8-ton hydraulic jack and works with a pulley system that operates with a hand crank for lifting and lowering the female mould (see **Figure 6**).

The mould in the PfP press described in the Ceramic Filter Manufacturing Manual [15] is made of nylon while the material used to make the Mani press moulds was not stated in their report but can be made of concrete or metal. It, however, concluded that the Mani press delivered greater advantage and ease in use than the portable PfP press. The RDIC manual [12] describes a fully automated hydraulic system-operated ceramic water filter press. It uses a set of metal moulds, most likely aluminium. The male mould is attached to the frame headstock while the female mould is attached to a moveable shaft which is controlled by the hydraulic system which works with the use of an electric motor (see **Figure 7**). This action controls the press and the release of the clay filter mix in between the moulds.

The features of the various designs of ceramic water filter presses reviewed in the course of this study are presented in **Table 1**.

After a review of the designs of ceramic water filter presses as discussed hitherto, the PWB ceramic water filter press design was adopted based on the following considerations:

A non-electrically operated press was desired to overcome the challenge of poor electricity supply within the country;

**Figure 7.** *An electric motor driven hydraulic press [12].*

the male mould. The hydraulic jack is positioned above the male mould after it has been lowered into the female mould which contains the clay (see **Figure 5**).

**Figure 5.**

*Design and Manufacturing*

**Figure 6.**

**236**

*The Mani press [15].*

*Operating the portable PfP press with crank system [15].*

The Mani press has both its male and female moulds attached; while the male mould is attached to an extendable table, the female mould is attached to the press


#### **Table 1.**

*Features of the various types of ceramic water filter presses reviewed in this study.*

The use of a fully manual system was also not desirable because it will increase the time taken to press one filter; therefore a hydraulic press mechanism was desired;

A lever was preferred for the lowering and lifting of the moulds, to the crank (as in the portable PfP press [15]) and the screw (as in [11]) because it makes the filter pressing more cumbersome and time consuming;

Flow chart of steps taken in fabricating the ceramic water filter press.

It became expedient to fabricate a hydraulic press machine to facilitate the shaping of the ceramic water filters by the press cast method. This is the most suitable method of forming the ceramic filters because the mix is highly non-plastic and hence cannot withstand other ceramic forming techniques besides slip casting which is not very feasible at the desired dimensions of ceramic water filters.

For this study to ensure the economic feasibility, sustainability and hence the scalability of the manufacture of the ceramic water filter press in Nigeria, it was important to set a cost limit for fabricating the press; and this was set at 350000 naira (approximately \$1000). This was done considering the issue of low access to capital for start-ups, which is common in the country. This study, however, intends to encourage local potters to venture into the production of ceramic water filters by alleviating some of the cost-related challenges of setting up a filter production unit.

**3. Fabricating the hydraulic press machine**

*Manufacturing a Ceramic Water Filter Press for Use in Nigeria*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91378*

**239**

The moulds were preferred fitted to the press frame to overcome the challenge of misalignment of moulds, possible in removable moulds, and as well, the inconvenience and health hazard of lifting heavy moulds in each process of filter pressing (as in the portable PfP press [15]).

Based on these specific requirements, the Potters Without Borders (PWB) ceramic water filter press design was adapted for manufacture in Akure, Nigeria. The PWB ceramic water filter press is said to have several benefits with respect to design and operation. Its high-strength (20-ton) design allows the pressing of flatbottom filters [10] while creating stability and preventing deformation in the shaped filters. The flat-bottom filters are said to provide more surface area and therefore higher flow rates [10]. Some of the adjustments made to the PWB filter press design, included the replacement of the hydraulic car jack with a locally fabricated industrial hydraulic jack, as well as the design and manufacture of the press mould to fit locally available wide-rimmed plastic containers to meet the water needs in larger households.

Flow chart of steps taken in fabricating the ceramic water filter press.
