**4. Upper Paleolithic**

This prehistoric phase is the most enigmatic in the Subcontinent as it lacks absolute dates, is geographically irregular and temporally overlaps with the terminal Middle Paleolithic and early microlithic in several regions. Due to the latter attribute, the South Asian Upper Paleolithic has been replaced with or incorporated within the 'Late Paleolithic' by some researchers (see [81]). Preliminary counts from published data has revealed a minimum of 530 reported Upper

**Figure 11.** *Laminar elements (blades) from the Son Valley, north-central India (pic courtesy: Shashi Mehra).*

**49**

**Figure 12.**

*Tiwari).*

*Human Evolution in the Center of the Old World: An Updated Review of the South Asian…*

Paleolithic/Late Stone Age sites across India. It is interesting that classic and diagnostic Upper Paleolithic sites have not yet been reported (or classified as such) from Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka. The dominating and defining features of this technochronological phase include a notable increase in the production of more specialized laminar tools such as blades and burins (**Figure 11**). Additional tool types during this techno-chronological period include flakes, knives, awls, borers, scrapers, cores including cylindrical types, choppers, and bone tools. Unfortunately, and surprisingly, there are still no absolute dates available for any exclusive (i.e. without a microlithic component) Upper Paleolithic assemblages in India, though numerous

*Diverse microlithic artifacts from the site of Bayan in the Central Narmada Basin (pic courtesy: Nupur* 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94265*

*Human Evolution in the Center of the Old World: An Updated Review of the South Asian… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94265*

Paleolithic/Late Stone Age sites across India. It is interesting that classic and diagnostic Upper Paleolithic sites have not yet been reported (or classified as such) from Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka. The dominating and defining features of this technochronological phase include a notable increase in the production of more specialized laminar tools such as blades and burins (**Figure 11**). Additional tool types during this techno-chronological period include flakes, knives, awls, borers, scrapers, cores including cylindrical types, choppers, and bone tools. Unfortunately, and surprisingly, there are still no absolute dates available for any exclusive (i.e. without a microlithic component) Upper Paleolithic assemblages in India, though numerous

**Figure 12.**

*Diverse microlithic artifacts from the site of Bayan in the Central Narmada Basin (pic courtesy: Nupur Tiwari).*

#### **Figure 13.**

*Diverse microlithic cores and microblades/bladelets on different raw materials from the Son Valley (top row; pic courtesy: Shashi Mehra) and Patne (bottom row) in west-central India.*

sites have been reported. The only date currently available for a blade-dominated assemblage in the entire Subcontinent is 45 Ka for Site 55 in Pakistan [31], making it contemporary with the young Middle Paleolithic assemblages in northern India [38] and old microlithic assemblages in central India and Sri Lanka [41, 62].

Besides chronology and ecological adaptations, a key issue that remains to be understood is the nature of the transitions between the Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic and early microlithic in South Asia (**Figures 12** and **13**). What is also lacking in association with these technologies is comparatively abundant symbolic behavior (see [82]), the main explanation for which may be the lack of adequate research and preservation. Given the geographic mosaic of ecological diversity across the Indian subcontinent, it is likely that only some regions do contain classic/ typical Upper Paleolithic technologies as distinct techno-chronological entities. In the other geographic zones, their absence may be explained by the lack of suitable raw materials such as siliceous rocks (e.g. chert, fine-grained quartzite) and other factors such as a lack of geographic movements into some zones due to various climatic, ecological and adaptive constraints. Slightly younger evidence which was dated using the AMS method has also yielded new paleoanthropological insights including the youngest dated (~16 Ka) hippo fossils in India [83] and a new microlithic-faunal-pollen association (~18 Ka) from Odisha in eastern India [84], a poorly known but promising region for Indian palaeoanthropology. Such data demonstrate the broad temporal interface between fauna, environments and/or humans. Both studies span not only the end of the Last Glacial Maximum but also perhaps indirectly reflect major transformations within the microlithic phase including the beginning of geometric microliths, human burials and other symbolic behaviors, i.e. the beginning of the Mesolithic proper. Increased human-fauna interactions and rapid colonization of the Subcontinent may have led to the beginning of long-term eco-geographic marginalization of some species (e.g. lion, rhino) as well as their subsequent extinctions (e.g. hippo, ostrich). Only high-resolution multidisciplinary

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*Human Evolution in the Center of the Old World: An Updated Review of the South Asian…*

studies including robust chronological frameworks from across India can, however,

In addition to the observations and brief summaries provided above, additional key paleoanthropological discoveries in recent years include the first-ever recovery of *Sivapithecus* fossils outside the Siwalik Hills [85], extraction of DNA from ostrich eggshells and protohistoric human bones [86, 87] and the report of tool-use and object manipulation by the macaque populations of Andaman and Nicobar Islands [88, 89]. The *Sivapithecus* find comes from the western region of Gujarat and clearly demonstrates how little we know about past faunal distributions at the pan-Indian level. More systematic surveys of key sedimentary contexts in targeted locations across India may yield additional faunal surprises including the much-needed hominin fossils. The successful extraction of DNA from two diverse materials – human bone and ostrich eggshell - also demonstrates that there is now greater potential for further such studies despite earlier failed attempts which were attributed to tropical environmental conditions [90]. The observation of tool-use in monkeys further highlights the critical need for more primate studies in South Asia at various levels including primate archaeology, cognitive studies, ecological adaptations, social relationships, subsistence patterns, conservation strategies and so forth. One arguably important conclusion from the review of known data is that, with the exception of the Pabbi Hills in the Pakistan Siwaliks, no clear evidence currently exists for the presence of Oldowan evidence in the entire Indian subcontinent [65]. Based on the current lack of diagnostic Paleolithic (e.g. Acheulean, Levallois, Upper Paleolithic) and microlithic technologies in the northeastern part of the Indian Subcontinent (i.e. northeast India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar), it does not appear to have been used as a biogeographic corridor during hominin dispersals to Southeast Asia. However, intensive surveys are required in the concerned areas as well as Southeast Asia to confirm whether the Subcontinent was a bio-cultural cul-de-sac. In that respect, Pakistan and surrounding border areas also require further surveys to increase the number of Paleolithic sites there, especially due to their significance as the geographic entry point into the Subcontinent. Numerous known sites require re-investigation through multidisciplinary methods including excavations, geological analyses, palaeoenvironmental reconstructions and absolute dating. This is especially critical as some previously-known sites are gradually getting destroyed through various geological and anthropogenic processes (e.g. Chirki-on-Pravara;

Unfortunately, broad hypotheses/theories have been made for South Asian prehistory without adequate evidence, such as the innovation of microlithic technology following environmental deterioration soon after 40 Ka [46]. Not only is there no clear evidence for environmental degradation across the Subcontinent, but later discoveries have demonstrated that microlithic technology was well established in central India and Sri Lanka, respectively, between ~50 Ka and 45 ka. Though the source and nature of their origin remain ambiguous (innovated vs. introduced), it may be possible that specific evolutionary milestones converged at roughly the same time: arrival of *Homo sapiens* into South Asia with microlithic technology and the arrival of the ostrich into South Asia, possibly reflecting shared arid environments [66, 91]. On a related note, the nature of biological transition(s) between the archaic populations and incoming *Homo sapiens* has also not been theoretically explored. Was this replacement process gradual or rapid? Did the replacement

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94265*

Personal communication: Sheila Mishra).

**5. Discussion and conclusion**

verify or reject such broad multi-proxy relationships.

studies including robust chronological frameworks from across India can, however, verify or reject such broad multi-proxy relationships.
