**4.1 Raw material procurement**

The types and distributions of raw material at the Paleolithic localities in Zhejiang are recorded in **Table 1**.

A large number of pebbles were mostly found from open-air localities in Zhejiang, indicating that numerous pebbles were used as raw material for stone artifacts. Meanwhile, some sites also used sandstones and quartz sandstones or flint as raw material to stone tools. In general, raw materials are limited, and most of them can be found in the river or nearby outcrops. Thus, it is suggested that these raw materials come from the local river bed, bench land and stratum. Some excavations did not reach the bottom of the pebble deposits, but by comparing with the lithology and nearby stratum, the stratum with the same lithology as the stone artifacts and unearthed pebbles could be identified, which further proves the feature of local material use.

Considering the weight of stone artifacts, there is indication of artificial selection. For instance, the lithics unearthed from the upper cultural layer of the Qiliting


**125**

also transformed into spheroids.

*A Macroscopic Perspective on Lithic Technology and Human Behavior…*

Sitehave are basically similar in size and weight. Such tendency suggests that the craftsmen might have a strong selectivity of blanks for the lithic production. While the artifact weights in the middle cultural layer are scattered and show a strong randomness [10]. It is worth noting that stone artifacts unearthed from the localities such as Yindinggang, Hexidong and the cave sites in Tonglu County produce flints of good quality as their raw material, which might indicate that prehistoric human including both archaic Homo species and *Homo sapiens* might consciously choose

Cores and flakes are the production of flake knapping. Take the single platform Type I core [9] as example, after the first flake knapping, some cores were discarded as they lost the potential for further knapping. Flakes made by these simple cores have a natural platform and natural dorsal face, and generally they do not have much value in use. Some flakes that have a sharp edge can be directly used as tool. Thus, on some specimens, use-wear traces have been found. Some sites such as Qiliting Site have a high proportion of single platform Type I core, which is on one hand due to the choice of raw material, and on the other hand it is because the knapping technology of local craftsman was immature. In the upper cultural layer, the ratio of faceted platform has increased, numbers of wide and thick type flake have dropped, the ratio of long type flake as well as the overturn knapping has increased, which demonstrates the improvement in knapping technology and

Single platform Type II core [10], double platform core and multi-platform core can reflect certain procedures of flake knapping. When knapping single platform Type II core, craftsmen choose the flat plane as platform, and flaked along the edge in clockwise or counter-clockwise direction, then choose the platform that has a ridge on the lower part and continue knapping. They tried to take advantage of the longitudinal ridge to convey the hitting force, and thus some relatively long flakes are produced, and the level of core utilization is thus increased. Double platform cores have an increased area of platform as well as more suitable striking points, which raised the output of flakes, and thereby increased the knapping efficiency of

The knapping of multi-platform cores basically follows the overturn knapping method, which means turning the blank 90° and then knap again. This knapping method is suitable to the condition that when the first knapping sequence becomes unsatisfactory the craftsmen do not need to discard the blank, but can still select other suitable striking points. The striking orientation from right to left of the reverse side of flake shows the knapping situation before, and the flake being peeled off successfully also took advantage of the longitudinal ridge form in previous

Refitting groups of flakes reveal the strategy of continuous knapping. The observed data of Qiliting Site show that the maximum number of scars on the core from the upper cultural layer core is more than nine, and the maximum number of scars on ridges of dorsal face is more than five [12]. Many double platform cores from the upper cultural layer are knapped from opposite directions, with one of the end platforms fully utilized, and the body of the core has some small scars. In terms of the size of scarring, the shape and structure of small flakes are cluttered and unsuitable for usage. If we keep on knapping the core, the shape of the blank will be like a sphere, and at last become a spheroid. Some multi-platform cores may have

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93821*

better raw material.

utilization rate of core.

the core.

knapping.

**4.2 Primary flake knapping**

#### **Table 1.**

*The types and distributions of raw material at the Paleolithic localities in Zhejiang.*

*A Macroscopic Perspective on Lithic Technology and Human Behavior… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93821*

Sitehave are basically similar in size and weight. Such tendency suggests that the craftsmen might have a strong selectivity of blanks for the lithic production. While the artifact weights in the middle cultural layer are scattered and show a strong randomness [10]. It is worth noting that stone artifacts unearthed from the localities such as Yindinggang, Hexidong and the cave sites in Tonglu County produce flints of good quality as their raw material, which might indicate that prehistoric human including both archaic Homo species and *Homo sapiens* might consciously choose better raw material.

#### **4.2 Primary flake knapping**

*Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation*

**4.1 Raw material procurement**

Zhejiang are recorded in **Table 1**.

feature of local material use.

**Qiliting Site (Changxing)**

**Yindiangang Site (Changxing)**

**Shangmakan Site** 

**Open-air localities (Tonglu)**

**Hexidong Site (Changxing)**

**(Anji)**

However, with the limit of direct C14 dating of each site, it is yet hard to discuss the change and develop of lithic technology during the Pleistocene from the view of human evolution and behavior here. Thus we focus on lithic technology and human behavior in general by applying the concept of *Chaîne Opératoire*. This concept was developed to attempt describing and understanding the processes of culture transformation [19], so that it emphasis on the dynamics [20]. The analysis based on the concept of *Chaîne Opératoire* should consider the lithic artifacts as a life-cycle human being, and all of stages from raw material procurement to tool modification,

utilization, maintenance, and finally discarding should be included [21].

The types and distributions of raw material at the Paleolithic localities in

A large number of pebbles were mostly found from open-air localities in Zhejiang, indicating that numerous pebbles were used as raw material for stone artifacts. Meanwhile, some sites also used sandstones and quartz sandstones or flint as raw material to stone tools. In general, raw materials are limited, and most of them can be found in the river or nearby outcrops. Thus, it is suggested that these raw materials come from the local river bed, bench land and stratum. Some excavations did not reach the bottom of the pebble deposits, but by comparing with the lithology and nearby stratum, the stratum with the same lithology as the stone artifacts and unearthed pebbles could be identified, which further proves the

Considering the weight of stone artifacts, there is indication of artificial selection. For instance, the lithics unearthed from the upper cultural layer of the Qiliting

Sandstone Quartz sandstone,

(probably) **Caves (Tonglu)** Siliceous

Sandstone, flint, quartzite

dolomite, granite, siliceous rock, quartz, igneous rock,

Sandstone, quartzite Pebble from

Quartzite Pebble layer

Siliceous mudstone Pebble from

Pebble from river

Pebble from river

bedrock; Flint from basin

bedrock

bedrock; Flint from basin (probably)

7.09–1.9

quartzite

Quartzite, quartz sandstone

Quartz sandstone, sandstone, flint Pebble from

**Locality Major raw material (%) Minor raw material (%) Source**

Quartz sandstone 92.91–98.1

siliceous mudstone

**Pujiang** Quartz sandstone, sandstone, flint,

**Lin'an** Sandstone, quartz

Flint 44.2, quartz sandstone41

sandstone

Quartz sandstone, sandstone

mudstone(flint)

*The types and distributions of raw material at the Paleolithic localities in Zhejiang.*

**124**

**Table 1.**

Cores and flakes are the production of flake knapping. Take the single platform Type I core [9] as example, after the first flake knapping, some cores were discarded as they lost the potential for further knapping. Flakes made by these simple cores have a natural platform and natural dorsal face, and generally they do not have much value in use. Some flakes that have a sharp edge can be directly used as tool. Thus, on some specimens, use-wear traces have been found. Some sites such as Qiliting Site have a high proportion of single platform Type I core, which is on one hand due to the choice of raw material, and on the other hand it is because the knapping technology of local craftsman was immature. In the upper cultural layer, the ratio of faceted platform has increased, numbers of wide and thick type flake have dropped, the ratio of long type flake as well as the overturn knapping has increased, which demonstrates the improvement in knapping technology and utilization rate of core.

Single platform Type II core [10], double platform core and multi-platform core can reflect certain procedures of flake knapping. When knapping single platform Type II core, craftsmen choose the flat plane as platform, and flaked along the edge in clockwise or counter-clockwise direction, then choose the platform that has a ridge on the lower part and continue knapping. They tried to take advantage of the longitudinal ridge to convey the hitting force, and thus some relatively long flakes are produced, and the level of core utilization is thus increased. Double platform cores have an increased area of platform as well as more suitable striking points, which raised the output of flakes, and thereby increased the knapping efficiency of the core.

The knapping of multi-platform cores basically follows the overturn knapping method, which means turning the blank 90° and then knap again. This knapping method is suitable to the condition that when the first knapping sequence becomes unsatisfactory the craftsmen do not need to discard the blank, but can still select other suitable striking points. The striking orientation from right to left of the reverse side of flake shows the knapping situation before, and the flake being peeled off successfully also took advantage of the longitudinal ridge form in previous knapping.

Refitting groups of flakes reveal the strategy of continuous knapping. The observed data of Qiliting Site show that the maximum number of scars on the core from the upper cultural layer core is more than nine, and the maximum number of scars on ridges of dorsal face is more than five [12]. Many double platform cores from the upper cultural layer are knapped from opposite directions, with one of the end platforms fully utilized, and the body of the core has some small scars. In terms of the size of scarring, the shape and structure of small flakes are cluttered and unsuitable for usage. If we keep on knapping the core, the shape of the blank will be like a sphere, and at last become a spheroid. Some multi-platform cores may have also transformed into spheroids.

Five refitting groups were identified from the upper cultural layer of Qiliting site that belong to the refitting relation of core to flake, and they are all single platform cores. Negatives in different directions from the reverse side have been found on three flakes, which shows the existence of different knapping methods such as one-way, opposite direction, overturn and multi-direction, which illustrates that the utilization rate of cores in refitting groups is relatively high. By observing the striking point of flakes, it is suggested that *Homo sapiens* were able to steadily control the position of striking point.

Four refitting groups were unearthed from the middle cultural layer of the Qiliting site, which are all in situ, and belong to the refitting relation of core to flake. The technique of these stone tools is unskillful and one-way knapping is in the majority. The utilization rate of the cores is also low and striking points are far from the cores' edges. In one refitting group, a single flake has been removed from its core. In the eleventh layer, a flintknapping workshop or lithic processing place can be preliminary inferred, which could be a temporary camp of prehistoric humans. The preparation of the cores is crude with many pebble surfaces retained.

From the upper cultural layer of Yindiangang Site, 13 refitting groups were discovered [12], and the eight of them are the refitting relation of core to flake, others are core to chunk, core to flake to half flake, core to flake to chunk, core to scraper and chunks. The first 11 refitting relation (Type I) products were produced during the process of knapping tools from blanks. The twelfth refitting relation (Type II) was produced during the process of retouching tools from blanks. The last refitting relation (Type III) is formed by the stone artifacts that have broken off because of the fracture of joint place, the striking force or uneven stress during the process of knapping. Type I and Type II is the refitting relation between stone artifacts, these are the result consciously made by prehistoric human, and these relations have reflected the technology of stone artifact processing and their purpose of behavior. Type III is the split joint relation between stone artifacts, an accidental result, which shows that the purpose of behavior did not match the result. In general, there are many ways of flake knapping, such as opposite direction, overturn, stagger, multidirection etc. Cores commonly have 2 to 3 scars, at most 9 scars, which means that the utilization of core is relatively high. The shape of the flake is thick, its platform is wide, the position of striking points is scattered and far from the edge of the blank. It can be suggested that the technique of knapping is unskillful.

Lower cultural layer of Yindiangang Site has discovered one core to flake refitting group [10], which indicates that this might be a place prehistoric human produced flake or briefly stopped.

#### **4.3 Retouching**

Chopping-tools from Qiliting Site are all made from pebbles. Bifacial retouching is common, and the retouch scars are relatively few. Basically, they used the sharp edge of a pebble or core accompanied with simple processing to match the need of felling and chopping.

Spheroids in the upper cultural layer from Qiliting site can be divided into a preliminary processed type and an intensive processed type. Preliminary processed spheroids are closed to the double-platform or multi-platform cores; however, most scars are much smaller. Their length is nearly equaling to the width, and so as the rate of width and thickness. Intensive processed spheroids have small natural platforms, a big angle between dorsal and ventral without larger negatives. These two types of spheroids might reflect the technological process of spheroid-making.

In the middle cultural layer of Qiliting site, the handpick is an important type. Its volume is large and takes up a high proportion of stone tools. Handpicks show

**127**

done in the future.

*A Macroscopic Perspective on Lithic Technology and Human Behavior…*

three stages of manufacture. The first one is retouching along both sides of pebble or chunk, and converging into a pointed edge; the second one is taking advantage of the natural ridge of pebble and simply processed it into pointed edge; the third one is making use of the sharp edge after core knapping and processed it into pointed edge. The pointed edge of a handpick has a higher technology requirement than chopping-tools. Processed directly from pebbles may cost great workload, and such production way is hard to make pointed edge regularly. Thus, taking advantage of

The process of producing scraper is similar to that of chopping-tool, which takes advantage of the sharp edge or far terminal of blanks.. The difference is that most blanks of scrapers are flakes, only a few are trimmed by flat chunks, its procedure is more complicated than chopping-tools. In the Paleolithic sites of southern China, chopping-tools and handpicks appear in large quantities; and small-sized tools such as scrapers take second in the activity of production, as a result, their manufactures

After preliminary examination, the 9 stone artifacts uncovered from the fifth layer and the 17 artifacts from eleventh layer of Qiliting were selected for use-wear analysis, which include flakes, scrapers, points and chopping tools. The analytic results suggest that all of the 9 specimens from the upper layer retain positive usewear. The 13 specimens from the middle layer were identified as used pieces. The result of use-wear analysis shows that some flakes with sharp edge are used directly as tools without any retouching. It is suggested that most of scrapers were retouched intentionally before using, indicating that the knappers might have possessed some purpose related to the function during the tools manufacture. For points, use-wear

Up to now, the archeological research of the Paleolithic sites of Zhejiang province focused on the counties along the borders of southern Anhui province, southern Jiangsu province and northern Zhejiang province. The second terrace of rivers and

The types of raw materials and their physical limitations could have led the occupants to develop local technical solutions, and they reflect the level of lithic knapping technology. A large number of pebbles were found from open-air localities in Zhejiang, indicating plenty of pebbles were used as raw material of stone artifacts. Stone artifacts of this area were mostly unearthed from the reticulate red clay of the second to fourth terrace of the river. As most sites are in situ, we preliminary deduce that raw materials are from the river pebble or outcrop nearby. Meanwhile, some sites also used sandstones and quartz sandstones or flint as raw material to stone tools. It is worth noting that stone artifacts unearthed from the localities such as Yindingang, Hexidong and a cave site in Tonglu County produce flint that have a good quality as their raw material, which might indicate that prehistoric human including both archaic Homo species and modern human consciously choose better raw material. But the relation between raw material and lithic technology is complex, thus more study is needed to be

From the view of lithic industry in Pleistocene south China, the raw materials of these stone artifacts are limited, hammer percussion is the main knapping technique

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93821*

the sharp edge of core can be a better choice.

are not so delicate.

**5. Summary**

**4.4 Utilization and maintenance**

was found on the tip and side edge [12].

cave sites are the main target of surveys [22–23].

#### *A Macroscopic Perspective on Lithic Technology and Human Behavior… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93821*

three stages of manufacture. The first one is retouching along both sides of pebble or chunk, and converging into a pointed edge; the second one is taking advantage of the natural ridge of pebble and simply processed it into pointed edge; the third one is making use of the sharp edge after core knapping and processed it into pointed edge. The pointed edge of a handpick has a higher technology requirement than chopping-tools. Processed directly from pebbles may cost great workload, and such production way is hard to make pointed edge regularly. Thus, taking advantage of the sharp edge of core can be a better choice.

The process of producing scraper is similar to that of chopping-tool, which takes advantage of the sharp edge or far terminal of blanks.. The difference is that most blanks of scrapers are flakes, only a few are trimmed by flat chunks, its procedure is more complicated than chopping-tools. In the Paleolithic sites of southern China, chopping-tools and handpicks appear in large quantities; and small-sized tools such as scrapers take second in the activity of production, as a result, their manufactures are not so delicate.

### **4.4 Utilization and maintenance**

After preliminary examination, the 9 stone artifacts uncovered from the fifth layer and the 17 artifacts from eleventh layer of Qiliting were selected for use-wear analysis, which include flakes, scrapers, points and chopping tools. The analytic results suggest that all of the 9 specimens from the upper layer retain positive usewear. The 13 specimens from the middle layer were identified as used pieces. The result of use-wear analysis shows that some flakes with sharp edge are used directly as tools without any retouching. It is suggested that most of scrapers were retouched intentionally before using, indicating that the knappers might have possessed some purpose related to the function during the tools manufacture. For points, use-wear was found on the tip and side edge [12].

### **5. Summary**

*Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation*

control the position of striking point.

produced flake or briefly stopped.

**4.3 Retouching**

felling and chopping.

Five refitting groups were identified from the upper cultural layer of Qiliting site that belong to the refitting relation of core to flake, and they are all single platform cores. Negatives in different directions from the reverse side have been found on three flakes, which shows the existence of different knapping methods such as one-way, opposite direction, overturn and multi-direction, which illustrates that the utilization rate of cores in refitting groups is relatively high. By observing the striking point of flakes, it is suggested that *Homo sapiens* were able to steadily

Four refitting groups were unearthed from the middle cultural layer of the Qiliting site, which are all in situ, and belong to the refitting relation of core to flake. The technique of these stone tools is unskillful and one-way knapping is in the majority. The utilization rate of the cores is also low and striking points are far from the cores' edges. In one refitting group, a single flake has been removed from its core. In the eleventh layer, a flintknapping workshop or lithic processing place can be preliminary inferred, which could be a temporary camp of prehistoric humans. The preparation of the cores is crude with many pebble surfaces retained. From the upper cultural layer of Yindiangang Site, 13 refitting groups were discovered [12], and the eight of them are the refitting relation of core to flake, others are core to chunk, core to flake to half flake, core to flake to chunk, core to scraper and chunks. The first 11 refitting relation (Type I) products were produced during the process of knapping tools from blanks. The twelfth refitting relation (Type II) was produced during the process of retouching tools from blanks. The last refitting relation (Type III) is formed by the stone artifacts that have broken off because of the fracture of joint place, the striking force or uneven stress during the process of knapping. Type I and Type II is the refitting relation between stone artifacts, these are the result consciously made by prehistoric human, and these relations have reflected the technology of stone artifact processing and their purpose of behavior. Type III is the split joint relation between stone artifacts, an accidental result, which shows that the purpose of behavior did not match the result. In general, there are many ways of flake knapping, such as opposite direction, overturn, stagger, multidirection etc. Cores commonly have 2 to 3 scars, at most 9 scars, which means that the utilization of core is relatively high. The shape of the flake is thick, its platform is wide, the position of striking points is scattered and far from the edge of the

blank. It can be suggested that the technique of knapping is unskillful.

Lower cultural layer of Yindiangang Site has discovered one core to flake refitting group [10], which indicates that this might be a place prehistoric human

Chopping-tools from Qiliting Site are all made from pebbles. Bifacial retouching is common, and the retouch scars are relatively few. Basically, they used the sharp edge of a pebble or core accompanied with simple processing to match the need of

Spheroids in the upper cultural layer from Qiliting site can be divided into a preliminary processed type and an intensive processed type. Preliminary processed spheroids are closed to the double-platform or multi-platform cores; however, most scars are much smaller. Their length is nearly equaling to the width, and so as the rate of width and thickness. Intensive processed spheroids have small natural platforms, a big angle between dorsal and ventral without larger negatives. These two types of spheroids might reflect the technological process of spheroid-making. In the middle cultural layer of Qiliting site, the handpick is an important type. Its volume is large and takes up a high proportion of stone tools. Handpicks show

**126**

Up to now, the archeological research of the Paleolithic sites of Zhejiang province focused on the counties along the borders of southern Anhui province, southern Jiangsu province and northern Zhejiang province. The second terrace of rivers and cave sites are the main target of surveys [22–23].

The types of raw materials and their physical limitations could have led the occupants to develop local technical solutions, and they reflect the level of lithic knapping technology. A large number of pebbles were found from open-air localities in Zhejiang, indicating plenty of pebbles were used as raw material of stone artifacts. Stone artifacts of this area were mostly unearthed from the reticulate red clay of the second to fourth terrace of the river. As most sites are in situ, we preliminary deduce that raw materials are from the river pebble or outcrop nearby. Meanwhile, some sites also used sandstones and quartz sandstones or flint as raw material to stone tools. It is worth noting that stone artifacts unearthed from the localities such as Yindingang, Hexidong and a cave site in Tonglu County produce flint that have a good quality as their raw material, which might indicate that prehistoric human including both archaic Homo species and modern human consciously choose better raw material. But the relation between raw material and lithic technology is complex, thus more study is needed to be done in the future.

From the view of lithic industry in Pleistocene south China, the raw materials of these stone artifacts are limited, hammer percussion is the main knapping technique and bipolar method appeared in Upper Paleolithic age and they were possibly produced by modern human or *Homo sapiens*.

Stone artifacts from Early and Middle Paleolithic were made of quartz sandstone and sandstone; direct hammer percussion was used during flake knapping and tool retouching; the utilization of the cores is low; most cores have a single natural platform; faceted platforms are rarely observed. The retouch is crude; one-way retouch and alternately retouch are common; and there are also reverse, stagger, both side and overturn retouching. Most stone tools are heavy and thick, with a length more than 100 mm. Tools smaller than 40 mm are rare, and most blanks are massive. Heavy-sized tools appear in larger numbers than small-sized tools. Chopping-tools are the main tool type, and handpicks and spheroids are also commonly seen. Stone tools in this period basically belong to the industry of southern China [24, 25]. The use of flint increased in the Upper Paleolithic; bipolar method gradually appeared; and the proportion of scrapers also increased; flakes became the main blank form. The trend towards tool miniaturization increased and the characteristic of stone tools gradually approached the flake-tool-industry that is commonly seen in northern China.

In conclusion, the Pleistocene lithic industry in Zhejiang province basically belongs to the industry of southern China [11, 16]. Accompanied by the transition from pebble-tool-industry to flake-tool-industry possibly started by early and archaic Homo species, raw material procurement, the knapping methods and lithic assemblages also changed gradually. The basic characteristic of the lithic industry in Zhejiang is similar to the southern Anhui province and southern Jiangsu province. But some regional differences are also seen. For example, in Early and Middle Paleolithic sites, small-sized and heavy-sized stone artifacts are similar in numbers, and the proportion of spheroid is lower than surrounding areas. Short handpick is also a unique tool type of this region. In Upper Paleolithic sites, on the other hand, flint was used as the main raw material, and with hammer percussion, bipolar method was also widely used. Such new lithic production technology could be introduced and practiced by modern human, though the details are yet unclear.

In terms of human adaptation, most raw materials were gathered locally; the utilization of cores and the degree of proficiency during primary flake knapping improved gradually. Retouching is mostly found on the sharp edge or distal end. The sharp edges of blades are frequently used. Flake refitting and use-wear analysis provided useful information about the manufacture and utilization of tools. As current investigation and material are not comprehensive enough, the archeological investigation of the Paleolithic sites and prehistoric human behavior of Zhejiang province in regard with human evolution and migration during the Pleistocene is an ongoing research.

**129**

**Author details**

Cambridge, UK

China

Hong Chen1,2\*, Jiying Liu2

, Xinmin Xu3

\*Address all correspondence to: hollychen@zju.edu.cn

provided the original work is properly cited.

1 School of Art and Archaeology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

2 Institute of Cultural Heritage and Museology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou,

3 Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

4 Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge,

and Huiru Lian4

*A Macroscopic Perspective on Lithic Technology and Human Behavior…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93821*

*A Macroscopic Perspective on Lithic Technology and Human Behavior… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93821*
