**3.2 Case 2: Archeological evidence from Goa Topogaro in Central Sulawesi**

excavations in Topogaro 1 exposed limestone rockfall at about 100 cm depth from the surface and have not yet reached the bed rock. Basically three layers are confirmed down to around 1 m depth and all the acquired 14C dates indicate occupation during the Holocene; Layers 3-2 as early Holocene during 10,000 to 8000 BP, and Layer 1 as late Holocene with burial human remains, pottery, glass beads, and metal materials after 600 BP. In Topogaro 2, Sector A along the eastern wall (2 3 m) and Sector B along the western wall (2 2 m) were excavated (10 m<sup>2</sup> in total) down to about 300 cm depth during 2016 and 2018 field seasons, although the bed rock was not reached. Eleven layers were identified in Sector A, containing shells, animal bones, and lithic flakes. Among the upper layers, Layer 2 produced a large number of shell remains. Layers 3, 5, 7, 8 and 10 produced significant amounts of lithic artifacts, mainly chert flakes while Layers 4, 6 and 9 contained very few or no artifacts, indicating a discontinuous occupation of the cave [40]. The results for Sector A indicate four occupation phases: (1) Late Pleistocene (c. 29-26 ka cal. BP/ Layer 9-11); (2) terminal Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (c. 16 ka cal. BP/ Layer 6-8); (3) early Holocene (c. 10 ka cal. BP/ Layer 3-4); and (4) early Metal Age (c.

*Island Migration, Resource Use, and Lithic Technology by Anatomically Modern…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93819*

Lithic artifacts, bone tools, shellfish and animal remains were mainly excavated in the Topogaro Caves. Bone tools and marine shells were only retrieved from the Holocene layers in Topogaro 1, albeit in large numbers. Topogaro 2 also produced a few bone tools and shells, mainly from the upper Holocene layers, while from its late Pleistocene layers mainly lithics and some animal remains were recovered. The majority of the mammal remains from the Pleistocene layers in Topogaro 2, belong to murid (rat) and chiropteran (bat) species. With few exceptions, they are mainly small in size and could be interpreted as natural cave deposits and not left behind by humans (e.g. [2, 22]). The bone elements for these small mammals include femur, humerus, tibia, ulna, radius, pelvis, mandible, premaxilla, teeth and canine. For chiropteran bones, at least one fruit bat species (Pteropodidae) and one insectivo-

In terms of larger sized mammals and other animals, wild pigs (Suidae) mainly

Babirusa (*Babyrousa* sp.) and Anoa (*Bubalus* sp.), and as middle to large-sized mammals, marsupials (mainly Phalangeridae), reptiles like snakes (Serpentes) and lizards (Lacertila), as well as variety of mollusks were excavated from Topogaro 2. In general, the remains of wild pigs were commonly recovered both from the Holocene and Pleistocene layers in Topogaro caves, while Anoa were mainly excavated from the Pleistocene layers [39]. A phalanx of Anoa is associated with some chert flake tools and charcoals dated to 29 ka cal. BP in Topogaro 2. For shellfish remains, both bivalvia and gastropod species are excavated from the Pleistocene layers in Topogaro 2. The major gastropod families are Thiaridae while Cyerenidae are the dominant bivalve species. They both occupy fresh and brackish water habitats in river and mangrove environments. Limited numbers of Arcidae, Conidae, Neritidae, Potamididae shells also indicate shell fishing of marine and brackish water species to some extent [39]. The numbers and volume of mollusks are quite limited in the Pleistocene layers and significantly increase in the Holocene layers. The Pleistocene layers in Topogaro 2 produced a variety of lithic tools mainly made of chert (**Figure 5A, B**). For example, the 1 1 m square excavated down to 3 m in depth produced a total of 252 lithic artifacts weighing 1920 g. Two complete chert flakes from Layer 11 (around 3 m depth) are associated with a phalange of Anoa and a few charcoal samples, one of which was dated to 29 ka cal. BP. Microscopic traces on these flaked tools indicate processing of hard materials, especially animal bones. Secondary edge scarring along their working edges reveals chopping motion associated with butchering (**Figure 5E, F**). The middle layers dated to around 16 ka cal. BP and the terminal LGM produced some blade-like flakes of

rous taxon were identified but the exact species is yet unknown [39].

2.3 ka cal. BP/Layer 1-2).

**93**

Goa Topogaro or Topogaro Caves are located along the eastern coast of Central Sulawesi (**Figure 1**). They are c. 3.5 km distant from the current coast in Morowali District and about 75 m above current sea level. Goa Topogaro is composed of three large caves (Topogaro 1-3) and four rockshelters (Topogaro 4-7) which are located along the wall of the upper doline at 90 m above sea level. Since 2016, the Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional Indonesia (National Center of Archeological Research) and R. Ono have conducted excavation of two caves (Topogaro 1 and 2) and one rockshelter (Topogaro 7). Here, we report on the excavation results of Topogaro 1 and 2 (**Figure 4**), since both caves have traces of human occupation from the early Holocene and late Pleistocene [39], while Topogaro 7 is mainly an early Metal Age burial site [40].

Topogaro 1 is the largest cave in the Topogaro complex. It has a floor area of around 500m2 , and measures 24 m in width, 25 m in length and a maximum height of about 20 m, and faces northwest. Over 30 broken wooden coffins with human skeletal remains were found on the cave floor with fragments of prehistoric pottery, Chinese and European ceramics, chert flakes including finely retouched tools, and shell. The wooden coffins and the variety of Chinese and European ceramics show that the cave had been also used as a cemetery in more recent times, while the amount of chert flakes indicate the cave was used in later prehistoric times. Topogaro 2 is located south-west of Topogaro 1, and both caves are connected to each other by a narrow passage. Topogaro 2 is 15 m wide and 24 m deep width with a maximum height of about 12 m and faces north. The floor size of Topogaro 2 is about 360 m<sup>2</sup> .

Two trenches in the northern (Trench A, 1 4 m trench area) and southern part (Trench B, 2 3 m trench area) were excavated in Topogaro 1 (10 m<sup>2</sup> in total). Both

**Figure 4.** *Mouth views and plans of Topogaro 1 and 2 caves with excavation area.*

*Island Migration, Resource Use, and Lithic Technology by Anatomically Modern… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93819*

excavations in Topogaro 1 exposed limestone rockfall at about 100 cm depth from the surface and have not yet reached the bed rock. Basically three layers are confirmed down to around 1 m depth and all the acquired 14C dates indicate occupation during the Holocene; Layers 3-2 as early Holocene during 10,000 to 8000 BP, and Layer 1 as late Holocene with burial human remains, pottery, glass beads, and metal materials after 600 BP. In Topogaro 2, Sector A along the eastern wall (2 3 m) and Sector B along the western wall (2 2 m) were excavated (10 m<sup>2</sup> in total) down to about 300 cm depth during 2016 and 2018 field seasons, although the bed rock was not reached. Eleven layers were identified in Sector A, containing shells, animal bones, and lithic flakes. Among the upper layers, Layer 2 produced a large number of shell remains. Layers 3, 5, 7, 8 and 10 produced significant amounts of lithic artifacts, mainly chert flakes while Layers 4, 6 and 9 contained very few or no artifacts, indicating a discontinuous occupation of the cave [40]. The results for Sector A indicate four occupation phases: (1) Late Pleistocene (c. 29-26 ka cal. BP/ Layer 9-11); (2) terminal Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (c. 16 ka cal. BP/ Layer 6-8); (3) early Holocene (c. 10 ka cal. BP/ Layer 3-4); and (4) early Metal Age (c. 2.3 ka cal. BP/Layer 1-2).

Lithic artifacts, bone tools, shellfish and animal remains were mainly excavated in the Topogaro Caves. Bone tools and marine shells were only retrieved from the Holocene layers in Topogaro 1, albeit in large numbers. Topogaro 2 also produced a few bone tools and shells, mainly from the upper Holocene layers, while from its late Pleistocene layers mainly lithics and some animal remains were recovered. The majority of the mammal remains from the Pleistocene layers in Topogaro 2, belong to murid (rat) and chiropteran (bat) species. With few exceptions, they are mainly small in size and could be interpreted as natural cave deposits and not left behind by humans (e.g. [2, 22]). The bone elements for these small mammals include femur, humerus, tibia, ulna, radius, pelvis, mandible, premaxilla, teeth and canine. For chiropteran bones, at least one fruit bat species (Pteropodidae) and one insectivorous taxon were identified but the exact species is yet unknown [39].

In terms of larger sized mammals and other animals, wild pigs (Suidae) mainly Babirusa (*Babyrousa* sp.) and Anoa (*Bubalus* sp.), and as middle to large-sized mammals, marsupials (mainly Phalangeridae), reptiles like snakes (Serpentes) and lizards (Lacertila), as well as variety of mollusks were excavated from Topogaro 2. In general, the remains of wild pigs were commonly recovered both from the Holocene and Pleistocene layers in Topogaro caves, while Anoa were mainly excavated from the Pleistocene layers [39]. A phalanx of Anoa is associated with some chert flake tools and charcoals dated to 29 ka cal. BP in Topogaro 2. For shellfish remains, both bivalvia and gastropod species are excavated from the Pleistocene layers in Topogaro 2. The major gastropod families are Thiaridae while Cyerenidae are the dominant bivalve species. They both occupy fresh and brackish water habitats in river and mangrove environments. Limited numbers of Arcidae, Conidae, Neritidae, Potamididae shells also indicate shell fishing of marine and brackish water species to some extent [39]. The numbers and volume of mollusks are quite limited in the Pleistocene layers and significantly increase in the Holocene layers.

The Pleistocene layers in Topogaro 2 produced a variety of lithic tools mainly made of chert (**Figure 5A, B**). For example, the 1 1 m square excavated down to 3 m in depth produced a total of 252 lithic artifacts weighing 1920 g. Two complete chert flakes from Layer 11 (around 3 m depth) are associated with a phalange of Anoa and a few charcoal samples, one of which was dated to 29 ka cal. BP. Microscopic traces on these flaked tools indicate processing of hard materials, especially animal bones. Secondary edge scarring along their working edges reveals chopping motion associated with butchering (**Figure 5E, F**). The middle layers dated to around 16 ka cal. BP and the terminal LGM produced some blade-like flakes of

**3.2 Case 2: Archeological evidence from Goa Topogaro in Central Sulawesi**

*Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration,Technology, and Adaptation*

Goa Topogaro or Topogaro Caves are located along the eastern coast of Central Sulawesi (**Figure 1**). They are c. 3.5 km distant from the current coast in Morowali District and about 75 m above current sea level. Goa Topogaro is composed of three large caves (Topogaro 1-3) and four rockshelters (Topogaro 4-7) which are located along the wall of the upper doline at 90 m above sea level. Since 2016, the Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional Indonesia (National Center of Archeological

Research) and R. Ono have conducted excavation of two caves (Topogaro 1 and 2) and one rockshelter (Topogaro 7). Here, we report on the excavation results of Topogaro 1 and 2 (**Figure 4**), since both caves have traces of human occupation from the early Holocene and late Pleistocene [39], while Topogaro 7 is mainly an

Topogaro 1 is the largest cave in the Topogaro complex. It has a floor area of

of about 20 m, and faces northwest. Over 30 broken wooden coffins with human skeletal remains were found on the cave floor with fragments of prehistoric pottery, Chinese and European ceramics, chert flakes including finely retouched tools, and shell. The wooden coffins and the variety of Chinese and European ceramics show that the cave had been also used as a cemetery in more recent times, while the amount of chert flakes indicate the cave was used in later prehistoric times. Topogaro 2 is located south-west of Topogaro 1, and both caves are connected to each other by a narrow passage. Topogaro 2 is 15 m wide and 24 m deep width with a maximum height of about 12 m and faces north. The floor size of Topogaro 2 is

Two trenches in the northern (Trench A, 1 4 m trench area) and southern part (Trench B, 2 3 m trench area) were excavated in Topogaro 1 (10 m<sup>2</sup> in total). Both

, and measures 24 m in width, 25 m in length and a maximum height

early Metal Age burial site [40].

around 500m2

about 360 m<sup>2</sup>

**Figure 4.**

**92**

*Mouth views and plans of Topogaro 1 and 2 caves with excavation area.*

.

mainland by the narrow, c. 900-1300 m wide Ilin Channel (**Figure 6**). It is mostly composed of bedded, coralline and fossiliferous limestone of the Pliocene Famnoan Formation with a small area of volcanic flows in its northeast. Most of the island is highly prone to karstic erosion and possesses numerous caves and rockshelters [33]. Among the over 40 caves and rockshelters discovered during initial surveys in

*Island Migration, Resource Use, and Lithic Technology by Anatomically Modern…*

2010 and 2011, four sites have been excavated, Salamagi, Bubog 1 and 2, and Cansubong 2. Excavations focused mainly on Bubog 1 and 2, two rockshelters close to each other and located at the southeastern end of Ilin Island [9, 33, 41, 42]. Both sites face east and are situated at an altitude of *c.* 30 m amsl (Bubog 1) and 42 m amsl (Bubog 2). Bubog 1 is between 40 and 50 m long with a rock overhang in excess of 4 m wide. Its platform was disturbed by three more or less circular shaped pits that were dug by treasure hunters to a depth of over 1 m in the misconceived belief that they would find gold or other treasure. The pits cut through deposits of marine shells and exposed a well-stratified archeological shell midden. The edges of the treasure hunter pits were straightened in the course of the archeological excavation to provide vertical profiles for drawing and recording, and the pits were

By 2016, the excavations in Bubog 1 had reached a depth of c. 4 m below the surface and exposed silty terrestrial deposits with a few artifacts, including a fully worked bone fishing gorge [9] (**Figure 8A**). While no more marine shells appear in those layers, the remains of pelagic fishes still provide evidence for open sea fishing [43]. The shell midden stratigraphy is connected to a radiocarbon chronology beginning at c. 4 ka cal. BP near the surface to 28-33 ka cal. BP at the lowest shell midden layer 9/9a (**Figure 7**). The absence of sufficient organic material prevented 14C dating for the layers below the shell midden, however at least an age of older than the 33 ka cal. BP retrieved from a *Geloina coaxans* shell from the lowest shell

Associated with the shells from the midden deposits were several pebble and pebble fragments as well as fish remains and mammal bones. These animal bones were mainly from the endemic pig *Sus oliveri*, with few remains of deer (*Rusa marianna and Cervus alfredi*) and tamaraw (*Bubalus mindorensis*) as well as rodents, notably the cloud rat *Crateromys paulus*, known only from Ilin Island [44] and lizards [9, 33, 43]. While the use of the pebbles was obviously for breaking open the larger marine shells, flaked lithics were extremely rare in the shell midden [33]. Instead,

conjoined in the following seasons (**Figure 7**).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93819*

midden layer above can be assumed [9].

*Location and aerial view of Bubog 1 and 2 sites on Ilin Island.*

**Figure 6.**

**95**

**Figure 5.**

white and yellowish chert, with ventral scars that were either caused by use or retouch. Some of these flakes display potlid fractures which might be heat-related. The flat polishes and diagonal and transversal striations on these tools indicate prolonged contact with phytolith-rich plants through scraping during the terminal LGM (**Figure 5G, H**). Retouched tools were recovered in Topogaro 1 during the Holocene period (**Figure 5C, D**).
