**4. Material culture of Paleolithic Ryukyu Islands**

In contrast to the relatively good preservation of human bone, few artifacts have been found from the Paleolithic sites of the Ryukyu Islands. Small amorphous flakes made of chert, quartz, and shales and sandstone cobble tools were found at several sites. Notably, several types of flake tools, which are often discovered at Paleolithic sites in mainland Japan, are restricted to islands north of Tokunoshima (**Table 1**). No chipped stone tools of Paleolithic age have been found from Okinawa or other southern islands.

All the stone materials were available at surrounding area of each site, and no obvious oversea transportation of stone material is known in the Paleolithic Ryukyu Islands. It seems a strange phenomenon since Paleolithic people came across the sea to the Ryukyu Islands and probably were familiar with maritime technologies, including oversea voyage [1, 11]. In mainland Japan, Paleolithic people translocated obsidians beyond the sea [53]. Although the possible oversea transportation of wild pigs more than 20,000 years ago is suggested in the southern and the central Ryukyus [31, 54], it is controversial as discussed later.

The small amorphous flakes and cobble tools are not suitable for typological study or analysis of usage. The Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures of the northern Ryukyus were closely related to those of Kyusyu Island, Japan, as mentioned above. However, the cultures of the central and southern Ryukyus have little in common with them. In the Holocene, the Jomon and subsequent mainland Japanese cultures influenced the prehistoric cultures of the central Ryukyus. In the southern Ryukyus, endemic prehistoric culture continued until 1000 years ago. After the tenth century, the inhabitants eventually constructed a cultural network

**139**

**Figure 4.**

*The Migration, Culture, and Lifestyle of the Paleolithic Ryukyu Islanders*

of the difficulty in oversea voyage between the islands.

throughout the Ryukyus. Cultural exchange across islands was difficult in prehistoric times. In summary, the Paleolithic people and culture of the central and the southern Ryukyus seem different from those of mainland Japan, probably because

The material culture of the Paleolithic Ryukyu Islands was a mystery until the authors and colleagues found a variety of shell artifacts and stone tools in the Paleolithic sediments of Sakitari Cave, Okinawa Island (**Figure 4**) [16, 55, 56]. The shell artifacts uncovered from the 20,000 to 23,000-year-old sediments (layer II) of Sakitari Cave consist of fishhooks, two types of scrapers, and two types of beads. The fishhooks were made of *Trochus* shells, similarly to the hooks found in the Paleolithic site of Timor [19]. Therefore, the fishhook technology distributed around the

western Pacific might be related to each other, though the locations of the sites differ; Sakitari Cave is a riverside cave and a seasonal campsite for seeking freshwater animal resources such as crabs and snails [16], while the Asitau kuru (Jerimalai Shelter), Timor, is a coastal site for marine resources such as fish and shellfish [5, 19, 57]. The Sakitari assemblage is unique in its lack of stone tools. There were three 13,000-year-old amorphous quartz flakes [55] and a 23,000-year-old tiny fragment of sandstone, which probably was used to grind fishhooks [16]. The Paleolithic stone artifacts of Sakitari Cave consist of only these four items, while many more shell artifacts were unearthed from the same sediments (**Figure 4**). Paleolithic shell flakes were reported in *Homo sapiens* sites of Philippines [58] and Indonesia [59] dating back to 30,000 years ago. It is known that pre-sapiens hominin also uses shellfish tools [60], so it may be difficult to talk about the relevance of culture with shellfish tools alone. But the Paleolithic culture of ISEA and Okinawa seems similar

However, Sakitari assemblage is quite unique in the dominance of shell artifacts. It probably is linked to the distribution of stone and shell materials on the island. There is no good stone material for making tools except the low-quality chert and small-sized quartz, which are available only in the northern half of Okinawa Island. In contrast to this stone distribution, shells are abundantly available on the island, especially in the coastal area. Sakitari Cave is located at the southern end of

*Isolated human teeth and artifacts obtained from layer II (20,000–23,000 years ago; a–p) and layer I (13,000–16,000 years ago; q–v) of Sakitari cave. (a) Human tooth (right lower third molar), (b) shell fishhook, (c–i) bivalve shell scraper (*Callista chinensis*), (j, k) bivalve shell scraper (*Septifer bilocularis*), (l, m) bivalve shell bead (*Sunetta kirai*), (n–p) Scaphopoda bead, (q) human tooth (right upper deciduous canine),* 

*(r–t) quartz flake, (u, v) snail shell bead (*Pyrene testudinaria*).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92391*

in terms of shell flakes and fishhooks.

#### *The Migration, Culture, and Lifestyle of the Paleolithic Ryukyu Islanders DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92391*

*Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation*

Cave indicates that Paleolithic people occupied Okinawa Island almost continuously from 30,000 to 13,000 years ago (**Figure 3**). Studies of the other Paleolithic individuals excavated from Shiraho-Saonetabaru Cave and the human bones recently discovered in Sakitari Cave near the Minatogawa site will provide insight into this

*Section of trench I and pit 1 of Sakitari cave. Partial human remains and animal remains consumed by humans were obtained from layers I to III. Artifacts were unearthed from layers I and II (see also Figure 4).*

In contrast to the relatively good preservation of human bone, few artifacts have been found from the Paleolithic sites of the Ryukyu Islands. Small amorphous flakes made of chert, quartz, and shales and sandstone cobble tools were found at several sites. Notably, several types of flake tools, which are often discovered at Paleolithic sites in mainland Japan, are restricted to islands north of Tokunoshima (**Table 1**). No chipped stone tools of Paleolithic age have been found from Okinawa or other

All the stone materials were available at surrounding area of each site, and no obvious oversea transportation of stone material is known in the Paleolithic Ryukyu Islands. It seems a strange phenomenon since Paleolithic people came across the sea to the Ryukyu Islands and probably were familiar with maritime technologies, including oversea voyage [1, 11]. In mainland Japan, Paleolithic people translocated obsidians beyond the sea [53]. Although the possible oversea transportation of wild pigs more than 20,000 years ago is suggested in the southern and the central

The small amorphous flakes and cobble tools are not suitable for typological study or analysis of usage. The Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures of the northern Ryukyus were closely related to those of Kyusyu Island, Japan, as mentioned above. However, the cultures of the central and southern Ryukyus have little in common with them. In the Holocene, the Jomon and subsequent mainland Japanese cultures influenced the prehistoric cultures of the central Ryukyus. In the southern Ryukyus, endemic prehistoric culture continued until 1000 years ago. After the tenth century, the inhabitants eventually constructed a cultural network

**138**

problem in the near future.

**Figure 3.**

southern islands.

**4. Material culture of Paleolithic Ryukyu Islands**

Ryukyus [31, 54], it is controversial as discussed later.

throughout the Ryukyus. Cultural exchange across islands was difficult in prehistoric times. In summary, the Paleolithic people and culture of the central and the southern Ryukyus seem different from those of mainland Japan, probably because of the difficulty in oversea voyage between the islands.

The material culture of the Paleolithic Ryukyu Islands was a mystery until the authors and colleagues found a variety of shell artifacts and stone tools in the Paleolithic sediments of Sakitari Cave, Okinawa Island (**Figure 4**) [16, 55, 56]. The shell artifacts uncovered from the 20,000 to 23,000-year-old sediments (layer II) of Sakitari Cave consist of fishhooks, two types of scrapers, and two types of beads. The fishhooks were made of *Trochus* shells, similarly to the hooks found in the Paleolithic site of Timor [19]. Therefore, the fishhook technology distributed around the western Pacific might be related to each other, though the locations of the sites differ; Sakitari Cave is a riverside cave and a seasonal campsite for seeking freshwater animal resources such as crabs and snails [16], while the Asitau kuru (Jerimalai Shelter), Timor, is a coastal site for marine resources such as fish and shellfish [5, 19, 57].

The Sakitari assemblage is unique in its lack of stone tools. There were three 13,000-year-old amorphous quartz flakes [55] and a 23,000-year-old tiny fragment of sandstone, which probably was used to grind fishhooks [16]. The Paleolithic stone artifacts of Sakitari Cave consist of only these four items, while many more shell artifacts were unearthed from the same sediments (**Figure 4**). Paleolithic shell flakes were reported in *Homo sapiens* sites of Philippines [58] and Indonesia [59] dating back to 30,000 years ago. It is known that pre-sapiens hominin also uses shellfish tools [60], so it may be difficult to talk about the relevance of culture with shellfish tools alone. But the Paleolithic culture of ISEA and Okinawa seems similar in terms of shell flakes and fishhooks.

However, Sakitari assemblage is quite unique in the dominance of shell artifacts. It probably is linked to the distribution of stone and shell materials on the island. There is no good stone material for making tools except the low-quality chert and small-sized quartz, which are available only in the northern half of Okinawa Island. In contrast to this stone distribution, shells are abundantly available on the island, especially in the coastal area. Sakitari Cave is located at the southern end of

#### **Figure 4.**

*Isolated human teeth and artifacts obtained from layer II (20,000–23,000 years ago; a–p) and layer I (13,000–16,000 years ago; q–v) of Sakitari cave. (a) Human tooth (right lower third molar), (b) shell fishhook, (c–i) bivalve shell scraper (*Callista chinensis*), (j, k) bivalve shell scraper (*Septifer bilocularis*), (l, m) bivalve shell bead (*Sunetta kirai*), (n–p) Scaphopoda bead, (q) human tooth (right upper deciduous canine), (r–t) quartz flake, (u, v) snail shell bead (*Pyrene testudinaria*).*

Okinawa Island, a stone-poor region. At present, it is about 2 km inland from the nearest coast, and it was 5–6 km away from the coast around 20,000–23,000 years ago. Therefore, the Paleolithic people of Sakitari Cave were able to access the coast easily and collect shells and other marine products such as fish. The unique material culture of Sakitari Cave was suitable for the island environment, and it represents the behavioral plasticity of the Paleolithic people and their capacity to adapt to the stone-poor, shell-rich island environment of Okinawa.
