**5. Discussion and conclusion**

In addition to the observations and brief summaries provided above, additional key paleoanthropological discoveries in recent years include the first-ever recovery of *Sivapithecus* fossils outside the Siwalik Hills [85], extraction of DNA from ostrich eggshells and protohistoric human bones [86, 87] and the report of tool-use and object manipulation by the macaque populations of Andaman and Nicobar Islands [88, 89]. The *Sivapithecus* find comes from the western region of Gujarat and clearly demonstrates how little we know about past faunal distributions at the pan-Indian level. More systematic surveys of key sedimentary contexts in targeted locations across India may yield additional faunal surprises including the much-needed hominin fossils. The successful extraction of DNA from two diverse materials – human bone and ostrich eggshell - also demonstrates that there is now greater potential for further such studies despite earlier failed attempts which were attributed to tropical environmental conditions [90]. The observation of tool-use in monkeys further highlights the critical need for more primate studies in South Asia at various levels including primate archaeology, cognitive studies, ecological adaptations, social relationships, subsistence patterns, conservation strategies and so forth. One arguably important conclusion from the review of known data is that, with the exception of the Pabbi Hills in the Pakistan Siwaliks, no clear evidence currently exists for the presence of Oldowan evidence in the entire Indian subcontinent [65]. Based on the current lack of diagnostic Paleolithic (e.g. Acheulean, Levallois, Upper Paleolithic) and microlithic technologies in the northeastern part of the Indian Subcontinent (i.e. northeast India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar), it does not appear to have been used as a biogeographic corridor during hominin dispersals to Southeast Asia. However, intensive surveys are required in the concerned areas as well as Southeast Asia to confirm whether the Subcontinent was a bio-cultural cul-de-sac. In that respect, Pakistan and surrounding border areas also require further surveys to increase the number of Paleolithic sites there, especially due to their significance as the geographic entry point into the Subcontinent. Numerous known sites require re-investigation through multidisciplinary methods including excavations, geological analyses, palaeoenvironmental reconstructions and absolute dating. This is especially critical as some previously-known sites are gradually getting destroyed through various geological and anthropogenic processes (e.g. Chirki-on-Pravara; Personal communication: Sheila Mishra).

Unfortunately, broad hypotheses/theories have been made for South Asian prehistory without adequate evidence, such as the innovation of microlithic technology following environmental deterioration soon after 40 Ka [46]. Not only is there no clear evidence for environmental degradation across the Subcontinent, but later discoveries have demonstrated that microlithic technology was well established in central India and Sri Lanka, respectively, between ~50 Ka and 45 ka. Though the source and nature of their origin remain ambiguous (innovated vs. introduced), it may be possible that specific evolutionary milestones converged at roughly the same time: arrival of *Homo sapiens* into South Asia with microlithic technology and the arrival of the ostrich into South Asia, possibly reflecting shared arid environments [66, 91]. On a related note, the nature of biological transition(s) between the archaic populations and incoming *Homo sapiens* has also not been theoretically explored. Was this replacement process gradual or rapid? Did the replacement

of archaic populations include interbreeding, and what was its temporal rate and geographic pattern at the pan-Indian level? Did the technologies of both respective hominin groups mix and influence each other at any point in time and space? These and other questions require serious multidisciplinary attention at both empirical and theoretical levels.

Another example is the ongoing debate of the impact of 74 Ka Toba supereruption on hominin behavior and lithic technology [55, 92–96]. While the Jwalapuram evidence in southern India yielded a problematic wide age range for the Toba-tephra-associated Middle Paleolithic evidence (77 Ka and 38 Ka), a similar investigation at the site of Dhaba in north-central India chronologically narrowed that gap to 79 Ka and 65 Ka [41]. Nonetheless, the lengthy time gap of 10,000 years between the eruption and the post-Toba archeological evidence makes it challenging to draw major conclusions regarding true occupational continuity and it is not clear if fluvial or other processes facilitated occupational/technological continuity by minimizing the ecological impact of the Toba tephra in the immediate region. In short, we have yet to identify a reliable site or area which preserves stratified and dateable lithic assemblages in *primary chrono-stratigraphic contexts immediately prior to and following* the Toba tephra [97], especially when considering that the impact of Toba was probably geographically variable across the Subcontinent [96]. Only when this is done in multiple ecological contexts *across* the Indian subcontinent, will we get a more comprehensive and objectively nuanced perspective on the degrees of impact.

Due to the unique geographic location and associated features of the Indian subcontinent, factors of hominin dispersals and adaptations observed in other Old World regions cannot readily apply here. For example, the link made between the dispersals of *Bos* and the Acheulean [98] may be applicable only to regions with Acheulean records considerably *younger* than India. Likewise, the discovery of a considerably older *Homo sapiens* presence in Europe at ~210 Ka [99] does not necessarily reflect a similar time of their arrival in Asia. However, new discoveries reported in the last few years within Asia may be more applicable and relevant to the Subcontinent. For example, the new decrease (to between 1.5 and 1.3 Ma) in the arrival date of *Homo erectus* in Southeast Asia [100] and the geographic extension of the Denisovans on the Tibetan Plateau in China [101] indirectly suggest the possibility of their presence in the Indian Subcontinent. Likewise, the chronological extension of *Homo sapiens*' arrival into Southeast Asia between 73 Ka and 63 Ka [102] and Australia to ~65 Ka [103] as well as the age of Sulawesi rock art [104] at par with Europe at ~44 Ka has major implications for the Indian zone. The oldest dated rock art from Europe is >64 Ka and has been attributed to Neanderthals [105]. Firstly, the complexity and skill reflected in these paintings suggest the global origin of figurative art is probably much older. Secondly, these discoveries indirectly hint of a possible biogeographic dispersal of *Homo sapiens* from west to east through tropical rainforest and coastal contexts across Southern Asia [106, 107]. While it is possible that the SE Asian and Australian hominin populations reached there via mainland China, the areas representing northeastern India, Bangladesh and Myanmar need to be intensively surveyed to confirm the routes of dispersal. It is also possible that both southern Asian and central Asian routes were used by various species over time to reach Southeast Asia and Australasia.

From a broader research level, the most important palaeoanthropological accomplishments in South Asia in the last few years include the chronological extension of the Middle Paleolithic to 385 Ka and of microlithic technology to ~48 Ka and the beginning of decolonization of past interpretations and conceptual frameworks regarding human dispersals and population replacements [66]. Nonetheless, much more palaeoanthropological research is required to make more

**53**

**Author details**

**Acknowledgements**

Parth R. Chauhan

*Human Evolution in the Center of the Old World: An Updated Review of the South Asian…*

it in a neutral manner without *any* specific hypothesis-building.

holistic and meaningful comparisons with not only surrounding Asian regions but also with human evolutionary records in other parts of the Old World. The current lacunae suggest that more surveys are required to locate Oldowan sites and Early Acheulean sites to understand their pan-Indian distribution, possible demographic implications, and potential relationships (if any) with East and Southeast Asian lithic records. In light of the fact that the South Asian prehistoric record is poorly known when compared to other parts of Asia, Africa and Europe, and because much more empirical data is required (priorities being hominin fossils and absolute dates), it is premature and unnecessary to propose hypotheses or theories based on preliminary evidence. At this stage in our research in South Asian prehistory, we should perhaps focus on generating abundant empirical data and simply reporting

I thank Yogesh Mallinathpur, Yezad Pardiwalla and Martina Narzary for providing preliminary minimum counts of Lower, Middle and Upper Paleolithic sites respectively, as discussed in this paper. Photographs of some of the lithic specimens were generously provided by Nupur Tiwari, Vivek Singh and Shashi Mehra. Comments from the reviewers helped improve the paper and are appreciated.

Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Science

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Education and Research, Mohali, Punjab, India

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: parth73@gmail.com

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94265*

*Human Evolution in the Center of the Old World: An Updated Review of the South Asian… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94265*

holistic and meaningful comparisons with not only surrounding Asian regions but also with human evolutionary records in other parts of the Old World. The current lacunae suggest that more surveys are required to locate Oldowan sites and Early Acheulean sites to understand their pan-Indian distribution, possible demographic implications, and potential relationships (if any) with East and Southeast Asian lithic records. In light of the fact that the South Asian prehistoric record is poorly known when compared to other parts of Asia, Africa and Europe, and because much more empirical data is required (priorities being hominin fossils and absolute dates), it is premature and unnecessary to propose hypotheses or theories based on preliminary evidence. At this stage in our research in South Asian prehistory, we should perhaps focus on generating abundant empirical data and simply reporting it in a neutral manner without *any* specific hypothesis-building.
