*2.1.1 Qiliting site*

*Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation*

studies have been about the Neolithic cultures, such as Hemudu and Liangzhu [1–3],

Research on the Paleolithic in Zhejiang can be traced back to the 1970s, when a fossil tooth of *Homo sapiens* named as Jiande Man was discovered [5]. However, the new archeological findings in this region were not reported until 2002. Up to now, over 70 Paleolithic sites and/or localities have been recovered through a series of surveys mainly in the north part of Zhejiang (**Figure 1**), mostly open-air sites but also some caves [6]. These archeological records provide new evidence and insights to the prehistory in Zhejiang. During this period, in several important sites test or

The Paleolithic archaeology of Zhejiang is characterized by its geological sediments and it is thus rather difficult to obtain dates. Open-air sites commonly are recovered in strata of reticulate red clay, sparse reticulate red clay and Xia-Shu loess. These stratigraphic layers usually can be used as the standard for dating by scholars. On the other hand, most cave sites were considered being occupied during the Lower Paleolithic period, while some caves might date back to the Upper Paleolithic

In this article, an overview of the Paleolithic records and archeological sequence in Zhejiang is presented from a macroscopic perspective, as well as the lithic tech-

one of the origins of rice agriculture in East Asia [4].

*The distribution of Paleolithic sites and localities in Zhejiang as mentioned.*

according to the retrieved fossil fauna and lithic artifacts.

nology and human behavior during Pleistocene as much as possible.

formal excavations have been undertaken.

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**Figure 1.**

*Qiliting Site* (No. CP029, N30°54′58.7″, E119°41′05.1″) is located 1.5 km south to a branch of Xitiaoxi River in Changxing County (see **Figure 1**), was discovered in 2004. An area over 600㎡ was excavated during 2005–2006. Its geological age is estimated to between the late Early Pleistocene to the late Middle Pleistocene, with an absolute age of c. 1.0–0.12 Ma BP dating by paleomagnetic method [9]. More than 700 stone artifacts were uncovered, with a majority of big-sized core tools and a few small-sized flake tools (**Figure 2**). The raw material of the assemblage is dominated by quartz sandstone, with a small amount of sandstone, flint and quartzite (**Figures 3** and **4**).

Three cultural layers with a sterile interval were identified from the top to the bottom of the stratigraphic sequence. 180 stone artifacts from upper layer include cores, flakes, chunks and a small number of stone tools, represented by scrapers, chopping-tools and spheroids [10]. Spheroids in this layer can be divided into preliminary processed type and intensive processed type. Preliminary processed spheroids are similar to the double-platform or multi-platform cores; however, their negatives and scars are mostly much smaller. Their length is nearly equal to the width, as is the width and thickness. Intensive processed spheroids have small natural platforms. These two types of spheroids might reflect the technological process of spheroid-making.

434 stone artifacts were recovered from the middle cultural layer, including cores, flakes, chunks, chopping-tools, scrapers, handpicks, points, stone anvils and so on. In this layer, the handpick is an important tool type. Its volume is large and takes up a high proportion of stone tools. Handpicks exhibit three stages of production. The first one is retouching along both sides of pebble or chunk, and converging into a pointed edge; the second one is taking advantage of the natural ridge of pebble and simply processing it into pointed edge; the third one is making use of the sharp edge after core knapping and modifying it into pointed edge. The pointed edge of a handpick has a higher technology requirement than choppingtools. Processed directly from a pebble will require a greater workload, and its shape will not be regular. Thus, taking advantage of the sharp edge of core will be a better choice. Only one core was unearthed from the lower cultural layer, suggesting evidence of human activity, at least at the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene.

The technology of stone artifacts uncovered from Qiliting Site is overall consistent. Technological development can be seen on the stone artifacts from Middle and Upper layers, and provides clues of the transition from pebble-tool-industry to flake-tool-industry. The main method for of the manufacture of most stone

**Figure 2.**

*Stone artifacts unearthed from Qiliting: 1. Stone anvil; 2–3. Core; 4. Spheroid; 5–6. chopping-tools; 7–8. scrapers; 9–10. flakes; 11. pick; 12. refitted flake and flake [10].*

artifacts was direct hammer percussion; however, refitting shows a development of knapping skills in the different periods. In the middle cultural layer, four refitting groups belonging to the refitting relation of core to flake were recognized, and they are all in situ. The technique of these stone tools appears as unskillful and unidirectional flaking is in the majority.

The utilization rate of the cores is also low and the striking points are far from the reduction edge of the core. In one refitting group, only a single flake has been removed from its core by the flintknapper. In the eleventh layer, a workshop for lithic processing was possibly identified within the context a temporary camp site. The preparation of the core is crude with many pebble surfaces retained. On the other hand, five refitting groups unearthed from the upper cultural layer of Qiliting site all belong to the refitting relation of core to flake, and they are all single platform cores. Multidirectional flaking from the reverse side has been found on three flakes, which shows the existence of different knapping methods such as one-way, bipolar direction, overturn and multi-direction, which illustrates that the utilization rate of cores in refitting groups are relatively high. By observing the striking point of flakes, it is suggested that their prehistoric manufacturers were able to steadily control the position of the striking point.

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**Figure 3.**

**Figure 4.**

*The chopping-tools from Qiliting [10].*

*A Macroscopic Perspective on Lithic Technology and Human Behavior…*

Large tools are the representative types of the lithic assemblage in Qiliting Site, especially chopping tools. These tools are basically made from pebbles. Bifacial retouch is common, with relatively few retouch negatives. Basically, they used the sharp edge of pebbles or cores accompanied with simple processing to produce a useful tool for felling and chopping. Small-sized tools, dominated by scrapers, are made by flakes but also cores, although almost all scarpers from the upper layer are made by flakes. The manufacturing of scrapers is similar to chopping tools, by taking advantage of the sharp edge or the termination of blanks and with simple retouching to make it suitable for scraping. The difference is that most blanks of scrapers are flakes, only a few are made from flat chunks, and the production process is more complicated than for manufacturing chopping-tools. In the Paleolithic sites

*The spheroids from Qiliting: 1. Preliminary processed type; 2. Intensive processed type [10].*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93821*

*A Macroscopic Perspective on Lithic Technology and Human Behavior… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93821*

**Figure 3.** *The chopping-tools from Qiliting [10].*

*Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation*

artifacts was direct hammer percussion; however, refitting shows a development of knapping skills in the different periods. In the middle cultural layer, four refitting groups belonging to the refitting relation of core to flake were recognized, and they are all in situ. The technique of these stone tools appears as unskillful and unidirec-

*Stone artifacts unearthed from Qiliting: 1. Stone anvil; 2–3. Core; 4. Spheroid; 5–6. chopping-tools;* 

The utilization rate of the cores is also low and the striking points are far from the reduction edge of the core. In one refitting group, only a single flake has been removed from its core by the flintknapper. In the eleventh layer, a workshop for lithic processing was possibly identified within the context a temporary camp site. The preparation of the core is crude with many pebble surfaces retained. On the other hand, five refitting groups unearthed from the upper cultural layer of Qiliting site all belong to the refitting relation of core to flake, and they are all single platform cores. Multidirectional flaking from the reverse side has been found on three flakes, which shows the existence of different knapping methods such as one-way, bipolar direction, overturn and multi-direction, which illustrates that the utilization rate of cores in refitting groups are relatively high. By observing the striking point of flakes, it is suggested that their prehistoric manufacturers were able to

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**Figure 2.**

tional flaking is in the majority.

steadily control the position of the striking point.

*7–8. scrapers; 9–10. flakes; 11. pick; 12. refitted flake and flake [10].*

**Figure 4.** *The spheroids from Qiliting: 1. Preliminary processed type; 2. Intensive processed type [10].*

Large tools are the representative types of the lithic assemblage in Qiliting Site, especially chopping tools. These tools are basically made from pebbles. Bifacial retouch is common, with relatively few retouch negatives. Basically, they used the sharp edge of pebbles or cores accompanied with simple processing to produce a useful tool for felling and chopping. Small-sized tools, dominated by scrapers, are made by flakes but also cores, although almost all scarpers from the upper layer are made by flakes. The manufacturing of scrapers is similar to chopping tools, by taking advantage of the sharp edge or the termination of blanks and with simple retouching to make it suitable for scraping. The difference is that most blanks of scrapers are flakes, only a few are made from flat chunks, and the production process is more complicated than for manufacturing chopping-tools. In the Paleolithic sites

of southern China, due to the need of digging and chopping, chopping-tools and handpicks appear in large quantities; small-sized tools such as scrapers take only second place in the activity of production, and as a result, their manufacture is not so delicate.

It is suggested that the upper cultural layer of Qiliting might be a lithic manufacturing place *in situ*, since numerous cores and flakes were unearthed from an area about 30 square meters, and since five refitting groups were identified [10, 11]. According to use-wear analysis, 9 specimens from the upper layer retain positive traces of use (**Figure 5**), while 13 specimens from the middle layer were identified as used tools. Because of the lack of further functional analysis, the exact modes of utilization of these stone tools remains currently unclear, but to some extent, the result of use-wear shows that the knapping followed a purpose related to the function, for example, most of scrapers were retouched intentionally before use [12].
