Section 3 Coastal Sediments

*Coastal Environments*

[79] Iyengar M.A.R, Kannan V., Ganapathy S., Kamath P.R. Po-210 in the coastal waters of Kalpakkam. In proceedings (second special symposium on natural radiation environment, BARC, Bombay), 1981: 227-233.

[80] Musthafa, M.S., Arunachalam, K.D., and Raiyaan, G.D. Baseline measurements of Po-210 and Pb-210 in the seafood of Kasimedu fishing harbor, Chennai, South East Coast of India and related dose to population. Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, 2019; **1**: 43-48.

**60**

**63**

**Chapter 4**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

cycle of nutrients in the soil.

*Sulakhudin and Denah Suswati*

growth and crop yields in post gold mining land.

Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant

Coastal sediment is a sediment resulting from sedimentation of eroded materials

from up land through river flows that are deposited around the coast. It usually contains a lot of alkaline cations, especially Na so that it is good enough to decrease soil acidity. The use of coastal sediment must be considered carefully because it has a high level of salinity, which can inhibit plant growth and even cause death. Coastal sediment as an ameliorant can replace the role of lime in increasing the pH and base saturation of soil. Applying coastal sediment to sandy or post-gold mining soils can reduce soil acidity, increase soil CEC and soil base saturation, as well as the availability of nutrients, especially nutrients, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. Improvement of some of these soil properties will encourage increased

**Keywords:** ameliorant, coastal sediment, crop yield, post gold mining

Apart from being one of the pillars of a country's economy, gold mining activities also contribute greatly to the rate of land degradation [1]. Furthermore, Ref. [2] explained that the result of the mining process has caused soil damage, water pollution, and the destruction of natural vegetation. If the land is left without reclamation activities, it will become critical land. Physically, the topsoil is dominated by sand particles so that the soil becomes very porous [3]. Soil that is dominated by sand causes some of the chemical properties of soil in post-mining land to be low in its ability to hold water and nutrients, have high acidity and low cation exchange capacity and base saturation [4]. Further, Ref. [5] explained that during the mining process it will destroy vegetation and some macro and microfauna that play a role in the processes of decomposition of organic matter and the

Acidic soil is less able to support plant growth because some macro nutrient availability decreases if the soil pH becomes acidic. Macronutrients consisting of nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur, are not available or dissolve at acidic pH [6]. This is in contrast to micro-nutrients other than molybdenum which are more soluble or readily available at low pH. The level of solubility of these nutrients is often ignored in agriculture, especially by farmers who are still cultivating in traditional ways. By considering the level of solubility, a plant that is cultivated on acid soil, the nutrients that are available in large quantities are micro nutrients [7]. In fact, micro-nutrient elements that are actually only a few needed by plants are actually available in large quantities, so that they have

in Post-Mining Land Management

#### **Chapter 4**

## Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant in Post-Mining Land Management

*Sulakhudin and Denah Suswati*

#### **Abstract**

Coastal sediment is a sediment resulting from sedimentation of eroded materials from up land through river flows that are deposited around the coast. It usually contains a lot of alkaline cations, especially Na so that it is good enough to decrease soil acidity. The use of coastal sediment must be considered carefully because it has a high level of salinity, which can inhibit plant growth and even cause death. Coastal sediment as an ameliorant can replace the role of lime in increasing the pH and base saturation of soil. Applying coastal sediment to sandy or post-gold mining soils can reduce soil acidity, increase soil CEC and soil base saturation, as well as the availability of nutrients, especially nutrients, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. Improvement of some of these soil properties will encourage increased growth and crop yields in post gold mining land.

**Keywords:** ameliorant, coastal sediment, crop yield, post gold mining

#### **1. Introduction**

Apart from being one of the pillars of a country's economy, gold mining activities also contribute greatly to the rate of land degradation [1]. Furthermore, Ref. [2] explained that the result of the mining process has caused soil damage, water pollution, and the destruction of natural vegetation. If the land is left without reclamation activities, it will become critical land. Physically, the topsoil is dominated by sand particles so that the soil becomes very porous [3]. Soil that is dominated by sand causes some of the chemical properties of soil in post-mining land to be low in its ability to hold water and nutrients, have high acidity and low cation exchange capacity and base saturation [4]. Further, Ref. [5] explained that during the mining process it will destroy vegetation and some macro and microfauna that play a role in the processes of decomposition of organic matter and the cycle of nutrients in the soil.

Acidic soil is less able to support plant growth because some macro nutrient availability decreases if the soil pH becomes acidic. Macronutrients consisting of nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur, are not available or dissolve at acidic pH [6]. This is in contrast to micro-nutrients other than molybdenum which are more soluble or readily available at low pH. The level of solubility of these nutrients is often ignored in agriculture, especially by farmers who are still cultivating in traditional ways. By considering the level of solubility, a plant that is cultivated on acid soil, the nutrients that are available in large quantities are micro nutrients [7]. In fact, micro-nutrient elements that are actually only a few needed by plants are actually available in large quantities, so that they have

the potential to cause poisoning to plants, for example plants become poisoned with iron (Fe) or aluminum (Al).

The high availability of micro-nutrients in acid soils also results in high bonds between soil ions. Iron, manganese and aluminum elements will bind strongly to macro nutrients, especially phosphorus. This results in the low availability of macro nutrients in acid soils. One of the ways to increase low soil pH is by liming the right amount, so that the macro nutrients needed by plants are available in large quantities and can be directly absorbed by plant roots. One of the constraints of liming is that the lime material must be imported from outside the area, so when it is needed lime is not available and the price is relatively expensive. Besides that, agricultural lime is inefficient because of its low residual level. One of the alternatives to limestone is coastal sediment which is abundant and widespread on the coast. Ref. [8] shows that coastal sediment as an ameliorant can replace the role of lime in increasing soil pH.

Utilization of coastal sediment must be carefully managed because it needs to be remembered that coastal sediment has a high level of salinity which can disrupt plant physiology and even cause death in these plants. However, it should be noted that in using coastal sediment, it is not necessary to use sediment that has been contaminated by heavy metals such as lead (Pb), mercury (Hg) and other heavy metals. Metals do not directly harm plants, but it is feared that the results of plant production if consumed will have an impact on human health [9]. Coastal sediment as an ameliorant can replace the role of lime in increasing pH and base saturation in peat soils [10]. In sandy soil/post gold mining soil which is dominated by sand fraction, application of coastal sediment can improve some of the soil properties. The addition of coastal sediment on sandy soil/land after gold mining, in addition to reducing soil acidity, can also reduce CEC, increase base saturation and the availability of cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ , K+ , Mn2+ and Fe2+). Based on the description above, this chapter aims to explain the use of coastal sediment as an ameliorant in land management after gold mining for plant cultivation. This study aims to obtain the best dosage for coastal sediment to improve soil properties, growth and crop yields in post-gold mining land.

#### **2. Charateristic of coastal sediment**

Coastal Sediment is a material that is deposited by water (rivers and seas) in the form of a mixture of alluvial soil and organic matter. It is formed through the process of alluviation and collusion on land with long acid reactions, dissolving and carrying weak alkaline elements (Al, Fe, Mn) through the process of erosion and/or leaching. When alluvial/coluvial material finally settles in the sea, then marine silt deposits contain weak bases, Al, Fe, and Mn mixed with the strong bases Na, Ca, and Mg, which are contained in the sea. Weak basic elements (and their combination with weak acidic compounds) produce compounds that are "buffered", have a pH dependent ionic charge (pH dependence charge), positive (+) at low pH (acid reaction) and negative (−) at low pH. high pH (base reaction).

Buffer compounds increase the carrying capacity of nutrients, thereby increasing plant growth and productivity. Thus, the utilization of coastal sediment from fertilization/silication deposits has the potential to ameliorate acid soil. Coastal sediment acts as an ameliorant for the improvement of the physical and chemical (physicochemical) components of the soil. The potential of coastal sediment in amelioration of physico-chemical properties needs to be assisted by ameliorant of soil biological characteristics. In agricultural practice, biological ameliorant is manure, which is rich in soil fertilizing microorganisms.

**65**

**Table 1.**

*Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant in Post-Mining Land Management*

Coastal sediment is a sediment resulting from sedimentation of eroded materials from upland through river flows that are deposited around the coast. The nutrient content in coastal sediment varies greatly depending on the type of soil and the conditions of the area of origin of the sediment. Some of the chemical properties of coastal sediment taken from 3 locations (Kijing Beach; location I, Rasau Jaya Beach; location II and Muara Sungai Singkawang Beach; location III) can be seen in

The results of particle analysis showed that the three coastal sediment from each location had different content of sand, silt and clay. The highest clay content was found in location II which was 56.47%. Thus the coastal sediment from Rasau Beach is suitable for application on gold ex-mining lands which in addition to increasing the pH will also improve several other soil properties. Especially to reduce the very high porosity of the used gold ex-mining soil and at the same time increase the

The highest pH value of coastal sediment is found in coastal sediment from Kijing Beach, which reaches 8.13 (**Table 1**), while coastal sediment from Rasau Beach and Singkawang River Estuary is only 7.72 and 7.14, respectively. Based on the pH data, coastal sediment from Kijing Beach can be used on all types of soil in the West Kalimantan Province with a relatively small amount compared to coastal sediment from other locations to raise the pH. Based on the nutrient content, each coastal sediment from the three locations has different advantages. Coastal sediment from location I had the highest total nitrogen content of 7.26%, while at locations II and III were 0.98 and 0.27%, respectively. Coastal sediment from location II has the highest P content than coastal sediment at locations I and III. The P content at location II was 10.24 ppm, while at locations I and III were 3.45 and 9.65 ppm, respectively. Coastal sediment from location II has the highest potassium content of 5.01 cmol (+) kg−1, while at locations I and III are 1.71 and 3.76 cmol (+)

**Soil chemical parameters Coastal sediment**

*Characteristics of coastal sediment from several locations in West Kalimantan.*

Sand (%) 10,20 5,31 1,31 Silt (%) 51,85 38,22 44,79 Clay (%) 37,95 56,47 53,90 pH 8,13 7,72 7,14 C-organic (%) 1,96 1,18 2,05 N-total (%) 7,26 0,98 0,27 P Bray I (ppm) 3,45 10,24 9,65 K (cmol(+)kg−1) 1,71 5,01 3,76 Ca (cmol(+)kg−1) 14,62 65,10 11,44 Mg (cmol(+)kg−1) 1,73 10,24 3,81 Na (cmol(+)kg−1 2,65 36,03 34,85 CEC (cmol(+)kg−1) 15,33 15,82 11,55 Base saturation (%) >100 >100 >100

**Location I Location II Location II**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94966*

holding capacity of soil water.

kg−1, respectively.

Tekstur

**Table 1**.

*Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant in Post-Mining Land Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94966*

*Coastal Environments*

increasing soil pH.

with iron (Fe) or aluminum (Al).

availability of cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+

**2. Charateristic of coastal sediment**

rich in soil fertilizing microorganisms.

yields in post-gold mining land.

the potential to cause poisoning to plants, for example plants become poisoned

The high availability of micro-nutrients in acid soils also results in high bonds between soil ions. Iron, manganese and aluminum elements will bind strongly to macro nutrients, especially phosphorus. This results in the low availability of macro nutrients in acid soils. One of the ways to increase low soil pH is by liming the right amount, so that the macro nutrients needed by plants are available in large quantities and can be directly absorbed by plant roots. One of the constraints of liming is that the lime material must be imported from outside the area, so when it is needed lime is not available and the price is relatively expensive. Besides that, agricultural lime is inefficient because of its low residual level. One of the alternatives to limestone is coastal sediment which is abundant and widespread on the coast. Ref. [8] shows that coastal sediment as an ameliorant can replace the role of lime in

Utilization of coastal sediment must be carefully managed because it needs to be remembered that coastal sediment has a high level of salinity which can disrupt plant physiology and even cause death in these plants. However, it should be noted that in using coastal sediment, it is not necessary to use sediment that has been contaminated by heavy metals such as lead (Pb), mercury (Hg) and other heavy metals. Metals do not directly harm plants, but it is feared that the results of plant production if consumed will have an impact on human health [9]. Coastal sediment as an ameliorant can replace the role of lime in increasing pH and base saturation in peat soils [10]. In sandy soil/post gold mining soil which is dominated by sand fraction, application of coastal sediment can improve some of the soil properties. The addition of coastal sediment on sandy soil/land after gold mining, in addition to reducing soil acidity, can also reduce CEC, increase base saturation and the

, K+

above, this chapter aims to explain the use of coastal sediment as an ameliorant in land management after gold mining for plant cultivation. This study aims to obtain the best dosage for coastal sediment to improve soil properties, growth and crop

Coastal Sediment is a material that is deposited by water (rivers and seas) in the form of a mixture of alluvial soil and organic matter. It is formed through the process of alluviation and collusion on land with long acid reactions, dissolving and carrying weak alkaline elements (Al, Fe, Mn) through the process of erosion and/or leaching. When alluvial/coluvial material finally settles in the sea, then marine silt deposits contain weak bases, Al, Fe, and Mn mixed with the strong bases Na, Ca, and Mg, which are contained in the sea. Weak basic elements (and their combination with weak acidic compounds) produce compounds that are "buffered", have a pH dependent ionic charge (pH dependence charge), positive (+) at low pH (acid

Buffer compounds increase the carrying capacity of nutrients, thereby increasing plant growth and productivity. Thus, the utilization of coastal sediment from fertilization/silication deposits has the potential to ameliorate acid soil. Coastal sediment acts as an ameliorant for the improvement of the physical and chemical (physicochemical) components of the soil. The potential of coastal sediment in amelioration of physico-chemical properties needs to be assisted by ameliorant of soil biological characteristics. In agricultural practice, biological ameliorant is manure, which is

reaction) and negative (−) at low pH. high pH (base reaction).

, Mn2+ and Fe2+). Based on the description

**64**

Coastal sediment is a sediment resulting from sedimentation of eroded materials from upland through river flows that are deposited around the coast. The nutrient content in coastal sediment varies greatly depending on the type of soil and the conditions of the area of origin of the sediment. Some of the chemical properties of coastal sediment taken from 3 locations (Kijing Beach; location I, Rasau Jaya Beach; location II and Muara Sungai Singkawang Beach; location III) can be seen in **Table 1**.

The results of particle analysis showed that the three coastal sediment from each location had different content of sand, silt and clay. The highest clay content was found in location II which was 56.47%. Thus the coastal sediment from Rasau Beach is suitable for application on gold ex-mining lands which in addition to increasing the pH will also improve several other soil properties. Especially to reduce the very high porosity of the used gold ex-mining soil and at the same time increase the holding capacity of soil water.

The highest pH value of coastal sediment is found in coastal sediment from Kijing Beach, which reaches 8.13 (**Table 1**), while coastal sediment from Rasau Beach and Singkawang River Estuary is only 7.72 and 7.14, respectively. Based on the pH data, coastal sediment from Kijing Beach can be used on all types of soil in the West Kalimantan Province with a relatively small amount compared to coastal sediment from other locations to raise the pH. Based on the nutrient content, each coastal sediment from the three locations has different advantages. Coastal sediment from location I had the highest total nitrogen content of 7.26%, while at locations II and III were 0.98 and 0.27%, respectively. Coastal sediment from location II has the highest P content than coastal sediment at locations I and III. The P content at location II was 10.24 ppm, while at locations I and III were 3.45 and 9.65 ppm, respectively. Coastal sediment from location II has the highest potassium content of 5.01 cmol (+) kg−1, while at locations I and III are 1.71 and 3.76 cmol (+) kg−1, respectively.


#### **Table 1.**

*Characteristics of coastal sediment from several locations in West Kalimantan.*

Coastal sediment from locations II and III has a higher sodium content than coastal sediment from location I. At location I the Na content is only 2.65 cmol (+) kg−1, while at locations II and III the coastal sediment contains Na respectively 36.03 and 34.85 cmol (+) kg−1, respectively. The Na content of 15 times from coastal sediment in location I is dangerous because Na has a bad effect on several soil properties [11]. Thus, in the use of coastal sediment from locations II and III, it is necessary to reduce Na by washing so that the Na content is lower.

The high Ca content of coastal sediment at location II (65.10 cmol (+) kg−1) is not only a source of nutrients but also to maintain the balance of nutrients in the soil [12]. The base saturation (BS) data of coastal sediment is more than 100% so that the application of coastal sedimentis expected to increase soil pH and BS. Based on the comparison data of several chemical properties of the soil, coastal sediment from location I, namely Kijing beach, is the best coastal sediment as an alternative to lime compared to coastal sediment from locations II and III.

#### **3. Characteristic of post-mining land**

Land at the post-mining site without a permit has suffered considerable damage. Soil damage from physical, chemical and biological characteristics causes the soil to be unable to support optimal plant growth, so that this land is left to become abandoned land [13]. The current condition of the post-mining land without permits is over grown with shrubs with that grass as the dominant plant with several basins from the former mining activity.

Some of the chemical and physical properties of the soil used in the study are listed in **Table 2**. These characteristics are properties of the soil in post-gold mining land in Mandor Sub-District, Landak Regency, West Kalimantan Province. These soil properties illustrate some of the problems in the land after the gold mining from the physical and chemical properties of the soil. The soil texture class is classified as sand because soil particles are dominated by the sand fraction which reaches 91.53%, while the silt and clay fractions are only 8.11% and 0.36%, respectively [14]. The percentage of the sand fraction that reaches more than 90% characterizes sandy soils or in mining terms it is called tailings.

Soil whose particle fraction is dominated by sand has a high permeability, this will cause the leaching rate of nutrients in the soil to be very high [15]. As a result, the availability of the nutrient is low to very low. **Table 2** shows some properties of soil in post gold mining at Mandor Sub District i.e. the total nutrient content of N (0.02%), Ca (0.13 cmol (+) kg−1), Mg (0.38 cmol (+) kg−1) and Na (0.09 cmol (+) kg−1) available is very low, while P and K of 6.64 ppm and 0.15 cmol (+) kg-1 respectively are classified as low.

Potassium available in the soil in people's post gold mining land of 0.15 cmol (+) kg−1 is low. Generally the sandy soil is sufficiently K, but most of it is only in the form not yet available to plants, K is still in primary minerals such as feldspar and mica in sand particles. The very low nutrient content in the soil in post community gold mining land as mentioned above is also caused by the low nutrient binding sand soil, which is reflected in the very low of CEC value of 3.54 cmol (+) kg−1.

The very low value of the CEC on this soil is due to several things, including: (1) The low clay fraction (0.36%) which is a source of negative charges; (2) The organic matter content is very low, which is reflected in the low C-organic value, namely 0.01%. Very low soil organic matter can be caused by the fast rate of decomposition of organic matter in sandy soils due to the high temperature and aerobic atmosphere [16]. The soil pH value in the post-gold mining land area of 5.63 is classified as

**67**

decomposed with a C/N ratio value of 8.35.

*Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant in Post-Mining Land Management*

**Soil properties Value Level Value Level** pH H2O 1:2 4,9 Acid 5,63 slightly acid pH KCl 1:2 4,3 Very Acid 4,21 Very Acid C-Org (%) 2,59 Moderate 0,01 Very low N Total (%) 0,31 Moderate 0,02 Very low P Bray I (ppm) 10,19 High 6,64 Low

K (cmol(+)kg−1) 0,23 Low 0,15 Low Ca (cmol(+)kg−1) 1,68 Very low 0,13 Very low Mg (cmol(+)kg−1) 1,05 Moderate 0,38 Very low Na (cmol(+)kg−1 0,26 Low 0,09 Very low CEC (cmol(+)kg−1) 10,64 Low 3,54 Very low Base saturation (%) 29,61 Low 21,74 Low

Sand (%) 86 Sand 91,53 Sand

*Note: Marking according to the Soil Research Institute (2005): Location I is in Singkawang Sub-District and location* 

**Location I Location II**

slightly acidic. Soil pH value will be a limiting factor for plant cultivation, so that the growth of plants is less than optimal [17]. One of the alternatives to increase the pH by applying coastal sediment. Besides being able to increase the pH and availability of several nutrients, it can improve some of the physical properties of the soil in post gold

The results of the analysis of several soil properties indicate that the soil in the post-mining area of gold without a permit in Central Singkawang District has decreased its fertility. This is indicated by the very low ability of the soil to bind nutrients and water. The ability of soil to bind water and soil nutrients can be seen based on the very low value of the cation exchange capacity (CEC), namely 4.74 cmol (+) kg−1 (**Table 2**). In addition, the low fertility level can also be seen from the texture of the soil, namely sand. Soil whose mineral fraction is dominated by sand will cause the ability to store water and nutrients to be low because sand has a low negative charge [18]. Soil whose particle fraction is dominated by sand has a high permeability, this will cause the leaching rate of nutrients in the soil to be very high. As a result, the availability of nutrients becomes low to very low. The very low CEC value in this soil is caused by several reasons, including: (1) it does not contain clay fraction (0.00%) which is a source of negative soil charge; (2) The organic matter content is very low as indicated by the low C-organic value, namely 0.21%. Very low soil organic matter can be caused by the fast rate of decomposition of organic matter in sandy soils due to the high temperature and aerobic atmosphere. The results of the analysis in **Table 1** show that the organic matter in the sand has been further

mining land. This is because the coastal sediment contains 37.95% clay.

Silt (%) 12 8,11 Clay (%) 2 0,36

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94966*

Ekstract NH4OAc 1 N pH 7

Texture

**Table 2.**

*II is in Mandor Sub-District.*

*Soil characteristics of post gold mining land in some location.*


*Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant in Post-Mining Land Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94966*

*Note: Marking according to the Soil Research Institute (2005): Location I is in Singkawang Sub-District and location II is in Mandor Sub-District.*

#### **Table 2.**

*Coastal Environments*

Coastal sediment from locations II and III has a higher sodium content than coastal sediment from location I. At location I the Na content is only 2.65 cmol (+) kg−1, while at locations II and III the coastal sediment contains Na respectively 36.03 and 34.85 cmol (+) kg−1, respectively. The Na content of 15 times from coastal sediment in location I is dangerous because Na has a bad effect on several soil properties [11]. Thus, in the use of coastal sediment from locations II and III, it is necessary to

The high Ca content of coastal sediment at location II (65.10 cmol (+) kg−1) is not only a source of nutrients but also to maintain the balance of nutrients in the soil [12]. The base saturation (BS) data of coastal sediment is more than 100% so that the application of coastal sedimentis expected to increase soil pH and BS. Based on the comparison data of several chemical properties of the soil, coastal sediment from location I, namely Kijing beach, is the best coastal sediment as an alternative

Land at the post-mining site without a permit has suffered considerable damage. Soil damage from physical, chemical and biological characteristics causes the soil to be unable to support optimal plant growth, so that this land is left to become abandoned land [13]. The current condition of the post-mining land without permits is over grown with shrubs with that grass as the dominant plant with several basins

Some of the chemical and physical properties of the soil used in the study are listed in **Table 2**. These characteristics are properties of the soil in post-gold mining land in Mandor Sub-District, Landak Regency, West Kalimantan Province. These soil properties illustrate some of the problems in the land after the gold mining from the physical and chemical properties of the soil. The soil texture class is classified as sand because soil particles are dominated by the sand fraction which reaches 91.53%, while the silt and clay fractions are only 8.11% and 0.36%, respectively [14]. The percentage of the sand fraction that reaches more than 90% characterizes

Soil whose particle fraction is dominated by sand has a high permeability, this will cause the leaching rate of nutrients in the soil to be very high [15]. As a result, the availability of the nutrient is low to very low. **Table 2** shows some properties of soil in post gold mining at Mandor Sub District i.e. the total nutrient content of N (0.02%), Ca (0.13 cmol (+) kg−1), Mg (0.38 cmol (+) kg−1) and Na (0.09 cmol (+) kg−1) available is very low, while P and K of 6.64 ppm and 0.15 cmol (+) kg-1

Potassium available in the soil in people's post gold mining land of 0.15 cmol (+) kg−1 is low. Generally the sandy soil is sufficiently K, but most of it is only in the form not yet available to plants, K is still in primary minerals such as feldspar and mica in sand particles. The very low nutrient content in the soil in post community gold mining land as mentioned above is also caused by the low nutrient binding sand soil, which is reflected in the very low of CEC value of 3.54 cmol (+) kg−1. The very low value of the CEC on this soil is due to several things, including: (1) The low clay fraction (0.36%) which is a source of negative charges; (2) The organic matter content is very low, which is reflected in the low C-organic value, namely 0.01%. Very low soil organic matter can be caused by the fast rate of decomposition of organic matter in sandy soils due to the high temperature and aerobic atmosphere [16]. The soil pH value in the post-gold mining land area of 5.63 is classified as

reduce Na by washing so that the Na content is lower.

**3. Characteristic of post-mining land**

sandy soils or in mining terms it is called tailings.

from the former mining activity.

respectively are classified as low.

to lime compared to coastal sediment from locations II and III.

**66**

*Soil characteristics of post gold mining land in some location.*

slightly acidic. Soil pH value will be a limiting factor for plant cultivation, so that the growth of plants is less than optimal [17]. One of the alternatives to increase the pH by applying coastal sediment. Besides being able to increase the pH and availability of several nutrients, it can improve some of the physical properties of the soil in post gold mining land. This is because the coastal sediment contains 37.95% clay.

The results of the analysis of several soil properties indicate that the soil in the post-mining area of gold without a permit in Central Singkawang District has decreased its fertility. This is indicated by the very low ability of the soil to bind nutrients and water. The ability of soil to bind water and soil nutrients can be seen based on the very low value of the cation exchange capacity (CEC), namely 4.74 cmol (+) kg−1 (**Table 2**). In addition, the low fertility level can also be seen from the texture of the soil, namely sand. Soil whose mineral fraction is dominated by sand will cause the ability to store water and nutrients to be low because sand has a low negative charge [18]. Soil whose particle fraction is dominated by sand has a high permeability, this will cause the leaching rate of nutrients in the soil to be very high. As a result, the availability of nutrients becomes low to very low. The very low CEC value in this soil is caused by several reasons, including: (1) it does not contain clay fraction (0.00%) which is a source of negative soil charge; (2) The organic matter content is very low as indicated by the low C-organic value, namely 0.21%. Very low soil organic matter can be caused by the fast rate of decomposition of organic matter in sandy soils due to the high temperature and aerobic atmosphere. The results of the analysis in **Table 1** show that the organic matter in the sand has been further decomposed with a C/N ratio value of 8.35.

#### *Coastal Environments*

The soil pH value in the post-gold mining land area of 4.9 is considered acidic. Soil pH value will be a limiting factor for plant cultivation because in acid soils some nutrients are not available, for example K, Ca and Mg so that they cannot provide optimal nutrients for plant growth [19].

Community gold mining produces mercury as the main pollutant that will threaten the sustainability of the ecosystem. Mercury can damage the environment because of its low solubility in water and is easily absorbed and accumulated in the tissues of organisms through bioaccumulation and biomagnification processes [20]. Mercury levels in 4–5 year old gold mining land is 0.020 ppm, 6–10 year old gold mining land is 0.050 ppm and 0.042 year old gold mining land is 0.042 with an average grade of 0.037 ppm. Mercury and its derivatives are one of the deadliest pollutants in the history of human civilization [21].

#### **4. The role of coastal sediment in increasing growth and crop yields in post-mining land**

The concentration of several nutrients in the sorghum plant tissue due to coastal sediment addition can be seen in **Table 3**. The variations of N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents in the sorghum plant from different provision of coastal sediment were considerable at several doses level, especially if compared with control. The Ca concentration in sorghum plant that were given coastal sediment at all doses showed increased compared to control (**Figure 1**). The increasing of concentration of Ca in the sorghum crop due to coastal sediment addition caused by coastal sediment many contain Ca. Research result of [22] indicates that the coastal sediment contains Ca of 14.62 cmol (+) kg−1.

The provision of coastal sediment is able to increase the concentration of P in the sorghum plant, the highest concentration of P at treatment of coastal sediment addition at a dose 60 t ha−1. The concentration of P elements on all the addition of coastal sediment is significant difference with control. This is due to the addition of coastal sediment can increase soil pH, according to [23] provision of coastal sediment increase significantly soil pH because it contained high cations. The higher soil pH value then the availability of P will be higher so that sorghum plant can absorb more P elements.


**Table 3** shows the uptake some nutrients of sorghum plants in post gold mining land. Absorption of nutrients at all doses of coastal sediment application

*Description: Numbers followed by the same letters in the same column indicate no significant differences at the Duncan test at 5% level of significance.*

**69**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 1.**

*Plant Ca uptake at several dosage of coastal sediment addition.*

*The percentage of increased Mg uptake due to the provision of coastal sediment at several doses.*

*Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant in Post-Mining Land Management*

was higher than control. Uptake of N nutrients due to giving of coastal sediment ranges from 239.6–400.7 mg, while the control of only 146.9 mg of N was absorbed by the Sorghum plant. The phosphorus and calcium uptake in tissue of sorghum as measured after harvesting were significantly increased by coastal sediment

The provision of coastal sediment of dosage at 60 t ha−1 increased the highest P uptake by sorghum. Application of coastal sediment at dose 60 t ha−1 increase the highest uptake of P with a value of 1.5 mg, when compared with the absorption of P without the provision of coastal sediment then the absorption of P increased by 46.67%. Ref. [24] states that on acid soil increased pH will increase the absorption of P plants. **Table 2** also showed that the addition of coastal sediment at a dose of 60 t ha−1 can increase the highest Mg uptake, which is 45.5 mg. Increased absorption of Mg in the application of coastal sediment dose at 60 t ha−1 compared to a control

The effect of coastal sediment application on the yield of sorghum crops is known from the number of seeds per plant (NSP), weight per plant (WPP), and weight per 100 seed (W100S). **Table 4** shows that the provision of coastal sediment at all dosages differs significantly against the number of seeds per plant than the control. The NSP value of coastal sediment addition ranged from 1362 to 2082 seeds,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94966*

application.

of 56.92% (**Figure 2**).

#### **Table 3.**

*Effect of coastal sediment application on some uptake nutrient by sorghum.*

*Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant in Post-Mining Land Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94966*

*Coastal Environments*

**post-mining land**

absorb more P elements.

Rates of coastal sediment

*Duncan test at 5% level of significance.*

optimal nutrients for plant growth [19].

pollutants in the history of human civilization [21].

The soil pH value in the post-gold mining land area of 4.9 is considered acidic. Soil pH value will be a limiting factor for plant cultivation because in acid soils some nutrients are not available, for example K, Ca and Mg so that they cannot provide

Community gold mining produces mercury as the main pollutant that will threaten the sustainability of the ecosystem. Mercury can damage the environment because of its low solubility in water and is easily absorbed and accumulated in the tissues of organisms through bioaccumulation and biomagnification processes [20]. Mercury levels in 4–5 year old gold mining land is 0.020 ppm, 6–10 year old gold mining land is 0.050 ppm and 0.042 year old gold mining land is 0.042 with an average grade of 0.037 ppm. Mercury and its derivatives are one of the deadliest

**4. The role of coastal sediment in increasing growth and crop yields in** 

The concentration of several nutrients in the sorghum plant tissue due to coastal sediment addition can be seen in **Table 3**. The variations of N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents in the sorghum plant from different provision of coastal sediment were considerable at several doses level, especially if compared with control. The Ca concentration in sorghum plant that were given coastal sediment at all doses showed increased compared to control (**Figure 1**). The increasing of concentration of Ca in the sorghum crop due to coastal sediment addition caused by coastal sediment many contain Ca. Research result

The provision of coastal sediment is able to increase the concentration of P in the sorghum plant, the highest concentration of P at treatment of coastal sediment addition at a dose 60 t ha−1. The concentration of P elements on all the addition of coastal sediment is significant difference with control. This is due to the addition of coastal sediment can increase soil pH, according to [23] provision of coastal sediment increase significantly soil pH because it contained high cations. The higher soil pH value then the availability of P will be higher so that sorghum plant can

**Table 3** shows the uptake some nutrients of sorghum plants in post gold mining land. Absorption of nutrients at all doses of coastal sediment application

0 t ha−1 146.9 b 0.8 c 153.5 b 25.6 c 19.6 b 20 t ha−1 390.2 a 1.4 ab 421.4 a 87.3 a 44.3 a 40 t ha−1 296.4 ab 1.2 b 262.2 b 52.2 bc 29.8 ab 60 t ha−1 400.7 a 1.5 a 413.0 a 83.4 ab 45.5 a 80 t ha−1 239.6 ab 1.3 ab 292.5 ab 61.6 ab 31.1 ab

*Description: Numbers followed by the same letters in the same column indicate no significant differences at the* 

**N P K Ca Mg (mg)**

**Treatment Uptake nutrients**

*Effect of coastal sediment application on some uptake nutrient by sorghum.*

of [22] indicates that the coastal sediment contains Ca of 14.62 cmol (+) kg−1.

**68**

**Table 3.**

was higher than control. Uptake of N nutrients due to giving of coastal sediment ranges from 239.6–400.7 mg, while the control of only 146.9 mg of N was absorbed by the Sorghum plant. The phosphorus and calcium uptake in tissue of sorghum as measured after harvesting were significantly increased by coastal sediment application.

The provision of coastal sediment of dosage at 60 t ha−1 increased the highest P uptake by sorghum. Application of coastal sediment at dose 60 t ha−1 increase the highest uptake of P with a value of 1.5 mg, when compared with the absorption of P without the provision of coastal sediment then the absorption of P increased by 46.67%. Ref. [24] states that on acid soil increased pH will increase the absorption of P plants. **Table 2** also showed that the addition of coastal sediment at a dose of 60 t ha−1 can increase the highest Mg uptake, which is 45.5 mg. Increased absorption of Mg in the application of coastal sediment dose at 60 t ha−1 compared to a control of 56.92% (**Figure 2**).

The effect of coastal sediment application on the yield of sorghum crops is known from the number of seeds per plant (NSP), weight per plant (WPP), and weight per 100 seed (W100S). **Table 4** shows that the provision of coastal sediment at all dosages differs significantly against the number of seeds per plant than the control. The NSP value of coastal sediment addition ranged from 1362 to 2082 seeds,

**Figure 1.** *Plant Ca uptake at several dosage of coastal sediment addition.*

**Figure 2.** *The percentage of increased Mg uptake due to the provision of coastal sediment at several doses.*


*Description: Numbers followed by the same letters in the same column indicate no significant differences at the Duncan test at 5% level of significance.*

#### **Table 4.**

*Effect of ameliorant on some yield sorghum parameter.*

while the control only has an NSP of 683 seeds. Likewise, for WPP parameters, the treatment of coastal sediment addition at all doses is significantly different with the control. It increases in the amount of weight per plant between 55.28–70.55%.

The weight per 100 seed parameters also shows an increase in sorghum plant with addition of coastal sediment. The weight increase per 100 seeds appears to be a distinct significant start of coastal sediment application at doses of 40 t ha−1, while at doses of 20 t ha−1 was not differ from the control. **Table 4** shows that on all three parameters, the provision of coastal sediment doses 60 t ha−1 has the highest value. Then at a higher dose, i.e. 80 t ha−1 precisely the three parameters indicate the decline. This means the dosing of coastal sediment for the sorghum plant in the post gold mining land at a dose above 60 t ha−1 began to decrease the yield of sorghum crops. Suspected with the provision of coastal sediment that is too high will interfere with the balance of nutrients in the soil, especially because of the influence of the sodium elements are too much. The coastal sediment contains Na which is quite high, namely 3.24 cmol (+) kg−1. One of the bad influences of Na is that it can reduce the absorption of other positively charged nutrients, such as K, Ca and Mg [25].

#### **5. Final remarks**

The post gold mining land has the potential for the development of crops production with the provision of coastal sediment ameliorant. It can increase the uptake of nutrients N, P, K, Ca and Mg, as well as crop results. The optimum dose of coastal sediment giving to the sorghum plant in the post gold mining land is 60 t ha−1.

**71**

**Author details**

Sulakhudin\* and Denah Suswati

Tanjungpura University, Pontianak, Indonesia

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: sulakhudin@faperta.untan.ac.id

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant in Post-Mining Land Management*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94966*

*Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant in Post-Mining Land Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94966*

*Coastal Environments*

Rates of coastal sediment

*Duncan test at 5% level of significance.*

*Effect of ameliorant on some yield sorghum parameter.*

**Table 4.**

Ca and Mg [25].

**5. Final remarks**

60 t ha−1.

while the control only has an NSP of 683 seeds. Likewise, for WPP parameters, the treatment of coastal sediment addition at all doses is significantly different with the control. It increases in the amount of weight per plant between 55.28–70.55%. The weight per 100 seed parameters also shows an increase in sorghum plant with addition of coastal sediment. The weight increase per 100 seeds appears to be a distinct significant start of coastal sediment application at doses of 40 t ha−1, while at doses of 20 t ha−1 was not differ from the control. **Table 4** shows that on all three parameters, the provision of coastal sediment doses 60 t ha−1 has the highest value. Then at a higher dose, i.e. 80 t ha−1 precisely the three parameters indicate the decline. This means the dosing of coastal sediment for the sorghum plant in the post gold mining land at a dose above 60 t ha−1 began to decrease the yield of sorghum crops. Suspected with the provision of coastal sediment that is too high will interfere with the balance of nutrients in the soil, especially because of the influence of the sodium elements are too much. The coastal sediment contains Na which is quite high, namely 3.24 cmol (+) kg−1. One of the bad influences of Na is that it can reduce the absorption of other positively charged nutrients, such as K,

**Treatment NSP WPP W100S**

0 t ha−1 683 c 14.4 c 2.11 b 20 t ha−1 1711 ab 37.4 ab 2.4 ab 40 t ha−1 1362 b 32.2 b 2.47 a 60 t ha−1 2082 a 48.9 a 2.59 a 80 t ha−1 1881 ab 43.3 ab 2.50 a *Description: Numbers followed by the same letters in the same column indicate no significant differences at the* 

The post gold mining land has the potential for the development of crops production with the provision of coastal sediment ameliorant. It can increase the uptake of nutrients N, P, K, Ca and Mg, as well as crop results. The optimum dose of coastal sediment giving to the sorghum plant in the post gold mining land is

**70**

#### **Author details**

Sulakhudin\* and Denah Suswati Tanjungpura University, Pontianak, Indonesia

\*Address all correspondence to: sulakhudin@faperta.untan.ac.id

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

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[2] K. Peprah, "Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana," *J. Degraded Min. Lands Manag.*, vol. 3, no. 1, Art. no. 1, Oct. 2015, doi: 10/gg9hmt.

[3] M. Nurcholis, A. Wijayani, and A. Widodo, "Clay and organic matter applications on the coarse quartzy tailing material and the sorghum growth on the post tin mining at Bangka Island," *J. Degraded Min. Lands Manag.*, vol. 1, no. 1, Art. no. 1; http://web.archive. org/web/20200902035806/https:// jdmlm.ub.ac.id/index.php/jdmlm/ article/view/9; http://web.archive.org/ web/20200902035816/https://jdmlm. ub.ac.id/index.php/jdmlm/article/ view/9/14, Oct. 2013.

[4] S. Mastur, D. Suswati, and M. Hatta, "The effect of ameliorants on improvement of soil fertility in post gold mining land at West Kalimantan," *J. Degraded Min. Lands Manag.*, vol. 4, no. 4, p. 873, 2017, doi: 10.15243/ jdmlm.2017.044.873.

[5] Rieder SR, Frey B. Methyl-mercury affects microbial activity and biomass, bacterial community structure but rarely the fungal community structure. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. Sep. 2013;**64**:164-173. DOI: 10/f44v5n.

[6] White PJ, Brown PH. Plant nutrition for sustainable development and global health. Annals of Botany. Jun. 2010;**105**(7):1073-1080. DOI: 10/drb4hs.

[7] S. S. Dhaliwal, R. K. Naresh, A. Mandal, R. Singh, and M. K. Dhaliwal, "Dynamics and transformations of

micronutrients in agricultural soils as influenced by organic matter build-up: A review," *Environ. Sustain. Indic.*, vol. 1-2, p. 100007, Sep. 2019, doi: 10/ ghchnk.

[8] "Suswati et al\_2015\_Use of ameliorants to increase growth and yield of maize (*Zea mays* L.pdf." Accessed: Aug. 29, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://journal.unila.ac.id/index.php/ tropicalsoil/article/download/198/197.

[9] Jaishankar M, Tseten T, Anbalagan N, Mathew BB, Beeregowda KN. Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals. Interdisciplinary Toxicology. Jun. 2014;**7**(2):60-72. DOI: 10/gcsgpf.

[10] Suswati D, Sunarminto BH, Indradewa D. Use of ameliorants to increase growth and yield of maize (*Zea mays* L.) in peat soils of West Kalimantan. J. Trop. Soils. 2015;**19**(1):35-41. DOI: 10.5400/jts.2014. v19i1.35-41

[11] Phogat V, Mallants D, Cox JW, Šimůnek J, Oliver DP, Awad J. Management of soil salinity associated with irrigation of protected crops. Agricultural Water Management. Jan. 2020;**227**:105845. DOI: 10/ghd354.

[12] P. J. WHITE and M. R. BROADLEY, "calcium in plants," Annals of Botany, vol. 92, no. 4, pp. 487-511, Oct. 2003, doi: 10/bv8cb2.

[13] Sheoran V. A. S. Sheoran, and P. Poonia, "Soil Reclamation of Abandoned Mine Land by Revegetation: A Review,". 2010;**3**:21

[14] Silva SHG et al. Soil texture prediction in tropical soils: A portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry approach. Geoderma. Mar. 2020;**362**:114136. DOI: 10/ghd3z4.

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*Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant in Post-Mining Land Management*

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[23] Arief FB, Gafur S, Sagiman S, Aspan A. Characteristics of coastal sediment from three different sites and their potential as the ameliorant of peat soil in West Kalimantan. in *IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science*. 2019;**393**(1):012033. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/393/1/012033.

[24] Fageria NK, Nascente AS. Chapter six - Management of Soil Acidity of south American soils for sustainable crop production. In: *Advances in Agronomy*. Vol. 128. D. L. Sparks: Ed. Academic Press; 2014. pp. 221-275

[25] B. Çalişkan and A. C. Çalişkan, "Potassium Nutrition in Plants and Its Interactions with Other Nutrients in Hydroponic Culture," *Potassium - Improv. Qual. Fruits Veg. Hydroponic Nutr. Manag.*, Dec. 2017, doi: 10/ghd37x.

pdf.

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[15] S. Tahir and P. Marschner, "Clay Addition to Sandy Soil Reduces Nutrient Leaching—Effect of Clay Concentration and Ped Size," *Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal.*, vol. 48, no. 15, pp. 1813-1821,

[16] A. Campos C., G. Suárez M., and J. Laborde, "Analyzing vegetation coverinduced organic matter mineralization dynamics in sandy soils from tropical dry coastal ecosystems," *CATENA*, vol. 185, p. 104264, Feb. 2020, doi: 10/

[17] Neina D. The role of soil pH in plant nutrition and soil remediation. Applied and Environmental Soil Science. Nov. 03, 2019. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1155/2019/5794869 (accessed

[18] Xie L, Li J, Liu Y. Review on charging model of sand particles due to collisions. Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters. Apr. 2020;**10**(4):276- 285. DOI: 10.1016/j.taml.2020.01.047

[19] Gentili R, Ambrosini R, Montagnani C, Caronni S,

Citterio S. Effect of soil pH on the growth, reproductive investment and pollen Allergenicity of Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. Frontiers in Plant Science. Sep. 2018;**9**. DOI: 10/ghd3xx.

[20] Sierra MJ, Rodríguez-Alonso J, Millán R. Impact of the lavender rhizosphere on the mercury uptake in field conditions. Chemosphere. Nov. 2012;**89**(11):1457-1466. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[21] M. Gochfeld, "Cases of mercury exposure, bioavailability, and

[22] "Suswati et al\_2015\_Effect of Ameliorants on Nutrient Uptake and Maize Productivity in Peatlands.pdf."

absorption," Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 174-179, Sep. 2003,

chemosphere.2012.06.017

doi: 10/dsvj5h.

Aug. 2017, doi: 10/ghd4cb.

ghd32z.

Sep. 04, 2020)

*Coastal Sediment as an Ameliorant in Post-Mining Land Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94966*

[15] S. Tahir and P. Marschner, "Clay Addition to Sandy Soil Reduces Nutrient Leaching—Effect of Clay Concentration and Ped Size," *Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal.*, vol. 48, no. 15, pp. 1813-1821, Aug. 2017, doi: 10/ghd4cb.

[16] A. Campos C., G. Suárez M., and J. Laborde, "Analyzing vegetation coverinduced organic matter mineralization dynamics in sandy soils from tropical dry coastal ecosystems," *CATENA*, vol. 185, p. 104264, Feb. 2020, doi: 10/ ghd32z.

[17] Neina D. The role of soil pH in plant nutrition and soil remediation. Applied and Environmental Soil Science. Nov. 03, 2019. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1155/2019/5794869 (accessed Sep. 04, 2020)

[18] Xie L, Li J, Liu Y. Review on charging model of sand particles due to collisions. Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters. Apr. 2020;**10**(4):276- 285. DOI: 10.1016/j.taml.2020.01.047

[19] Gentili R, Ambrosini R, Montagnani C, Caronni S, Citterio S. Effect of soil pH on the growth, reproductive investment and pollen Allergenicity of Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. Frontiers in Plant Science. Sep. 2018;**9**. DOI: 10/ghd3xx.

[20] Sierra MJ, Rodríguez-Alonso J, Millán R. Impact of the lavender rhizosphere on the mercury uptake in field conditions. Chemosphere. Nov. 2012;**89**(11):1457-1466. DOI: 10.1016/j. chemosphere.2012.06.017

[21] M. Gochfeld, "Cases of mercury exposure, bioavailability, and absorption," Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 174-179, Sep. 2003, doi: 10/dsvj5h.

[22] "Suswati et al\_2015\_Effect of Ameliorants on Nutrient Uptake and Maize Productivity in Peatlands.pdf." Accessed: Aug. 29, 2020. [Online]. Available: http://www.msss.com.my/ mjss/Full%20Text/vol19/10-Suswati. pdf.

[23] Arief FB, Gafur S, Sagiman S, Aspan A. Characteristics of coastal sediment from three different sites and their potential as the ameliorant of peat soil in West Kalimantan. in *IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science*. 2019;**393**(1):012033. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/393/1/012033.

[24] Fageria NK, Nascente AS. Chapter six - Management of Soil Acidity of south American soils for sustainable crop production. In: *Advances in Agronomy*. Vol. 128. D. L. Sparks: Ed. Academic Press; 2014. pp. 221-275

[25] B. Çalişkan and A. C. Çalişkan, "Potassium Nutrition in Plants and Its Interactions with Other Nutrients in Hydroponic Culture," *Potassium - Improv. Qual. Fruits Veg. Hydroponic Nutr. Manag.*, Dec. 2017, doi: 10/ghd37x.

**72**

*Coastal Environments*

**References**

DOI: 10/gg9hgr.

[1] Eludoyin AO, Ojo AT, Ojo TO, Awotoye OO. Effects of artisanal gold mining activities on soil properties in a part of southwestern Nigeria. Cogent Environ. Sci. Jan. 2017;**3**(1):1305650.

micronutrients in agricultural soils as influenced by organic matter build-up: A review," *Environ. Sustain. Indic.*, vol. 1-2, p. 100007, Sep. 2019, doi: 10/

ameliorants to increase growth and yield of maize (*Zea mays* L.pdf." Accessed: Aug. 29, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://journal.unila.ac.id/index.php/ tropicalsoil/article/download/198/197.

[9] Jaishankar M, Tseten T, Anbalagan N, Mathew BB, Beeregowda KN. Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals. Interdisciplinary Toxicology. Jun. 2014;**7**(2):60-72. DOI:

[10] Suswati D, Sunarminto BH, Indradewa D. Use of ameliorants to increase growth and yield of maize (*Zea mays* L.) in peat soils of West Kalimantan. J. Trop. Soils. 2015;**19**(1):35-41. DOI: 10.5400/jts.2014.

[11] Phogat V, Mallants D, Cox JW, Šimůnek J, Oliver DP, Awad J.

Management of soil salinity associated with irrigation of protected crops. Agricultural Water Management. Jan. 2020;**227**:105845. DOI: 10/ghd354.

[12] P. J. WHITE and M. R. BROADLEY, "calcium in plants," Annals of Botany, vol. 92, no. 4, pp. 487-511, Oct. 2003,

Abandoned Mine Land by Revegetation:

[13] Sheoran V. A. S. Sheoran, and P. Poonia, "Soil Reclamation of

[14] Silva SHG et al. Soil texture prediction in tropical soils: A portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry approach. Geoderma. Mar. 2020;**362**:114136. DOI: 10/ghd3z4.

[8] "Suswati et al\_2015\_Use of

ghchnk.

10/gcsgpf.

v19i1.35-41

doi: 10/bv8cb2.

A Review,". 2010;**3**:21

[2] K. Peprah, "Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana," *J. Degraded Min. Lands Manag.*, vol. 3, no. 1, Art. no. 1,

[3] M. Nurcholis, A. Wijayani, and A. Widodo, "Clay and organic matter applications on the coarse quartzy tailing material and the sorghum growth on the post tin mining at Bangka Island," *J. Degraded Min. Lands Manag.*, vol. 1, no. 1, Art. no. 1; http://web.archive. org/web/20200902035806/https:// jdmlm.ub.ac.id/index.php/jdmlm/ article/view/9; http://web.archive.org/ web/20200902035816/https://jdmlm. ub.ac.id/index.php/jdmlm/article/

Oct. 2015, doi: 10/gg9hmt.

view/9/14, Oct. 2013.

jdmlm.2017.044.873.

[4] S. Mastur, D. Suswati, and M. Hatta, "The effect of ameliorants on improvement of soil fertility in post gold mining land at West Kalimantan," *J. Degraded Min. Lands Manag.*, vol. 4, no. 4, p. 873, 2017, doi: 10.15243/

[5] Rieder SR, Frey B. Methyl-mercury affects microbial activity and biomass, bacterial community structure but rarely the fungal community structure. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. Sep. 2013;**64**:164-173. DOI: 10/f44v5n.

[6] White PJ, Brown PH. Plant nutrition for sustainable development and global health. Annals of Botany. Jun. 2010;**105**(7):1073-1080. DOI: 10/drb4hs.

[7] S. S. Dhaliwal, R. K. Naresh, A. Mandal, R. Singh, and M. K. Dhaliwal, "Dynamics and transformations of

**75**

Section 4

Coastal Ecosystems

Section 4

## Coastal Ecosystems

**77**

**Chapter 5**

**Abstract**

Enterococcus Present in Marine

*Ganiveth María Manjarrez Paba and Rosa Baldiris Ávila*

Azo dyes are frequently used at an industrial level to restore the color of raw materials once it has faded away, make an original color more vibrant or with the purpose of giving a material a different color that is considered more attractive. These processes however, have a negative impact on the environment, evidenced in colored wastewater that is subsequently dumped into water bodies, causing disruptions in the natural balance of ecosystems and deteriorating human health. Traditional strategies for the treatment of effluents contaminated with azo dyes are limited to physical and chemical processes that have a high energy and economic cost. For these reasons, current challenges are focused on the use of microorganisms capable of transforming dyes into less toxic products. This chapter will present a description of the main characteristics of azo dyes and the different methods used for their treatment, with special emphasis on the benefits associated with biological treatment. Likewise, it will provide relevant information about *Enterococcus* and

Annually, more than a million tons of synthetic dyes are produced around the world for use in the leather, textile, pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, paint, plastic and paper industries [1], of which, at least 60% represent azo dyes [2]. In addition to being recalcitrant towards various degradation processes [3], azo dyes produce dangerous chemical substances such as aromatic amines, known for their toxic,

The impact of azo dyes on the environment is related to the enormous amounts of hazardous waste associated with industrial processes, which in most cases, is then released directly to water bodies without proper treatment. A further aggravating factor is that due to the inability of at least 35% of azo dyes to adhere to substrates, heavy metals have been incorporated during the dyeing process, and

Colorants associated with metals such as copper, cobalt and especially chromium,

are difficult to degrade and represent an important source of environmental contamination due to their increased presence in organic load. They generate adverse and irreversible eco-toxicological effects, bioaccumulation phenomena and biomagnifica-

tion in flora and aquatic fauna and alteration of biogeochemical cycles [6].

allergenic, carcinogenic and mutagenic effect on living organisms [4].

these act as mordants, favoring the fixation of the dye [5].

Degrade Azo Dyes

show its potential to degrade azo dyes.

**1. Introduction**

**Keywords:** Enterococcus, marine, azo dyes

Ecosystems and Their Potential to

#### **Chapter 5**

## Enterococcus Present in Marine Ecosystems and Their Potential to Degrade Azo Dyes

*Ganiveth María Manjarrez Paba and Rosa Baldiris Ávila*

#### **Abstract**

Azo dyes are frequently used at an industrial level to restore the color of raw materials once it has faded away, make an original color more vibrant or with the purpose of giving a material a different color that is considered more attractive. These processes however, have a negative impact on the environment, evidenced in colored wastewater that is subsequently dumped into water bodies, causing disruptions in the natural balance of ecosystems and deteriorating human health. Traditional strategies for the treatment of effluents contaminated with azo dyes are limited to physical and chemical processes that have a high energy and economic cost. For these reasons, current challenges are focused on the use of microorganisms capable of transforming dyes into less toxic products. This chapter will present a description of the main characteristics of azo dyes and the different methods used for their treatment, with special emphasis on the benefits associated with biological treatment. Likewise, it will provide relevant information about *Enterococcus* and show its potential to degrade azo dyes.

**Keywords:** Enterococcus, marine, azo dyes

#### **1. Introduction**

Annually, more than a million tons of synthetic dyes are produced around the world for use in the leather, textile, pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, paint, plastic and paper industries [1], of which, at least 60% represent azo dyes [2]. In addition to being recalcitrant towards various degradation processes [3], azo dyes produce dangerous chemical substances such as aromatic amines, known for their toxic, allergenic, carcinogenic and mutagenic effect on living organisms [4].

The impact of azo dyes on the environment is related to the enormous amounts of hazardous waste associated with industrial processes, which in most cases, is then released directly to water bodies without proper treatment. A further aggravating factor is that due to the inability of at least 35% of azo dyes to adhere to substrates, heavy metals have been incorporated during the dyeing process, and these act as mordants, favoring the fixation of the dye [5].

Colorants associated with metals such as copper, cobalt and especially chromium, are difficult to degrade and represent an important source of environmental contamination due to their increased presence in organic load. They generate adverse and irreversible eco-toxicological effects, bioaccumulation phenomena and biomagnification in flora and aquatic fauna and alteration of biogeochemical cycles [6].

This powerful metal-dye complex has carcinogenic and mutagenic properties for humans exposed to effluents contaminated with dyes. It can lead to skin cancer due to photosensitization, photodynamic damage, allergic contact dermatitis, renal, reproductive, hepatic, cerebral dysfunction, irritation of the respiratory tract and asthma [7].

Traditionally, physicochemical methods have been used to treat effluents contaminated with azo dyes, but their high economic and energy cost and the environmental effects associated with their use have changed the focus, in recent years, on the use of microorganisms. These are successful biological alternatives due to their survival properties, adaptability, enzymatic activity and chemical structure. Additionally, hybrid technologies have been developed, which are able to take the best of each technology and surpass the limitations of current conventional treatments [8].

*Enterococcus* sp. are gram-positive cocci, facultative anaerobes capable of growth in environments with low nutrient concentrations, persistent temperature fluctuations, and are resistant to desiccation, UV radiation, freezing, pH changes, high salinity and predation [9]. According to phylogenetic studies, this genus includes 50 species of clinical and environmental importance [10].

The environmental importance of *Enterococcus* sp. has to do with the fact that, since 1986, the US Environmental Protection Agency included them as part of the parameters for evaluating the quality of marine waters. Likewise, the World Health Organization considered them more important than thermotolerant coliforms, due to their ability to resist the physical and chemical conditions of seawater, and for being an excellent indicator for waters impacted by fecal contamination [11].

While international organizations consider *Enterococcus* sp. as indicators of fecal contamination of marine waters, another relevant aspect and a novelty of this article has to do with taking into consideration beaches as well. Beaches are complex ecosystems where there is a dynamic of continuous transport between water and sand. For this reason, it was considered decisive not only to evaluate *Enteococcus* sp. in water, but also in beach sand, where animal feces and residues generated by anthropogenic activities are generally found [12].

As a contribution to this discussion and element for further research, this article presents a review of the potential of *Enterococcus* to become an optimal biological alternative in the treatment of effluents contaminated with Azo dyes. This is due to its ability to survive in aquatic environments with adverse environmental conditions, its development of multi-resistance mechanisms for antibiotics and heavy metals, as well as its enzyme systems associated with the degradation of dyes.

#### **1.1 The potential of bacteria for the degradation of azo dyes**

For the degradation of azo dyes, bacteria have an efficient enzymatic system that allows them to carry out a series of catabolic activities, with azoreductase and laccase enzymes being responsible for the transfer of electrons to the azo bond of the dye and the production of aromatic amines [13].

The mechanism of degradation by azoreductase enzymes consists of two phases. The first, called the reducing phase, begins with the cleavage of the azo bond (-N=N-) by catalyzed reduction of the enzyme under anaerobic/anoxic or microaerophilic conditions, where NADH molecules, derived from carbohydrate metabolism are used as electron donors [13]. In the second phase, as a result of this division, relatively simple intermediate aromatic amines are generated, which are deaminated or dehydrogenated by bacteria through aerobic processes under aerobic conditions, which leads to complete degradation of azo dyes [14].

Laccases, on the other hand, are copper oxidases that degrade dyes in the presence of oxygen through mechanisms that involve direct or indirect oxidation using

**79**

*Enterococcus Present in Marine Ecosystems and Their Potential to Degrade Azo Dyes*

**1.2 Enterococcus, potentially degrading bacteria of the complex azoic** 

One of the bacteria identified as an effective biological alternative for the removal of metal-dye synergy is *Enterococcus* sp., recognized for its ability to thrive in environments with low nutrient concentrations, persistent to temperature fluctuations and resistant to desiccation, UV radiation, freezing, pH changes, high salinity and predation. Furthermore, they are considered catabolically versatile microorganisms, capable of using a wide range of unusual substrates as carbon

For a long time, the environmental importance of *Enterococcus* sp. had to do with it being an excellent indicator of fecal contamination in waters [11]. However, new potential uses of this microorganism have emerged recently. It can be exploited for the benefit of the environment, such as for its ability to metabolize xenobiotics, among which are azo dyes, and it has an affinity to bind and resist heavy metals. Furthermore, the genome of these bacteria also reveals the presence of phages, which in large-scale industrial processes could be useful in improving its general bioremediation capacity and could also prove to be a viable option in transferring the ability to degrade azo dyes to other *Enterococcus* through genetic engineering

The ability of *Enterococcus faecalis* to metabolize azo dyes is associated with the presence of the azoA gene. This encodes the production of the aerobic azoreductase enzyme, which is not secreted outside the cell, has a wide substrate specificity, requires flavin mononucleotide (FMN) as a cofactor and uses NADH as an electron

The ATCC 6569 *Enterococcus faecium* strain possesses the enzyme azoreductase (AzoEf1) which shares 67% identity with the azoreductase of *Enterococcus faecalis* (AzoA). However, there are differences related to coenzyme preference, residues associated with FMN binding, substrate specificity, and specific activity. The

*Enterococcus casseliflavus*, by the action of an enzyme which acts similarly to that of azoreductase, is not only able to discolor a wide range of azo dyes under microaerophilic conditions, but also to catabolize by desulfonation and deamination the intermediaries generated as a consequence of the reductive cleavage. The genome of this microorganism also reveals the presence of regulatory systems possibly

*Enterococcus gallinarum* offers an effective ecological alternative for the remedia-

tion of environments contaminated with structurally complex and recalcitrant azo dyes such as Reactive Red 35. This is done through enzymatic mechanisms that involve the presence of oxidoreductases, such as laccases, tyrosinases and azoreductases, under a wide range of pH, temperature and with high concentration of salinity. Therefore, its use on a large scale is recommended by using a suitable

AzoEf1 sequence is found in GenBank: GQ479040.1 [20].

involved in the biodegradation of aromatic contaminants [21].

microaerophilic-aerobic sequential bioreactor [22].

redox mediators to accelerate the reaction. This involves the removal of a hydrogen atom from the hydroxyl and amino groups, replacing it with phenolic substrates

Bacterial action in the degradation of azo dyes is increased due to their ability to act through consortiums or synergistic associations that act as biological inducers. The union of the catabolic functions of each microorganism makes them even more useful alternatives to improve the discoloration rate of effluents contaminated with dyes, as they have greater resistance to abiotic conditions and lower rates of enzyme

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95439*

inactivation, especially in large-scale operations [16].

and aromatic amines [15].

**dyes - heavy metals**

from hybrid strains [18].

source [17].

donor [19].

*Enterococcus Present in Marine Ecosystems and Their Potential to Degrade Azo Dyes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95439*

redox mediators to accelerate the reaction. This involves the removal of a hydrogen atom from the hydroxyl and amino groups, replacing it with phenolic substrates and aromatic amines [15].

Bacterial action in the degradation of azo dyes is increased due to their ability to act through consortiums or synergistic associations that act as biological inducers. The union of the catabolic functions of each microorganism makes them even more useful alternatives to improve the discoloration rate of effluents contaminated with dyes, as they have greater resistance to abiotic conditions and lower rates of enzyme inactivation, especially in large-scale operations [16].

#### **1.2 Enterococcus, potentially degrading bacteria of the complex azoic dyes - heavy metals**

One of the bacteria identified as an effective biological alternative for the removal of metal-dye synergy is *Enterococcus* sp., recognized for its ability to thrive in environments with low nutrient concentrations, persistent to temperature fluctuations and resistant to desiccation, UV radiation, freezing, pH changes, high salinity and predation. Furthermore, they are considered catabolically versatile microorganisms, capable of using a wide range of unusual substrates as carbon source [17].

For a long time, the environmental importance of *Enterococcus* sp. had to do with it being an excellent indicator of fecal contamination in waters [11]. However, new potential uses of this microorganism have emerged recently. It can be exploited for the benefit of the environment, such as for its ability to metabolize xenobiotics, among which are azo dyes, and it has an affinity to bind and resist heavy metals. Furthermore, the genome of these bacteria also reveals the presence of phages, which in large-scale industrial processes could be useful in improving its general bioremediation capacity and could also prove to be a viable option in transferring the ability to degrade azo dyes to other *Enterococcus* through genetic engineering from hybrid strains [18].

The ability of *Enterococcus faecalis* to metabolize azo dyes is associated with the presence of the azoA gene. This encodes the production of the aerobic azoreductase enzyme, which is not secreted outside the cell, has a wide substrate specificity, requires flavin mononucleotide (FMN) as a cofactor and uses NADH as an electron donor [19].

The ATCC 6569 *Enterococcus faecium* strain possesses the enzyme azoreductase (AzoEf1) which shares 67% identity with the azoreductase of *Enterococcus faecalis* (AzoA). However, there are differences related to coenzyme preference, residues associated with FMN binding, substrate specificity, and specific activity. The AzoEf1 sequence is found in GenBank: GQ479040.1 [20].

*Enterococcus casseliflavus*, by the action of an enzyme which acts similarly to that of azoreductase, is not only able to discolor a wide range of azo dyes under microaerophilic conditions, but also to catabolize by desulfonation and deamination the intermediaries generated as a consequence of the reductive cleavage. The genome of this microorganism also reveals the presence of regulatory systems possibly involved in the biodegradation of aromatic contaminants [21].

*Enterococcus gallinarum* offers an effective ecological alternative for the remediation of environments contaminated with structurally complex and recalcitrant azo dyes such as Reactive Red 35. This is done through enzymatic mechanisms that involve the presence of oxidoreductases, such as laccases, tyrosinases and azoreductases, under a wide range of pH, temperature and with high concentration of salinity. Therefore, its use on a large scale is recommended by using a suitable microaerophilic-aerobic sequential bioreactor [22].

*Coastal Environments*

asthma [7].

This powerful metal-dye complex has carcinogenic and mutagenic properties for humans exposed to effluents contaminated with dyes. It can lead to skin cancer due to photosensitization, photodynamic damage, allergic contact dermatitis, renal, reproductive, hepatic, cerebral dysfunction, irritation of the respiratory tract and

Traditionally, physicochemical methods have been used to treat effluents contaminated with azo dyes, but their high economic and energy cost and the environmental effects associated with their use have changed the focus, in recent years, on the use of microorganisms. These are successful biological alternatives due to their survival properties, adaptability, enzymatic activity and chemical structure. Additionally, hybrid technologies have been developed, which are able to take the best of each technology and surpass the limitations of current conventional treatments [8].

*Enterococcus* sp. are gram-positive cocci, facultative anaerobes capable of growth in environments with low nutrient concentrations, persistent temperature fluctuations, and are resistant to desiccation, UV radiation, freezing, pH changes, high salinity and predation [9]. According to phylogenetic studies, this genus includes 50

The environmental importance of *Enterococcus* sp. has to do with the fact that, since 1986, the US Environmental Protection Agency included them as part of the parameters for evaluating the quality of marine waters. Likewise, the World Health Organization considered them more important than thermotolerant coliforms, due to their ability to resist the physical and chemical conditions of seawater, and for being an excellent indicator for waters impacted by fecal contamination [11]. While international organizations consider *Enterococcus* sp. as indicators of fecal contamination of marine waters, another relevant aspect and a novelty of this article has to do with taking into consideration beaches as well. Beaches are complex ecosystems where there is a dynamic of continuous transport between water and sand. For this reason, it was considered decisive not only to evaluate *Enteococcus* sp. in water, but also in beach sand, where animal feces and residues generated by

As a contribution to this discussion and element for further research, this article presents a review of the potential of *Enterococcus* to become an optimal biological alternative in the treatment of effluents contaminated with Azo dyes. This is due to its ability to survive in aquatic environments with adverse environmental conditions, its development of multi-resistance mechanisms for antibiotics and heavy metals, as well as its enzyme systems associated with the degradation of dyes.

For the degradation of azo dyes, bacteria have an efficient enzymatic system that allows them to carry out a series of catabolic activities, with azoreductase and laccase enzymes being responsible for the transfer of electrons to the azo bond of

The mechanism of degradation by azoreductase enzymes consists of two phases. The first, called the reducing phase, begins with the cleavage of the azo bond (-N=N-) by catalyzed reduction of the enzyme under anaerobic/anoxic or microaerophilic conditions, where NADH molecules, derived from carbohydrate metabolism are used as electron donors [13]. In the second phase, as a result of this division, relatively simple intermediate aromatic amines are generated, which are deaminated or dehydrogenated by bacteria through aerobic processes under aerobic

Laccases, on the other hand, are copper oxidases that degrade dyes in the presence of oxygen through mechanisms that involve direct or indirect oxidation using

species of clinical and environmental importance [10].

anthropogenic activities are generally found [12].

**1.1 The potential of bacteria for the degradation of azo dyes**

conditions, which leads to complete degradation of azo dyes [14].

the dye and the production of aromatic amines [13].

**78**

The binding affinity of *Enterococcus* sp. to heavy metals has been attributed to the capsular polysaccharide, which contains different monomers such as glucose, galactose, mannose and fructose, and is capable of participating in the redox reaction of remediation processes of waters contaminated with heavy metals and dyes [23]. Recently, these monomers have been used for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNP) that, combined with advanced oxidation processes (AOP), have shown good results in the degradation of azo dyes such as methyl orange and Congo red [24].

In relation to metal removal, *Enterococcus faecalis* uses mechanisms such as copper transporting ATPases, present in the inner membrane, which not only work for the homeostasis of this metal but also to resist high concentrations of nickel, mercury, cadmium, lead and copper [25].

#### **2. Methodology**

Taking as reference the results of the Environmental Quality Program of Tourist Beaches [26], samples of water and sand were taken at Bocagrande beach in Cartagena Colombia, taking as reference points the areas with the highest concentration of users and suspected of contamination from a source point of marine water dumping.

To search for *Enterococcus* sp., fifty-four (54) samples were taken: 24 of water and 30 of sand, at Bocagrande beach, in Cartagena, Colombia. The standardized protocols of the Environmental Quality Program of Tourist Beaches in the Colombian North Caribbean were taken as reference [26]. The samples were transported at 4°C to the Environmental Microbiology laboratory of the University of Cartagena-Colombia, to be processed in a period of 8 to 24 hours.

The samples were processed through the membrane filtration method. In the case of the sand samples, 10 g of these were diluted in 90 mL of deionized water, the supernatant being considered as a filterable material. Filters were transferred to Slanetz & Bartley agar and incubated for 48 hours at 35 ± 0.5° C [27]. After the incubation period, the colony count was performed and the results were reported in CFU/100 ml of sample. To confirm the identification of *Enterococcus* sp., colonies were placed on blood agar supplemented with 5% defibrinated lamb blood and stored in BHI broth supplemented with 20% glycerol at −80°C.

Biochemical tests were carried out for the confirmation of the genus *Enterococcus* sp. such as: catalase, hydrolysis of esculin bile, reduction of potassium tellurite, vogues proskauer and growth tolerance in the presence of 6.5% NaCl at 9.6 pH. Gelatinase production was evaluated using Columbia agar plates containing gelatin (30 gr/l) incubated at 37°C for 48 hours. A clear area around the colonies was considered as a positive result [28]. The strains that were used as controls for all tests were: *E. fæcalis* ATCC 29212, *K. pneumoniae* 700603, *E. coli* ATCC 25922 and *S. aureus* ATCC 25923.

For the identification of microorganisms by MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry, it was necessary to extract ribosomal proteins, using the formic acid extraction method. The analysis of the mass spectra was performed using a Microflex LT mass spectrometer, using the MALDI Biotyper 3.4 software package from Bruker Daltonik [29]. The interpretation of the results was based on accepting scores between 2.0 and 1.7 for the identification of genus and species. Scores below 1.7 were considered unreliable.

Advanced proteomic computational techniques were used; Their advantages lie not only in the speed and economic cost of the process, but also in the effectiveness for the structural and functional analysis of the azoreductase enzymes present in *Enterococcus faecalis*; their properties can be used to potentiate its industrial applications [30].

**81**

**Figure 1.**

*Enterococcus Present in Marine Ecosystems and Their Potential to Degrade Azo Dyes*

and to persist in hostile environments such as beach sand [31].

for longer periods, favoring their multiplication [32].

result confirms the presence of *Enterococcus* sp. [33].

Of the 54 samples analyzed by the membrane filtration method, in 36 samples (64.86%) colony growth was obtained on Slanetz and Bartley agar, presumptive of the genus *Enterococcus* [27]. Greater data dispersion was observed in the results of the samples of sand, with values ranging from 0 CFU / gr to 200 CFU /gr. The results in the water samples ranged from 6 CFU / 100 mL to 47.3 CFU/100 mL, as shown in **Figure 1**. The higher percentage of positive samples in sand could be explained by the relationship between the ability of *Enterococcus* sp. to form biofilm

This is due to the ability of microorganisms to adhere to particulate materials, from which they obtain protection against predation and adverse environmental conditions such as: solar radiation, pH, temperature or bioavailability of nutrients. At the same time, this provides them with a food source that allows them to survive

Confirmatory biochemical tests were performed to the 36 samples in which growth of presumptive colonies of the genus *Enterococcus* sp. was obtained. These included hydrolysis of esculin, absence of gelatinase activity, growth in 6.5% NaCl and catalase. 100% of the strains that were identified as presumptive for *Enterococcus* sp. due to their growth on Slanetz & Bartley agar showed the ability to hydrolyze esculin in the presence of bile salts. According to literature, this positive

Another feature that characterizes *Enterococcus* sp. is its ability to grow at a concentration of 6.5% NaCl, and its inability to break down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen through the enzyme catalase. However, the results obtained in these tests do not coincide with this fact about *Enterococcus* sp. reported in literature. Rather, they suggest the presence of bacteria of the genus Streptococcus sp. due to the resistance of some strains to growth in high concentrations of NaCl, or bacteria of the genus *Staphylococcus* sp. in the case of those strains whose catalase results were positive [34]. Regarding the tests for the determination of species, the enzymatic activity of gelatinase was not expressed in any of the 36 strains identified as presumptive for *Enterococcus* sp. due to growth in Slanetz & Bartley agar; This indicates loss of the gelE phenotype, which according to literature is produced in *E. faecalis* isolates [35].

*Enterococci spp. levels in water and sand. Blue line:* Enterococcus *in water, Orange line:* Enterococcus *in* 

*sand, Y axis: colony forming units, X axis: Weeks of monitoring.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95439*

**3. Results and discussion**

#### **3. Results and discussion**

*Coastal Environments*

**2. Methodology**

*S. aureus* ATCC 25923.

were considered unreliable.

applications [30].

mercury, cadmium, lead and copper [25].

The binding affinity of *Enterococcus* sp. to heavy metals has been attributed to the capsular polysaccharide, which contains different monomers such as glucose, galactose, mannose and fructose, and is capable of participating in the redox reaction of remediation processes of waters contaminated with heavy metals and dyes [23]. Recently, these monomers have been used for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNP) that, combined with advanced oxidation processes (AOP), have shown good results in the degradation of azo dyes such as methyl orange and Congo red [24]. In relation to metal removal, *Enterococcus faecalis* uses mechanisms such as copper transporting ATPases, present in the inner membrane, which not only work for the homeostasis of this metal but also to resist high concentrations of nickel,

Taking as reference the results of the Environmental Quality Program of Tourist Beaches [26], samples of water and sand were taken at Bocagrande beach in Cartagena Colombia, taking as reference points the areas with the highest concentration of users and suspected of contamination from a source point of marine water dumping. To search for *Enterococcus* sp., fifty-four (54) samples were taken: 24 of water and 30 of sand, at Bocagrande beach, in Cartagena, Colombia. The standardized protocols of the Environmental Quality Program of Tourist Beaches in the Colombian North Caribbean were taken as reference [26]. The samples were transported at 4°C to the Environmental Microbiology laboratory of the University

The samples were processed through the membrane filtration method. In the case of the sand samples, 10 g of these were diluted in 90 mL of deionized water, the supernatant being considered as a filterable material. Filters were transferred to Slanetz & Bartley agar and incubated for 48 hours at 35 ± 0.5° C [27]. After the incubation period, the colony count was performed and the results were reported in CFU/100 ml of sample. To confirm the identification of *Enterococcus* sp., colonies were placed on blood agar supplemented with 5% defibrinated lamb blood and

Biochemical tests were carried out for the confirmation of the genus *Enterococcus*

For the identification of microorganisms by MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry, it was necessary to extract ribosomal proteins, using the formic acid extraction method. The analysis of the mass spectra was performed using a Microflex LT mass spectrometer, using the MALDI Biotyper 3.4 software package from Bruker Daltonik [29]. The interpretation of the results was based on accepting scores between 2.0 and 1.7 for the identification of genus and species. Scores below 1.7

Advanced proteomic computational techniques were used; Their advantages lie not only in the speed and economic cost of the process, but also in the effectiveness for the structural and functional analysis of the azoreductase enzymes present in *Enterococcus faecalis*; their properties can be used to potentiate its industrial

sp. such as: catalase, hydrolysis of esculin bile, reduction of potassium tellurite, vogues proskauer and growth tolerance in the presence of 6.5% NaCl at 9.6 pH. Gelatinase production was evaluated using Columbia agar plates containing gelatin (30 gr/l) incubated at 37°C for 48 hours. A clear area around the colonies was considered as a positive result [28]. The strains that were used as controls for all tests were: *E. fæcalis* ATCC 29212, *K. pneumoniae* 700603, *E. coli* ATCC 25922 and

of Cartagena-Colombia, to be processed in a period of 8 to 24 hours.

stored in BHI broth supplemented with 20% glycerol at −80°C.

**80**

Of the 54 samples analyzed by the membrane filtration method, in 36 samples (64.86%) colony growth was obtained on Slanetz and Bartley agar, presumptive of the genus *Enterococcus* [27]. Greater data dispersion was observed in the results of the samples of sand, with values ranging from 0 CFU / gr to 200 CFU /gr. The results in the water samples ranged from 6 CFU / 100 mL to 47.3 CFU/100 mL, as shown in **Figure 1**. The higher percentage of positive samples in sand could be explained by the relationship between the ability of *Enterococcus* sp. to form biofilm and to persist in hostile environments such as beach sand [31].

This is due to the ability of microorganisms to adhere to particulate materials, from which they obtain protection against predation and adverse environmental conditions such as: solar radiation, pH, temperature or bioavailability of nutrients. At the same time, this provides them with a food source that allows them to survive for longer periods, favoring their multiplication [32].

Confirmatory biochemical tests were performed to the 36 samples in which growth of presumptive colonies of the genus *Enterococcus* sp. was obtained. These included hydrolysis of esculin, absence of gelatinase activity, growth in 6.5% NaCl and catalase. 100% of the strains that were identified as presumptive for *Enterococcus* sp. due to their growth on Slanetz & Bartley agar showed the ability to hydrolyze esculin in the presence of bile salts. According to literature, this positive result confirms the presence of *Enterococcus* sp. [33].

Another feature that characterizes *Enterococcus* sp. is its ability to grow at a concentration of 6.5% NaCl, and its inability to break down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen through the enzyme catalase. However, the results obtained in these tests do not coincide with this fact about *Enterococcus* sp. reported in literature. Rather, they suggest the presence of bacteria of the genus Streptococcus sp. due to the resistance of some strains to growth in high concentrations of NaCl, or bacteria of the genus *Staphylococcus* sp. in the case of those strains whose catalase results were positive [34].

Regarding the tests for the determination of species, the enzymatic activity of gelatinase was not expressed in any of the 36 strains identified as presumptive for *Enterococcus* sp. due to growth in Slanetz & Bartley agar; This indicates loss of the gelE phenotype, which according to literature is produced in *E. faecalis* isolates [35].

#### **Figure 1.**

*Enterococci spp. levels in water and sand. Blue line:* Enterococcus *in water, Orange line:* Enterococcus *in sand, Y axis: colony forming units, X axis: Weeks of monitoring.*

#### *Coastal Environments*

On the other hand, the ability to reduce potassium tellurite is one of the tests that allows differentiation of *Enterococcus faecalis* from other *Enterococcus* species. Seven (7) strains isolated from water samples and 24 strains isolated from sand samples were positive for tellurite reduction. Negative tellurite strains may suggest the presence of *Enterococcus faecium*, *Enterococcus durans*, *Enterococcus gallinarum*, or *Enterococcus casseliflavus* [36].

Taking into account the discrepancy in the results obtained, high-precision confirmatory tests were performed using matrix-assisted laser ionization mass spectrometry or MALDI TOF. Unique mass peaks are considered specific biomarkers for each genus and species. In species discrimination, MALDI-TOF MS allowed the identification of 12 strains belonging to three different species of *Enterococcus* sp. as follows: *E. faecalis* (8/32), *E. faecium* (3/32), *E. hirae* (1/32). The spectrogram of the identified *Enterococcus* is shown in **Figure 2**.

The in-silico analysis showed a low amount of cysteine residues and a high amount of aliphatic amino acids in the primary structure, which indicated that Azoreductase (2HPV) is some intracellular proteins. The hydrophobicity condition of cysteine suggests that the enzyme is nonpolar and hydrophilic in nature. The presence of a high percentage of α helices indicates that Azoreductase (2HPV) is considered thermostable, as shown in **Figure 3**.

More than 90% of the amino acids were located in the allowed region of the Ramachandran graph, which indicates their stability in nature. The results obtained by SAVES showed that the enzyme have stable crystallography and the SWISS-MODEL QMEAN, ANOLEA and ERRAT analyzes confirmed their good quality. The structural analysis established that Azoreductase (2HPV) have better thermal stability and a superior quality model than other enzymes degrading dyes such as peroxidases and laccases [37], as shown in **Table 1**.

The STRING analysis (protein –protein) identified that the proteins that interact with the azoreductase studied had an unknown 3D structure. However, the

#### **Figure 2.**

*Mass spectrogram of the three* Enterococcus *species identified by MALDI-TOF MS analysis.* Enterococcus hirae *(A),* Enterococcus faecium *(B) and* Enterococcus fecalis *(C).*

**83**

large-scale operations [38].

*Percentage of helices in Azoreductase.*

**Enzymes 3D-1D** 

**score (%)**

*Evaluation of structural quality of the enzyme Azoreductase (2HPV).*

triggers of pollution in this ecosystem.

**4. Conclusions**

Azoreductase (2HPV)

**Figure 3.**

**Table 1.**

*Enterococcus Present in Marine Ecosystems and Their Potential to Degrade Azo Dyes*

formation of interconnection networks was evidenced, possibly due to the interaction with bacteria that is genetically similar, which is especially favorable in dye degradation processes using bacterial consortia. At an industrial level, this improves the discoloration rate of effluents contaminated with dyes, as it has greater resistance to abiotic conditions and lower rates of enzyme inactivation, especially in

**ERRAT quality factor** **QMEAN Z-score**

99.88 95.40 1.32 97.8

**AA in FR of Ramamchandran plot (%)**

The Bocagrande beach in Cartagena, Colombia is one of the most visited Colombian destinations by locals, as well as national and international tourists. Its high number of users throughout the year, the dumping of domestic waste generated by tourist activity, as well as other drainage carried by rain, are all considered

Matrix-assisted laser ionization mass spectrometry or MALDI TOF identified other species apart from *Enterococcus faecalis*, such as *E. faecium* and *E. hirae*. The presence of these microorganisms in tourist beaches generate health related concerns about the presence of fecal contamination, sewage drains from homes or hotels along the beach, or possible overflow of wastewater treatment plants [39]. According to the World Health Organization guideline values for recreational marine waters at risk of transmitting gastrointestinal diseases (EGI) and acute febrile respiratory disease (ERFA), the results of this study indicate that Bocagrande's beaches are in category A; This means that the concentration of

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95439*

*Enterococcus Present in Marine Ecosystems and Their Potential to Degrade Azo Dyes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95439*

**Figure 3.** *Percentage of helices in Azoreductase.*


#### **Table 1.**

*Coastal Environments*

*Enterococcus casseliflavus* [36].

of the identified *Enterococcus* is shown in **Figure 2**.

considered thermostable, as shown in **Figure 3**.

peroxidases and laccases [37], as shown in **Table 1**.

On the other hand, the ability to reduce potassium tellurite is one of the tests that allows differentiation of *Enterococcus faecalis* from other *Enterococcus* species. Seven (7) strains isolated from water samples and 24 strains isolated from sand samples were positive for tellurite reduction. Negative tellurite strains may suggest the presence of *Enterococcus faecium*, *Enterococcus durans*, *Enterococcus gallinarum*, or

Taking into account the discrepancy in the results obtained, high-precision confirmatory tests were performed using matrix-assisted laser ionization mass spectrometry or MALDI TOF. Unique mass peaks are considered specific biomarkers for each genus and species. In species discrimination, MALDI-TOF MS allowed the identification of 12 strains belonging to three different species of *Enterococcus* sp. as follows: *E. faecalis* (8/32), *E. faecium* (3/32), *E. hirae* (1/32). The spectrogram

The in-silico analysis showed a low amount of cysteine residues and a high amount of aliphatic amino acids in the primary structure, which indicated that Azoreductase (2HPV) is some intracellular proteins. The hydrophobicity condition of cysteine suggests that the enzyme is nonpolar and hydrophilic in nature. The presence of a high percentage of α helices indicates that Azoreductase (2HPV) is

More than 90% of the amino acids were located in the allowed region of the Ramachandran graph, which indicates their stability in nature. The results obtained by SAVES showed that the enzyme have stable crystallography and the SWISS-MODEL QMEAN, ANOLEA and ERRAT analyzes confirmed their good quality. The structural analysis established that Azoreductase (2HPV) have better thermal stability and a superior quality model than other enzymes degrading dyes such as

The STRING analysis (protein –protein) identified that the proteins that interact with the azoreductase studied had an unknown 3D structure. However, the

*Mass spectrogram of the three* Enterococcus *species identified by MALDI-TOF MS analysis.* Enterococcus

hirae *(A),* Enterococcus faecium *(B) and* Enterococcus fecalis *(C).*

**82**

**Figure 2.**

*Evaluation of structural quality of the enzyme Azoreductase (2HPV).*

formation of interconnection networks was evidenced, possibly due to the interaction with bacteria that is genetically similar, which is especially favorable in dye degradation processes using bacterial consortia. At an industrial level, this improves the discoloration rate of effluents contaminated with dyes, as it has greater resistance to abiotic conditions and lower rates of enzyme inactivation, especially in large-scale operations [38].

#### **4. Conclusions**

The Bocagrande beach in Cartagena, Colombia is one of the most visited Colombian destinations by locals, as well as national and international tourists. Its high number of users throughout the year, the dumping of domestic waste generated by tourist activity, as well as other drainage carried by rain, are all considered triggers of pollution in this ecosystem.

Matrix-assisted laser ionization mass spectrometry or MALDI TOF identified other species apart from *Enterococcus faecalis*, such as *E. faecium* and *E. hirae*. The presence of these microorganisms in tourist beaches generate health related concerns about the presence of fecal contamination, sewage drains from homes or hotels along the beach, or possible overflow of wastewater treatment plants [39].

According to the World Health Organization guideline values for recreational marine waters at risk of transmitting gastrointestinal diseases (EGI) and acute febrile respiratory disease (ERFA), the results of this study indicate that Bocagrande's beaches are in category A; This means that the concentration of

*Enterococcus faecalis* is less than or equal to 40 CFU/100 mL and that the estimated risk for exposure is <1% for EGI and < 0.3% for ERFA.

The current biotechnological challenges lead to the development of solutions that guarantee the quality of our ecosystems and the health of human beings exposed to environmental imbalance. In relation to the problems associated with the use of dyes in different industrial processes, there have been many technological strategies developed to reduce the polluting load in industrial effluents and in receiving water bodies.

Dye removal strategies have evolved over the years. This happened due to the development of new physical and chemical methods, which progressed towards the use of environmentally friendly and cost effective biological solutions for the industry. These biological solutions have used plants, algae and other microbial biomasses as an alternative for dye removal. However, bacteria are the most robust microorganisms that, due to their structure and genome, become potential degraders of recalcitrant contaminants such as azo dyes.

The competitive advantages of bacteria are, among others, their short life cycle, their ability to adapt, and their metabolic action; they are able to degrade and detoxify the secondary metabolites produced in the discoloration process. These properties prevail in bacterial communities present in marine ecosystems, considering that these are capable of removing, in monoculture or in consortium, individual colorants, mixtures of colorants and the metal-colorant complex. Their use, although underexploited, becomes relevant with the advent of emerging technologies connected with nanotechnology, alternative energy, circular economy and environmental sustainability.

The mechanisms involved in the simultaneous removal of dyes and the metaldye complex, the enzyme profile and the intermediate metabolites should be the subject of future studies based on genomics and proteomics. Likewise, due to the legal and environmental limitations when monitoring industrial discharges and the distribution of azo dyes in the environment, it is necessary for the scientific community to provide innovative mechanisms in which monitoring discharges and bodies of water receptors are based on amine detection.

The results of this study suggest that the enzymes Azoreductase (2HPV) are potential degraders of azo dyes due to their stability, good quality of crystallographic structure, as they are intracellular, hydrophilic and thermostable. The high content of α helices indicates their thermal resistance, which, associated with their structural quality, makes them potential degraders of azo dyes.

The properties of Azoreductase (2HPV), whose origin is *Enterococcus faecalis*, confirm that the bacterial communities present in marine ecosystems have developed special mechanisms that allow them to resist adverse environmental conditions such as hypersalinity, pH variations and the presence of heavy metals. This makes them more stable and able to degrade recalcitrant contaminants such as azo dyes [40].

#### **Acknowledgements**

This work would not have been possible without the help of the work team of the Clinical and Environmental Microbiology Group of the University of Cartagena.

**85**

**Author details**

Ganiveth María Manjarrez Paba\* and Rosa Baldiris Ávila

Sciences, University of Cartagena, Cartagena, Colombia

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: gmanjarrezp@unicartagena.edu.co

Clinical and Environmental Microbiology Group, Faculty of Natural and Exact

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Enterococcus Present in Marine Ecosystems and Their Potential to Degrade Azo Dyes*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95439*

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Enterococcus Present in Marine Ecosystems and Their Potential to Degrade Azo Dyes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95439*

### **Author details**

*Coastal Environments*

receiving water bodies.

*Enterococcus faecalis* is less than or equal to 40 CFU/100 mL and that the estimated

The current biotechnological challenges lead to the development of solutions that guarantee the quality of our ecosystems and the health of human beings exposed to environmental imbalance. In relation to the problems associated with the use of dyes in different industrial processes, there have been many technological strategies developed to reduce the polluting load in industrial effluents and in

Dye removal strategies have evolved over the years. This happened due to the development of new physical and chemical methods, which progressed towards the use of environmentally friendly and cost effective biological solutions for the industry. These biological solutions have used plants, algae and other microbial biomasses as an alternative for dye removal. However, bacteria are the most robust microorganisms that, due to their structure and genome, become potential degrad-

The competitive advantages of bacteria are, among others, their short life cycle, their ability to adapt, and their metabolic action; they are able to degrade and detoxify the secondary metabolites produced in the discoloration process. These properties prevail in bacterial communities present in marine ecosystems, considering that these are capable of removing, in monoculture or in consortium, individual colorants, mixtures of colorants and the metal-colorant complex. Their use, although underexploited, becomes relevant with the advent of emerging technologies connected with nanotechnology, alternative energy, circular economy

The mechanisms involved in the simultaneous removal of dyes and the metaldye complex, the enzyme profile and the intermediate metabolites should be the subject of future studies based on genomics and proteomics. Likewise, due to the legal and environmental limitations when monitoring industrial discharges and the distribution of azo dyes in the environment, it is necessary for the scientific community to provide innovative mechanisms in which monitoring discharges and

The results of this study suggest that the enzymes Azoreductase (2HPV) are potential degraders of azo dyes due to their stability, good quality of crystallographic structure, as they are intracellular, hydrophilic and thermostable. The high content of α helices indicates their thermal resistance, which, associated with their

The properties of Azoreductase (2HPV), whose origin is *Enterococcus faecalis*, confirm that the bacterial communities present in marine ecosystems have developed special mechanisms that allow them to resist adverse environmental conditions such as hypersalinity, pH variations and the presence of heavy metals. This makes them more stable and able to degrade recalcitrant contaminants such as azo

This work would not have been possible without the help of the work team of the Clinical and Environmental Microbiology Group of the University of Cartagena.

risk for exposure is <1% for EGI and < 0.3% for ERFA.

ers of recalcitrant contaminants such as azo dyes.

bodies of water receptors are based on amine detection.

structural quality, makes them potential degraders of azo dyes.

and environmental sustainability.

**84**

dyes [40].

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Ganiveth María Manjarrez Paba\* and Rosa Baldiris Ávila Clinical and Environmental Microbiology Group, Faculty of Natural and Exact Sciences, University of Cartagena, Cartagena, Colombia

\*Address all correspondence to: gmanjarrezp@unicartagena.edu.co

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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MARINE ACINETOBACTER BAUMANNII-MEDIATED

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[24] SARAVANAN C, RAJESH R, KAVIARASAN T, MUTHUKUMAR K, KAVITAKE D, SHETTY P. SYNTHESIS OF SILVER NANOPARTICLES USING BACTERIAL EXOPOLYSACCHARIDE

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[29] KASSIM A, PFLÜGER V, PREMJI Z, DAUBENBERGER C, REVATHI G. COMPARISON OF BIOMARKER-BASED MATRIX ASSISTED LASER DESORPTION IONIZATION-TIME

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[36] TURKOVICOVA L, SMIDAK R, JUNG G, TURNA J, LUBEC G, ARADSKA J. PROTEOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE TERC INTERACTOME: NOVEL LINKS TO TELLURITE RESISTANCE AND PATHOGENICITY. JOURNAL OF PROTEOMICS.2016; 136: 167-173.DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2016.01.003

[37] SARKAR S, BANERJEE A, CHAKRABORTY N, SOREN K, CHAKRABORTY P, BANDOPADHYAY R. STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL ANALYSES OF TEXTILE DYE DEGRADING AZOREDUCTASE, LACCASE AND PEROXIDASE: A COMPARATIVE IN SILICO STUDY. ELECTRON. J. BIOTECHNOL.2020; 43: 48-54. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejbt.2019.12.004

[38] UNNIKRISHNAN S, KHAN M, RAMALINGAM K. DYE-TOLERANT MARINE ACINETOBACTER BAUMANNII-MEDIATED BIODEGRADATION OF REACTIVE RED. WATER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. 2018; 11(4), 265-275. 10.1016/j.wse.2018.08.001

[39] CONLEY K, CLUM A, DEEPE J, LANE H, BECKINGHAM B. WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS AS A SOURCE OF MICROPLASTICS

TO AN URBAN ESTUARY: REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES AND LOADING PER CAPITA OVER ONE YEAR. WATER RESEARCH X. 2019; 3: 100030.DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2019.100030

[40] ZHUANG M, SANGANYADO E, ZHANG X, XU L, ZHU J, LIU W, SONG H. AZO DYE DEGRADING BACTERIA TOLERANT TO EXTREME CONDITIONS INHABIT NEARSHORE ECOSYSTEMS: OPTIMIZATION AND DEGRADATION PATHWAYS. J. ENVIRON. MANAGE.2020. 261: 110222. DOI: 10.1016/j. jenvman.2020.110222

**91**

**Chapter 6**

**Abstract**

Strategies

*Fausto López-Rodríguez*

Mangrove in Ecuador:

conserve more than 40% of Ecuador's mangrove.

food security for ancestral communities and traditional users.

management, protected areas, shrimp pools

**1. Introduction**

Conservation and Management

In Ecuador, 100% of the mangroves are protected through different mechanisms: protected areas, community mangrove concessions, and protective forests. However,

there is still deforestation of the mangroves, even in protected areas, which is caused mainly by the construction/expansion of shrimp pools. Shrimp is currently Ecuador's first non-oil export product. The Sustainable Use and Mangrove Custody Agreements are very important because they cover an area almost similar to that of protected areas. This mechanism is effective because it allows the sustainable extraction of resources from the mangrove, but forces the "custodians" to protect this ecosystem. This chapter includes a case study on the management of the "mangrove concessions" of the province of El Oro, southern Ecuador, in which the management effectiveness of these areas is analyzed. We found that despite the limited resources that these mangrove concessions have, the level of management is "satisfactory", which means that most of the management objectives are met. However, these areas should receive more support, both from the state and private organizations, as they

**Keywords:** mangrove, mangrove concessions, local communities, sustainable,

Mangrove forests have a great relevance for the world, they are resilient to the adverse effects exerted by both natural and anthropic factors and play a fundamental role in the strategy for adaptation to climate change. They are also the basis for

At a global level, it is calculated that mangrove forests cover an area of about 15′000,000 hectares, 11% (≈1′650,000 hectares) of which is found on the Pacific and Caribbean coasts of South America. In Ecuador, there are an estimated 161,000 hectares of mangroves. Regarding mangrove losses, annual values of 0.16% have been estimated worldwide between 2000 and 2012, with South America having the lowest rates of deforestation compared to Asia, Africa, North and Central America [1]. Ecuador had the highest deforestation in the 1970s with 27% deforestation going from 300,000 ha in the 1960s to 145,000 ha in the 1980s. The mangrove conservation efforts in Ecuador were based, originally, on the issuance of policies and laws and the creation of state protected areas [2]. A new mechanism was created in 1999, which recognized the rights and traditional uses of the communities

#### **Chapter 6**

## Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies

*Fausto López-Rodríguez*

#### **Abstract**

In Ecuador, 100% of the mangroves are protected through different mechanisms: protected areas, community mangrove concessions, and protective forests. However, there is still deforestation of the mangroves, even in protected areas, which is caused mainly by the construction/expansion of shrimp pools. Shrimp is currently Ecuador's first non-oil export product. The Sustainable Use and Mangrove Custody Agreements are very important because they cover an area almost similar to that of protected areas. This mechanism is effective because it allows the sustainable extraction of resources from the mangrove, but forces the "custodians" to protect this ecosystem. This chapter includes a case study on the management of the "mangrove concessions" of the province of El Oro, southern Ecuador, in which the management effectiveness of these areas is analyzed. We found that despite the limited resources that these mangrove concessions have, the level of management is "satisfactory", which means that most of the management objectives are met. However, these areas should receive more support, both from the state and private organizations, as they conserve more than 40% of Ecuador's mangrove.

**Keywords:** mangrove, mangrove concessions, local communities, sustainable, management, protected areas, shrimp pools

#### **1. Introduction**

Mangrove forests have a great relevance for the world, they are resilient to the adverse effects exerted by both natural and anthropic factors and play a fundamental role in the strategy for adaptation to climate change. They are also the basis for food security for ancestral communities and traditional users.

At a global level, it is calculated that mangrove forests cover an area of about 15′000,000 hectares, 11% (≈1′650,000 hectares) of which is found on the Pacific and Caribbean coasts of South America. In Ecuador, there are an estimated 161,000 hectares of mangroves. Regarding mangrove losses, annual values of 0.16% have been estimated worldwide between 2000 and 2012, with South America having the lowest rates of deforestation compared to Asia, Africa, North and Central America [1]. Ecuador had the highest deforestation in the 1970s with 27% deforestation going from 300,000 ha in the 1960s to 145,000 ha in the 1980s. The mangrove conservation efforts in Ecuador were based, originally, on the issuance of policies and laws and the creation of state protected areas [2]. A new mechanism was created in 1999, which recognized the rights and traditional uses of the communities

#### *Coastal Environments*

that lived in these ecosystems or that depended on their resources for their survival: The Custody and Sustainable Use of Mangrove Agreements (AUSCM).

This conservation mechanism plays a key role in the conservation of the mangrove in Ecuador, since it occupies almost the same extension as the mangrove that is found in the protected areas of the National System of Protected Areas (SNAP). It complements government conservation efforts, with community conservation activities.

The main objectives of this study are to show the key role of the AUSCM in the conservation of the mangrove in Ecuador, since it occupies almost the same extension as the mangrove that is found in the protected areas of the National System of Protected Areas (SNAP) as well as the effective management that local communities give to this ecosystem.

#### **2. Current situation of mangroves in Ecuador**

Ecuador has a land area of 256,370 km2 and an estimated population, as of 2018, of 17′096,789 inhabitants. It limits to the north with Colombia, to the south and east with Peru and to the west with the Pacific Ocean. In addition, on the maritime border of the Galapagos Islands, it borders the Cocos Island of Costa Rica [3]. The Ecuadorian territory includes, in addition to the land area, 1′092,140 km<sup>2</sup> of maritime area, which is equivalent to 4.3 times the continental territory. The extension of the continental coast is 1200 km [4] (**Figure 1**).

In the coastal of Ecuador, several economic, social and environmental activities are developed, with diverse interests that cause that the Coastal region is a highly conflictive region. This region has several marine-coastal ecosystems, one of the most important is the mangrove. This ecosystem is considered one of the most productive in the world, however, it is one of the most threatened. In the case of Ecuador, in the span of 40 years, 27% of the mangrove were lost as a consequence, mainly, of the construction of shrimp pools and urban expansion [2].

**93**

climate change.

Cayapas Mataje

Guayaquils Gulf

Jambelí Archipelago

*Source: [2].*

**Table 1.**

ancestral and traditional users [9].

*Mangrove loss by estuary (in hectares). Period 1969–2006.*

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies*

14,864 hectares was observed again [2, 5] (**Table 1**).

natural regeneration of the ecosystem [6, 7].

The mangrove swamp in Ecuador is located mainly in six estuaries. CLIRSEN and PMRC (2007) determined that in 1969 the mangrove area in Ecuador reached 203,624 hectares, which, by 2006, was reduced to 146,971 hectares, a loss of 56,653

The highest annual rate of deforestation occurred between 1991 and 1995 (2.35% per year); on the contrary, between 1995 and 1999 a recovery of the mangrove cover was observed and between 1999 and 2006, the annual rate of deforestation was 0.13% [2]. For its part, in the decade from 2006 to 2016, a mangrove recovery of

The current mangrove area in Ecuador is 161,835 ha. This mangrove coverage gain was the result of reforestation programs implemented by different institutions and communities that have mangrove use and custody agreements, as well as the

At the policy and legal level, these marine-coastal ecosystems have received significant support. In the first place, there is the 2007 Constitution of Ecuador that recognizes mangroves as "fragile and threatened ecosystems" which gives them a special "status" in relation to other types of ecosystems. The Organic Environment Law (2017) confirmed earlier regulations that, in Ecuador, all mangrove forests are property of the State. Another important regulation, based on the economic valuation of ecosystem services of mangroves, is the resolution No. 056 of the Ministry of the Environment of 2011, based on which fines for mangrove deforestation of up to USD 89,273 are established [8]. According to a study carried out by the Charles Darwin Foundation (CDF), Galapagos National Park Directorate (GNPD) and the Scripps Institute of Oceanography at the University of San Diego, each hectare of mangrove in Galapagos has at least a value of \$ 27.852, because the 3,700 hectares store more than 778.000 tons of carbon. Its conservation is considered a measure of adaptation and mitigation to

On April 4, 2019, the National Action Plan for the Conservation of Mangroves in Ecuador was approved. This Plan seeks to promote the protection, recovery and sustainable use of mangroves, with a focus on improving the quality of life of

**Estuaries 1969 1984 1987 1991 1995 1999 2006 % of** 

Muisne 3.282 2.701 2.445 1.340 830 1.187 1.187 52.5 Cojimíes 13.123 9.917 8.466 6.028 3.651 1.921 2.742 79.1 Chone 3.973 1.673 1.040 784 391 705 932 76.5

Total **203.624 181.815 174.815 161.718 146.628 149.699 146.971 27.6**

23.677 23.653 23.507 22.863 21.947 22.057 21.400 9.6

124.320 119.277 115.784 109.608 102.108 104.715 105.130 15.4

34.712 24.592 23.570 21.092 17.697 19.111 19.111 56.2

**mangrove lost comparted to1969**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

hectares, equivalent to 22,8% [2].

**Figure 1.** *Coastal and insular region of Ecuador.*

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

*Coastal Environments*

activities.

give to this ecosystem.

that lived in these ecosystems or that depended on their resources for their survival:

This conservation mechanism plays a key role in the conservation of the mangrove in Ecuador, since it occupies almost the same extension as the mangrove that is found in the protected areas of the National System of Protected Areas (SNAP). It complements government conservation efforts, with community conservation

The main objectives of this study are to show the key role of the AUSCM in the conservation of the mangrove in Ecuador, since it occupies almost the same extension as the mangrove that is found in the protected areas of the National System of Protected Areas (SNAP) as well as the effective management that local communities

of 17′096,789 inhabitants. It limits to the north with Colombia, to the south and east with Peru and to the west with the Pacific Ocean. In addition, on the maritime border of the Galapagos Islands, it borders the Cocos Island of Costa Rica [3]. The

time area, which is equivalent to 4.3 times the continental territory. The extension

In the coastal of Ecuador, several economic, social and environmental activities are developed, with diverse interests that cause that the Coastal region is a highly conflictive region. This region has several marine-coastal ecosystems, one of the most important is the mangrove. This ecosystem is considered one of the most productive in the world, however, it is one of the most threatened. In the case of Ecuador, in the span of 40 years, 27% of the mangrove were lost as a consequence,

Ecuadorian territory includes, in addition to the land area, 1′092,140 km<sup>2</sup>

mainly, of the construction of shrimp pools and urban expansion [2].

and an estimated population, as of 2018,

of mari-

The Custody and Sustainable Use of Mangrove Agreements (AUSCM).

**2. Current situation of mangroves in Ecuador**

of the continental coast is 1200 km [4] (**Figure 1**).

Ecuador has a land area of 256,370 km2

**92**

**Figure 1.**

*Coastal and insular region of Ecuador.*

The mangrove swamp in Ecuador is located mainly in six estuaries. CLIRSEN and PMRC (2007) determined that in 1969 the mangrove area in Ecuador reached 203,624 hectares, which, by 2006, was reduced to 146,971 hectares, a loss of 56,653 hectares, equivalent to 22,8% [2].

The highest annual rate of deforestation occurred between 1991 and 1995 (2.35% per year); on the contrary, between 1995 and 1999 a recovery of the mangrove cover was observed and between 1999 and 2006, the annual rate of deforestation was 0.13% [2]. For its part, in the decade from 2006 to 2016, a mangrove recovery of 14,864 hectares was observed again [2, 5] (**Table 1**).

The current mangrove area in Ecuador is 161,835 ha. This mangrove coverage gain was the result of reforestation programs implemented by different institutions and communities that have mangrove use and custody agreements, as well as the natural regeneration of the ecosystem [6, 7].

At the policy and legal level, these marine-coastal ecosystems have received significant support. In the first place, there is the 2007 Constitution of Ecuador that recognizes mangroves as "fragile and threatened ecosystems" which gives them a special "status" in relation to other types of ecosystems. The Organic Environment Law (2017) confirmed earlier regulations that, in Ecuador, all mangrove forests are property of the State. Another important regulation, based on the economic valuation of ecosystem services of mangroves, is the resolution No. 056 of the Ministry of the Environment of 2011, based on which fines for mangrove deforestation of up to USD 89,273 are established [8]. According to a study carried out by the Charles Darwin Foundation (CDF), Galapagos National Park Directorate (GNPD) and the Scripps Institute of Oceanography at the University of San Diego, each hectare of mangrove in Galapagos has at least a value of \$ 27.852, because the 3,700 hectares store more than 778.000 tons of carbon. Its conservation is considered a measure of adaptation and mitigation to climate change.

On April 4, 2019, the National Action Plan for the Conservation of Mangroves in Ecuador was approved. This Plan seeks to promote the protection, recovery and sustainable use of mangroves, with a focus on improving the quality of life of ancestral and traditional users [9].


#### **Table 1.**

*Mangrove loss by estuary (in hectares). Period 1969–2006.*

#### **3. Causes of mangrove loss in Ecuador**

Anthropogenic activities are the main causes of the destruction of mangroves. These activities substantially alter the composition, structure and function of mangroves, reducing the ecosystem services they provide. In Ecuador, the transformation of the mangrove into shrimp pools and urban development are the main factors in the loss of this ecosystem.

#### **3.1 Shrimp activity**

Ecuador is currently one of the main producers of farmed shrimp in the world. Although the shrimp industry is of great importance to the country, it has also been the main cause of the destruction of the mangroves.

According to the National Chamber of Aquaculture of Ecuador, in 2015 there were 213,000 hectares assigned to shrimp production, of which 181,000 hectares are located in an area that was originally mangrove. The province of Guayas has the highest coverage of shrimp farms, with approximately 140,000 hectares, which represents 66% of the total production followed by the province of El Oro with 18% [10]. In addition to the deforestation of mangroves that the construction of the pools implies, during the activity itself, effluents rich in organic and inorganic particles are released that deteriorate the resources of the estuaries [11].

Shrimp is currently Ecuador's first non-oil export product. The Ministry responsible for the fishery sector estimated that, in 2013, 66% (6,192 ha) of the shrimp ponds in the province of Esmeraldas were illegal, in the province of El Oro 39% (12,576 hectares), and Manabí 59% (8,434 hectares) and Guayas 18% (17,437 hectares) [12]. Even protected areas have not been exempted from the presence of this activity since in 4 out of 6 coastal protected areas there were shrimp farms installed or expanded after the creation of the area.

CLIRSEN and PMRC (2007) determined that the main loss of mangrove coverage occurred between 1969 and 1995, a period in which more than 56,000 hectares were deforested. Since 2006, mangrove coverage has remained relatively stable while the area covered by shrimp farms increased to 210,000 hectares [2]. The evolution of areas dedicates to shrimp farming is showed in **Table 2**.

The loss of mangroves up to 2000 occurred at the same time that shrimp farming was developing. A slight increase in the mangrove area is observed as of 2000, which allows us to deduce that the conservation strategies and the regulations created generated favorable impacts for the conservation of this ecosystem (**Figure 2**).


**95**

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies*

Many coastal cities are located in areas that were once occupied by mangroves. It is estimated that until 1994 approximately 3,000 to 5,000 hectares of mangroves were destroyed to make way for the growth of cities such as Guayaquil, Machala,

The accelerated transformation of the mangroves of continental Ecuador led to the generation and implementation of different strategies to protect them, thereby achieving that, at present, 100% of the mangrove is protected. The first measures focused on establishing laws and regulations to protect the mangrove. In 1986, the entire mangrove was classified as a protective forest, providing governmental institutions with a basic set of instruments to punish its deforestation. Later, in 1994, a mangrove deforestation ban was established, and the expansion and construction of

**4. Strategies for mangrove conservation in Ecuador**

*Relationship between mangrove loss and shrimp farm area growth.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

**3.2 Urban development**

**Figure 2.**

and Esmeraldas [13].

new shrimp ponds was prohibited.

**4.1 Protective forests**

contamination etc. [14].

The main conservation strategies are:

b.Mangroves declared Protected areas

a.Mangroves declared as Protective forests

c.Sustainable use and Custody Agreements of mangrove forests

d.Governmental incentive program for forest conservation: Socio Manglar

Al mangroves were declared as Protective forests in 2003, is a figure that in addition to conservation, allows the development of certain activities like deforestation,

*Source: [2].*

#### **Table 2.**

*Evolution of areas dedicated to shrimp farming and mangrove conservation in the 1984–2016 period.*

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

**Figure 2.** *Relationship between mangrove loss and shrimp farm area growth.*

#### **3.2 Urban development**

*Coastal Environments*

**3.1 Shrimp activity**

**3. Causes of mangrove loss in Ecuador**

the main cause of the destruction of the mangroves.

or expanded after the creation of the area.

factors in the loss of this ecosystem.

Anthropogenic activities are the main causes of the destruction of mangroves. These activities substantially alter the composition, structure and function of mangroves, reducing the ecosystem services they provide. In Ecuador, the transformation of the mangrove into shrimp pools and urban development are the main

Ecuador is currently one of the main producers of farmed shrimp in the world. Although the shrimp industry is of great importance to the country, it has also been

According to the National Chamber of Aquaculture of Ecuador, in 2015 there were 213,000 hectares assigned to shrimp production, of which 181,000 hectares are located in an area that was originally mangrove. The province of Guayas has the highest coverage of shrimp farms, with approximately 140,000 hectares, which represents 66% of the total production followed by the province of El Oro with 18% [10]. In addition to the deforestation of mangroves that the construction of the pools implies, during the activity itself, effluents rich in organic and inorganic

Shrimp is currently Ecuador's first non-oil export product. The Ministry responsible for the fishery sector estimated that, in 2013, 66% (6,192 ha) of the shrimp ponds in the province of Esmeraldas were illegal, in the province of El Oro 39% (12,576 hectares), and Manabí 59% (8,434 hectares) and Guayas 18% (17,437 hectares) [12]. Even protected areas have not been exempted from the presence of this activity since in 4 out of 6 coastal protected areas there were shrimp farms installed

CLIRSEN and PMRC (2007) determined that the main loss of mangrove coverage occurred between 1969 and 1995, a period in which more than 56,000 hectares were deforested. Since 2006, mangrove coverage has remained relatively stable while the area covered by shrimp farms increased to 210,000 hectares [2]. The

> **Year 1969 1984 1987 1991 1995 1999 2000 2006 2016\***

0 89,368 117,728 145,998 178,071 175,253 175,253 175,748 210,000

203,695 182,157 175,157 162,186 146,938 149,556 127,690 148,230 161,835

The loss of mangroves up to 2000 occurred at the same time that shrimp farming was developing. A slight increase in the mangrove area is observed as of 2000, which allows us to deduce that the conservation strategies and the regulations created generated favorable impacts for the conservation of this ecosystem

*Evolution of areas dedicated to shrimp farming and mangrove conservation in the 1984–2016 period.*

particles are released that deteriorate the resources of the estuaries [11].

evolution of areas dedicates to shrimp farming is showed in **Table 2**.

*\*2018 data do not show a significant increase in the area of shrimp farms.*

**94**

(**Figure 2**).

Shrimp farms (ha)

Mangroves (ha)

*Source: [2].*

**Table 2.**

Many coastal cities are located in areas that were once occupied by mangroves. It is estimated that until 1994 approximately 3,000 to 5,000 hectares of mangroves were destroyed to make way for the growth of cities such as Guayaquil, Machala, and Esmeraldas [13].

#### **4. Strategies for mangrove conservation in Ecuador**

The accelerated transformation of the mangroves of continental Ecuador led to the generation and implementation of different strategies to protect them, thereby achieving that, at present, 100% of the mangrove is protected. The first measures focused on establishing laws and regulations to protect the mangrove. In 1986, the entire mangrove was classified as a protective forest, providing governmental institutions with a basic set of instruments to punish its deforestation. Later, in 1994, a mangrove deforestation ban was established, and the expansion and construction of new shrimp ponds was prohibited.

The main conservation strategies are:


d.Governmental incentive program for forest conservation: Socio Manglar

#### **4.1 Protective forests**

Al mangroves were declared as Protective forests in 2003, is a figure that in addition to conservation, allows the development of certain activities like deforestation, contamination etc. [14].

#### **4.2 National system of protected areas (SNAP)**

The first formal strategy to stop the rapid loss of mangroves in Ecuador was declaration of protected areas covering mangrove forests. In 1979 the Churute Mangrove Ecological Reserve was established, located in the Guayas province and 16 years later the following was established: Cayapas Mataje Ecological Reserve (Esmeraldas). The most recent protected area with mangrove ecosystem, the Area Nacional de Recreación Isla Santay, was created in 2010 [15]. Today, Ecuador has 19 marine and coastal protected areas, which together represent about 8% of the total coverage of the SNAP. Nine of these areas contain (totally or partially) 72,523.48 hectares of mangrove [15] (**Table 3**).

In 2017 the Network of Marine and Coastal Protected Areas of Ecuador (Red de AMCPs) was created, as a mechanism for political-administrative interaction to enhance institutional resources and manage the areas in an articulated and synergistic manner. Coastal marine protected areas. The aim of this network is to guarantee biological connectivity between ecosystems by creating connectivity corridors and conserving the biodiversity of the National System of Protected Areas in the marine-coastal zone [16].

However, even though the laws forbid deforestation and degradation of protected areas, the mangrove coverage reduced even in the most recent year (2010 to 2018) by 150.34 hectares due to conversion to shrimp farms, which shows a weakness in the control, surveillance and monitoring of these areas and an illegality on the part of the shrimp farms [17].

#### **4.3 The mangrove sustainable use and custody agreements (AUSCM)**

In Ecuador, all mangrove forests are property of the State, with the Ministry of the Environment (MAE) being the institution responsible for their management [18].

The AUSCM are the management tool contemplated in the Ecuadorian legal framework [18, 19], under which mangrove forests are handed over to ancestral users to custody these areas. The AUSCM guarantee the "custodians" exclusive access to the mangrove areas with the right to sustainably use bio-aquatic resources,


**97**

**Table 4.**

**Figure 3.**

*Evolution of the AUSCM since 2000.*

*Source: www.ambiente.gob.ec.*

*Mangrove distribution according to conservation status.*

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies*

the AUSCM cover about 80% of this ecosystem [7].

ments with an area of 69,369 hectares (**Figure 3**).

**4.4 Socio Manglar, incentive for mangrove conservation**

(**Table 4**).

but in turn have the obligation to realize control and surveillance of mangrove and report the progress of its management to the [19]. These agreements, also called "mangrove concessions," are important because they protect 42.85% of the Ecuadorian mangrove (almost the same extent as the protected areas) and are the livelihood for thousands of families living in the coast. In the province of El Oro,

Currently in Ecuador there are 59 community organizations with custody agree-

The fact that the mangrove area under AUSCM is almost equal to that occupied by the protected areas of the National System of Protected Areas (SNAP) is relevant

The Socio Bosque Program has a special incentive for mangrove protection named "Socio Manglar", which provides an economic incentive to "custodies" (communes, associations, etc.) of mangrove forests. The mangrove conservation incentive was created in 2014 to support the management of the Sustainable Use and Custody of Mangrove Forests Agreements (AUSCM). As of 2020, there are 27 signed agreements covering 34,160 hectares, for which they receive USD 413,481 each year, with which 1,635 families benefit. In the province of El Oro, the 11

**Distribución del manglar Cobertura (ha) %** Protected Areas (SNAP) (2020) 72.523 45.15 Sustainable Use and Custody of Mangrove Forests Agreements (2020) 69.369,48 42.86 Protection Forest (2020) 19.943 11.99 TOTAL **161.835 100**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

#### **Table 3.**

*State protected areas with partial or total mangrove coverage.*

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

*Coastal Environments*

**4.2 National system of protected areas (SNAP)**

hectares of mangrove [15] (**Table 3**).

in the marine-coastal zone [16].

the part of the shrimp farms [17].

5 Reserva de Producción de Fauna Manglares El

6 Refugio de Vida Silvestre Manglares Estuario del

8 Refugio de Vida Silvestre Estuario del Río

*State protected areas with partial or total mangrove coverage.*

Salado

Río Muisne

Esmeraldas

*Source: http://areasprotegidas.ambiente.gob.ec.*

The first formal strategy to stop the rapid loss of mangroves in Ecuador was declaration of protected areas covering mangrove forests. In 1979 the Churute Mangrove Ecological Reserve was established, located in the Guayas province and 16 years later the following was established: Cayapas Mataje Ecological Reserve (Esmeraldas). The most recent protected area with mangrove ecosystem, the Area Nacional de Recreación Isla Santay, was created in 2010 [15]. Today, Ecuador has 19 marine and coastal protected areas, which together represent about 8% of the total coverage of the SNAP. Nine of these areas contain (totally or partially) 72,523.48

In 2017 the Network of Marine and Coastal Protected Areas of Ecuador (Red de AMCPs) was created, as a mechanism for political-administrative interaction to enhance institutional resources and manage the areas in an articulated and synergistic manner. Coastal marine protected areas. The aim of this network is to guarantee biological connectivity between ecosystems by creating connectivity corridors and conserving the biodiversity of the National System of Protected Areas

However, even though the laws forbid deforestation and degradation of protected areas, the mangrove coverage reduced even in the most recent year (2010 to 2018) by 150.34 hectares due to conversion to shrimp farms, which shows a weakness in the control, surveillance and monitoring of these areas and an illegality on

In Ecuador, all mangrove forests are property of the State, with the Ministry of the Environment (MAE) being the institution responsible for their management [18]. The AUSCM are the management tool contemplated in the Ecuadorian legal framework [18, 19], under which mangrove forests are handed over to ancestral users to custody these areas. The AUSCM guarantee the "custodians" exclusive access to the mangrove areas with the right to sustainably use bio-aquatic resources,

**created protected area**

Noviembre 2002 10,635

Marzo 2003 3,173

Junio 2008 242

**Total Extention (ha)**

**4.3 The mangrove sustainable use and custody agreements (AUSCM)**

**Protected area Month/Year it was** 

 Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute Julio 1979 49,389 Reserva Ecológica Cayapas Mataje Octubre 1995 51,300 Reserva Ecológica Arenillas Mayo 2001 13,170 Refugio de Vida Silvestre Islas Corazón y Fragatas Octubre 2002 2,811

7 Refugio de Vida Silvestre Manglares El Morro Septiembre 2007 10,030

9 Área Nacional de Recreación Isla Santay Febrero 2010 2,215

**96**

**Table 3.**

but in turn have the obligation to realize control and surveillance of mangrove and report the progress of its management to the [19]. These agreements, also called "mangrove concessions," are important because they protect 42.85% of the Ecuadorian mangrove (almost the same extent as the protected areas) and are the livelihood for thousands of families living in the coast. In the province of El Oro, the AUSCM cover about 80% of this ecosystem [7].

Currently in Ecuador there are 59 community organizations with custody agreements with an area of 69,369 hectares (**Figure 3**).

The fact that the mangrove area under AUSCM is almost equal to that occupied by the protected areas of the National System of Protected Areas (SNAP) is relevant (**Table 4**).

#### **4.4 Socio Manglar, incentive for mangrove conservation**

The Socio Bosque Program has a special incentive for mangrove protection named "Socio Manglar", which provides an economic incentive to "custodies" (communes, associations, etc.) of mangrove forests. The mangrove conservation incentive was created in 2014 to support the management of the Sustainable Use and Custody of Mangrove Forests Agreements (AUSCM). As of 2020, there are 27 signed agreements covering 34,160 hectares, for which they receive USD 413,481 each year, with which 1,635 families benefit. In the province of El Oro, the 11

**Figure 3.** *Evolution of the AUSCM since 2000.*


#### **Table 4.**

*Mangrove distribution according to conservation status.*

beneficiary organizations of Socio Manglar receive approximately USD 113,092.54 for the conservation of 5,343.18 hectares of mangroves [20].

#### **5. The AUSCM in the province of El Oro**

The mangrove ecosystem in the El Oro province (southern Ecuador) covers 19,318 hectares that represent 4% of the provincial surface. The area covered with mangrove forest is located on the coastal zone and the Jambelí Archipelago in which there are six small fishermen villages, which depend on the resources they extract from the mangrove, particularly the collection of black shell *(Anadara tuberculosa* and *A. similis*) and red crab (*Ucides occidentalis*), and artisanal fishing [21].

It is estimated that originally the mangrove coverage in the El Oro province occupied 35,144 hectares, having been reduced, by 2006, to 16,152 hectares, which is equivalent to a loss of 56.2% [2]. According to the Ministry of Environment and Water, there is a recovery of 2,866 hectares between 2006 and 2018. **Figure 4** shows the evolution of mangrove coverage in the El Oro Province.

There are currently 24 AUSCM in the province of El Oro that comprise 15,666.34 hectares, which means that 81% of the mangrove swamp is protected in these areas. The Arenillas Ecological Reserve, with an area of 13,170 hectares, has only 1,239 hectares of mangroves, which makes the role of the AUSCM in the conservation of the mangroves in this province even more relevant. These custody areas benefit 1,323 families.

**Figure 4.**

*Evolution of mangrove coverage in the El Oro Province. Period 1969–2018. Source: [2].*

#### **6. Main drivers of mangrove degradation in the El Oro province**

#### **6.1 Population growth**

The constant growth of the population of the El Oro province has been the consequence of a series of factors, mainly associated with the development of economic activities, among which are: the banana industry, shrimp farming and mining. Between 1974 and 2018, the population almost tripled, currently reaching a

**99**

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies*

**6.2 Aquaculture development policy (shrimp farming)**

population of around 700,000 inhabitants. Only five of the 14 cantons in the province of El Oro have mangroves, but 413,299 people live there, representing 68.8% of the total population. 49% of these inhabitants reside in the Machala canton, where Puerto Bolívar is located, the main axis of development of this province. Urban and industrial development has caused the deforestation of mangrove forests in the El

The development of shrimp farming in Ecuador began in 1970. It had a rapid growth due to the issuance of a series of favorable public policies and the endowment of economic resources from international organizations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the Inter-American Development Bank [22]. The felling of the mangrove for the construction of the shrimp ponds is the most important impact, but during the shrimp cultivation process other environmental impacts are generated, such as discharges (biocides, fertilizers, antibiotics, etc.) that are released into the estuaries and sea without any treatment [7, 10]. The province of El Oro is the second with the largest extension of shrimp farms in the country, with an estimated area of 35,576.6 hectares, which represents 19.05% of its territory. The shrimp concessions are superimposed on the mangrove that is under Sustainable Use and Custody

Agreements, in 333.3 hectares, that is, 2.3% of the area with AUSCM [21].

Bananas was, for decades, Ecuador's first non-oil export product, which is why it has received important support from the State, through subsidies, tax benefits and other incentives designed to consolidate its production and export. In the province of El Oro, banana plantations cover more than 58,000 hectares, which represents more than two-thirds of the permanent crop area of the province (68%). This monoculture uses various chemicals that pollutes the waters that go to the

Mining activity has received a great boost, particularly in the last 12 years, during which the legal and political framework was reformed to promote mining activity, especially large-scale mining. The approval of a new Mining Law and its respective regulations stand out here. In the province of El Oro there are 853 mining concessions, which cover 154,785 hectares, equivalent to 28.4% of its surface. In 11 of the 14 cantons of this province there are concession areas. The problem is that most of the mining concessions are located in the upper part of the watershed basins polluting rivers that later deposit their contaminated waters in estuaries and mangroves [7].

Another important driver at the global scale is the El Niño phenomenon that is increasing due to climate change. The "El Niño Phenomenon" (ENSO-El Niño-Southern Oscillation) is a climatic event that occurs approximately every 2–7 years and is related to short-term climate variability. It results in the appearance of warmer (El Niño) or colder (La Niña) surface waters than normal in the central and eastern tropical Pacific [24]. It has been determined that among the most important changes caused by El Niño are the increase in sea temperature and sea level that can produce more intense rains than normal. The decrease in salinity due to the

**6.3 Agricultural development policy (banana and cocoa)**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

Oro Province [7].

estuaries [23].

**6.4 Mining development policy**

**6.5 Climate change and El Niño phenomenon**

#### *Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

*Coastal Environments*

1,323 families.

beneficiary organizations of Socio Manglar receive approximately USD 113,092.54

The mangrove ecosystem in the El Oro province (southern Ecuador) covers 19,318 hectares that represent 4% of the provincial surface. The area covered with mangrove forest is located on the coastal zone and the Jambelí Archipelago in which there are six small fishermen villages, which depend on the resources they extract from the mangrove, particularly the collection of black shell *(Anadara tuberculosa* and *A. similis*) and red crab (*Ucides occidentalis*), and artisanal fishing [21]. It is estimated that originally the mangrove coverage in the El Oro province occupied 35,144 hectares, having been reduced, by 2006, to 16,152 hectares, which is equivalent to a loss of 56.2% [2]. According to the Ministry of Environment and Water, there is a recovery of 2,866 hectares between 2006 and 2018. **Figure 4** shows

There are currently 24 AUSCM in the province of El Oro that comprise 15,666.34 hectares, which means that 81% of the mangrove swamp is protected in these areas. The Arenillas Ecological Reserve, with an area of 13,170 hectares, has only 1,239 hectares of mangroves, which makes the role of the AUSCM in the conservation of the mangroves in this province even more relevant. These custody areas benefit

**6. Main drivers of mangrove degradation in the El Oro province**

*Evolution of mangrove coverage in the El Oro Province. Period 1969–2018. Source: [2].*

The constant growth of the population of the El Oro province has been the consequence of a series of factors, mainly associated with the development of economic activities, among which are: the banana industry, shrimp farming and mining. Between 1974 and 2018, the population almost tripled, currently reaching a

for the conservation of 5,343.18 hectares of mangroves [20].

the evolution of mangrove coverage in the El Oro Province.

**5. The AUSCM in the province of El Oro**

**98**

**Figure 4.**

**6.1 Population growth**

population of around 700,000 inhabitants. Only five of the 14 cantons in the province of El Oro have mangroves, but 413,299 people live there, representing 68.8% of the total population. 49% of these inhabitants reside in the Machala canton, where Puerto Bolívar is located, the main axis of development of this province. Urban and industrial development has caused the deforestation of mangrove forests in the El Oro Province [7].

#### **6.2 Aquaculture development policy (shrimp farming)**

The development of shrimp farming in Ecuador began in 1970. It had a rapid growth due to the issuance of a series of favorable public policies and the endowment of economic resources from international organizations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the Inter-American Development Bank [22]. The felling of the mangrove for the construction of the shrimp ponds is the most important impact, but during the shrimp cultivation process other environmental impacts are generated, such as discharges (biocides, fertilizers, antibiotics, etc.) that are released into the estuaries and sea without any treatment [7, 10]. The province of El Oro is the second with the largest extension of shrimp farms in the country, with an estimated area of 35,576.6 hectares, which represents 19.05% of its territory. The shrimp concessions are superimposed on the mangrove that is under Sustainable Use and Custody Agreements, in 333.3 hectares, that is, 2.3% of the area with AUSCM [21].

#### **6.3 Agricultural development policy (banana and cocoa)**

Bananas was, for decades, Ecuador's first non-oil export product, which is why it has received important support from the State, through subsidies, tax benefits and other incentives designed to consolidate its production and export. In the province of El Oro, banana plantations cover more than 58,000 hectares, which represents more than two-thirds of the permanent crop area of the province (68%). This monoculture uses various chemicals that pollutes the waters that go to the estuaries [23].

#### **6.4 Mining development policy**

Mining activity has received a great boost, particularly in the last 12 years, during which the legal and political framework was reformed to promote mining activity, especially large-scale mining. The approval of a new Mining Law and its respective regulations stand out here. In the province of El Oro there are 853 mining concessions, which cover 154,785 hectares, equivalent to 28.4% of its surface. In 11 of the 14 cantons of this province there are concession areas. The problem is that most of the mining concessions are located in the upper part of the watershed basins polluting rivers that later deposit their contaminated waters in estuaries and mangroves [7].

#### **6.5 Climate change and El Niño phenomenon**

Another important driver at the global scale is the El Niño phenomenon that is increasing due to climate change. The "El Niño Phenomenon" (ENSO-El Niño-Southern Oscillation) is a climatic event that occurs approximately every 2–7 years and is related to short-term climate variability. It results in the appearance of warmer (El Niño) or colder (La Niña) surface waters than normal in the central and eastern tropical Pacific [24]. It has been determined that among the most important changes caused by El Niño are the increase in sea temperature and sea level that can produce more intense rains than normal. The decrease in salinity due to the

contribution of fresh water from the rains, can interfere in the development and growth of the species *Rhizophora mangle* and *R. harrisonni* (they need and are tolerant to high levels of salinity) and in that of mollusks and crustaceans that depend on the habitat of these species, particularly the black or brown shell (*Anadara tuberculosa* and *A. similis*) and the red crab (*Ucides occidentalis*) [25].

#### **7. Evaluation of the management of the AUSCM**

Evaluating the effectiveness of the management of protected areas or other conservation measures is key because it allows, in addition to knowing the management problems and their causes, to identify and apply, in a timely manner, strategies and measures to improve their management. There are several methodologies to evaluate the management of protected areas or other conservation measures. In Ecuador, the principal method used to evaluate the effectiveness of management conservation measures is the Hockings Reference Framework proposed by the IUCN (2000) and the 360o performance evaluation [26].

In the case of the 20 AUSCM in the province of El Oro in force in 2017, the methodology known as 360° Performance Evaluation was applied with some adaptations which allows verifying compliance with the inherent obligations of the organizations involved, as well as the factors that affect their actions [27]. The 17 indicators that were used are divided into four groups:


For the rating and weighting of this evaluation, the Likert scale was used with four rating levels (from 0 to 4) associated with a percentage that reflects the respective management levels. This method is based on a method used by De Faría (1993) and later incorporated by WWF, GIZ and IUCN in the Manual for Evaluating the Management Effectiveness of Protected Areas [28, 29]. Ulloa et al. (2012) applied it in the evaluation of the management effectiveness of five coastal marine protected areas [30]. **Table 5** shows the levels of qualification of management effectiveness of the areas under custody.

The results indicated that the management effectiveness of the 20 mangrove custody areas analyzed is in ranges between 46.7% and 93.5%, which means that none of these areas has an unsatisfactory management (**Figure 5**).

At the individual indicator level, the highest corresponds to the maintenance and increase of the mangrove coverage and the lowest to "Direct sale/added value of crabs and shells " which shows that most of the fishermen still work with intermediaries who are in charge of commercialize bioaquatic products [26].

The perceptions of the custodians regarding to the recovery of the mangrove were verified through a multi-temporal analysis in three periods: 1985–1999-2018

**101**

local communities (**Figure 6**).

Public Prosecutor's Office [26].

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies*

factors and its permanence is not guaranteed in the long term

management, but the management objectives are partially met

Level I. Unsatisfactory. (≤ 25%). Indicates that the protected area has not guaranteed its long-term

Level II. Slightly Satisfactory. (26–50%). Means that the protected area is highly vulnerable to conjunctural

Level III. Satisfactory. (51–75%). Indicates that the protected area has deficiencies which prevent an effective

Level IV. Very Satisfactory. (76–100%). Indicates that the permanence of the protected area is guaranteed and

on the Jambelí Archipelago. The multi-temporal analysis agrees with the perception of organizations and institutions that mention that the massive felling of mangroves

The mangrove cover in the Jambelí archipelago in 1985 was 13,084.17 hectares, while in 1999 it was reduced to 8,978.43 hectares. For 2018 the mangrove cover was 9,454.47 hectares. While between 1985 and 1999 in the Jambelí archipelago 4,106 hectares of mangroves were deforested, between 1999 and 2018, 476 hectares were recovered precisely at the time when mangrove concessions began to be awarded to

There are small clearings, mainly in the areas adjacent to the shrimp ponds, for the maintenance of its walls. On the other hand, they perceive mangrove recovery in sites far from shrimp farms, which they attribute to the control and surveillance and

The Socio Manglar incentive has contributed to improve the management effectiveness of the mangrove custody agreements, as well as the organizational strengthening. However, the overexploitation of bioaquatic resources and contamination still persist, requiring greater support and inter-institutional coordination from control entities such as the Ministry of Environment and Water of Ecuador (MAAE), Ministry of Production, Foreign Trade, Investments and Fisheries (MPCEIP) and the

has stopped since the creation of the custody agreements (AUSCM).

reforestation activities carried out by the organizations [31].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

management objectives are fully meet.

*Management effectiveness levels of areas under AUSCM.*

*Management effectiveness of the 20 mangrove custody [26].*

permanence

*Source: [28, 30].*

**Table 5.**

**Figure 5.**

Level I. Unsatisfactory. (≤ 25%). Indicates that the protected area has not guaranteed its long-term permanence

Level II. Slightly Satisfactory. (26–50%). Means that the protected area is highly vulnerable to conjunctural factors and its permanence is not guaranteed in the long term

Level III. Satisfactory. (51–75%). Indicates that the protected area has deficiencies which prevent an effective management, but the management objectives are partially met

Level IV. Very Satisfactory. (76–100%). Indicates that the permanence of the protected area is guaranteed and management objectives are fully meet.

*Source: [28, 30].*

#### **Table 5.**

*Coastal Environments*

and the 360o

and pollution.

the areas under custody.

contribution of fresh water from the rains, can interfere in the development and growth of the species *Rhizophora mangle* and *R. harrisonni* (they need and are tolerant to high levels of salinity) and in that of mollusks and crustaceans that depend on the habitat of these species, particularly the black or brown shell (*Anadara* 

Evaluating the effectiveness of the management of protected areas or other conservation measures is key because it allows, in addition to knowing the management problems and their causes, to identify and apply, in a timely manner, strategies and measures to improve their management. There are several methodologies to evaluate the management of protected areas or other conservation measures. In Ecuador, the principal method used to evaluate the effectiveness of management conservation measures is the Hockings Reference Framework proposed by the IUCN (2000)

In the case of the 20 AUSCM in the province of El Oro in force in 2017, the methodology known as 360° Performance Evaluation was applied with some adaptations which allows verifying compliance with the inherent obligations of the organizations involved, as well as the factors that affect their actions [27]. The 17 indicators

a.Current state of the mangrove. Evaluates aspects such as mangrove coverage

b.Compliance with the agreement. It includes compliance with the Management

c.Custodian performance. It includes compliance with the implementation of control and surveillance programs, sustainable use, participation of fishermen,

d.Performance of support entities. It includes the MAAE and other institutions

For the rating and weighting of this evaluation, the Likert scale was used with four rating levels (from 0 to 4) associated with a percentage that reflects the respective management levels. This method is based on a method used by De Faría (1993) and later incorporated by WWF, GIZ and IUCN in the Manual for Evaluating the Management Effectiveness of Protected Areas [28, 29]. Ulloa et al. (2012) applied it in the evaluation of the management effectiveness of five coastal marine protected areas [30]. **Table 5** shows the levels of qualification of management effectiveness of

The results indicated that the management effectiveness of the 20 mangrove custody areas analyzed is in ranges between 46.7% and 93.5%, which means that

At the individual indicator level, the highest corresponds to the maintenance and increase of the mangrove coverage and the lowest to "Direct sale/added value of crabs and shells " which shows that most of the fishermen still work with interme-

The perceptions of the custodians regarding to the recovery of the mangrove were verified through a multi-temporal analysis in three periods: 1985–1999-2018

Plan, the delivery of semi-annual reports and complaints, etc.

economic contributions, commercialization, etc.

of the national and local government, academy, etc.

none of these areas has an unsatisfactory management (**Figure 5**).

diaries who are in charge of commercialize bioaquatic products [26].

*tuberculosa* and *A. similis*) and the red crab (*Ucides occidentalis*) [25].

**7. Evaluation of the management of the AUSCM**

performance evaluation [26].

that were used are divided into four groups:

**100**

*Management effectiveness levels of areas under AUSCM.*

#### **Figure 5.** *Management effectiveness of the 20 mangrove custody [26].*

on the Jambelí Archipelago. The multi-temporal analysis agrees with the perception of organizations and institutions that mention that the massive felling of mangroves has stopped since the creation of the custody agreements (AUSCM).

The mangrove cover in the Jambelí archipelago in 1985 was 13,084.17 hectares, while in 1999 it was reduced to 8,978.43 hectares. For 2018 the mangrove cover was 9,454.47 hectares. While between 1985 and 1999 in the Jambelí archipelago 4,106 hectares of mangroves were deforested, between 1999 and 2018, 476 hectares were recovered precisely at the time when mangrove concessions began to be awarded to local communities (**Figure 6**).

There are small clearings, mainly in the areas adjacent to the shrimp ponds, for the maintenance of its walls. On the other hand, they perceive mangrove recovery in sites far from shrimp farms, which they attribute to the control and surveillance and reforestation activities carried out by the organizations [31].

The Socio Manglar incentive has contributed to improve the management effectiveness of the mangrove custody agreements, as well as the organizational strengthening. However, the overexploitation of bioaquatic resources and contamination still persist, requiring greater support and inter-institutional coordination from control entities such as the Ministry of Environment and Water of Ecuador (MAAE), Ministry of Production, Foreign Trade, Investments and Fisheries (MPCEIP) and the Public Prosecutor's Office [26].

**Figure 6.** *Mangrove cover on Jambelí Archipelago in three periods: 1985–1999-2018.*

#### **8. Key elements in the management of community areas**

Several key elements have been developed to strengthen the management of the AUSCM in the province of El Oro. Among the most prominent are:

#### **Capacity building program for beneficiaries of the AUSCM**

This training included the topic of organizational, administrative-financial strengthening and management of marine-coastal resources.

#### **Capacity building program for Technical Advisors of the AUSCM**

It is a series of 6 modules aimed both for partners of organizations in charge of technical aspects and for organizations that provide.

#### **ManglarApp**

The ManglarApp mobile application is a digital tool that is part of the global trend of electronic government and digital citizenship, and that allows complaints, notifications and early alerts of anomalies in mangroves through a smartphone. This application was created in order to improve communication between the partners of organizations with AUSCM and the control entities in matters of mangroves like the Ministry of Environment and Water of Ecuador1 , Ministry of Production, Foreign Trade, Investments and Fisheries and Prosecutor's Office) [32].

**103**

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies*

Few evaluations of management effectiveness have been performed in the AUSCM. The last evaluation was made in 2008 [33]. One of the main differences in the results of this study was the mangrove cover. While the 2008 assessment reports a loss of mangroves in the custody areas, the present investigation found a recovery of this ecosystem. Likewise, this research found greater compliance in the execution of management plans than the 2008 study. Another important difference is found in the Socio Manglar incentive, which did not exist in 2008 which is an important

The declaration of the mangroves of Ecuador by the Organic Environment Law (2017) as a national asset is an important milestone in mangrove ecosystem conservation because it gives this ecosystem a high-level legal protection, which is complemented by the recognition given by the Constitution of Ecuador as a "fragile

Both in the protected areas of the SNAP and in the areas under AUSCM, a land occupation by shrimp farming is observed, which shows that the monitoring systems of these areas is lacking behind, hence the convenience of strengthening monitoring systems through the use of satellite images, as well as other community

Shrimp farming continues to be a factor in the loss of mangroves both in the

The elimination of the Under Secretariat of Marine and Coastal Management could imply a weakness in the support of the Ministry of the Environment and

Organizations with custody areas, government and technical assistance entities, agree that Sustainable Use and Custody Agreements are an effective tool for the conservation and for the economy of ancestral communities and traditional users of the mangrove. It has been effective in curbing mangrove logging (as demonstrated by the multitemporal study), although overexploitation of bioaquatic resources and contamination of water and sediment persists, threats for which greater support and inter-institutional coordination are required by the authorities. Control entities

Mangrove Custody and Sustainable Use Agreements are an important and effective conservation strategy for the conservation of mangroves in the province of El Oro. The recovery of mangrove coverage and effectiveness of the mangrove

The Socio Manglar program has supported the organizations, providing financial means to improve their control and surveillance, pay basic organizational costs (office, material), however not all organizations receive this incentive, so it is necessary to seek new sources of financing to improve the success of the AUSCM without

Although all mangroves in Ecuador are protected through different mechanisms (protected areas, AUSCM and protective forests), it has been identified that, even within the areas protected by the State, the loss of mangroves continues, as shrimp

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

**9. Conclusions and recommendations**

support for the management of the AUSCM.

farms convert mangrove forests into shrimp pools.

State's protected areas (SNAP) and in the custody areas.

and threatened" ecosystem.

monitoring mechanisms is evident.

Water to the management of the AUSCM.

(MAE, MPCEIP, Prosecutor's Office).

management is "Satisfactory".

the Sociomanglar incentive.

<sup>1</sup> On March 4, 2020, through executive decree 1007, President of Ecuador ordered the merger of the Ministry of the Environment (MAE) and the Secretariat of Water (SENAGUA) creating the Ministry of Environment and Water. With this change, the Undersecretary of Marine and Coastal Management, an entity that was decentralized, disappeared, and now operates from Quito (the capital of Ecuador). The functions now fulfilled by the Under Secretariat of Natural Heritage.

### **9. Conclusions and recommendations**

*Coastal Environments*

**8. Key elements in the management of community areas**

*Mangrove cover on Jambelí Archipelago in three periods: 1985–1999-2018.*

AUSCM in the province of El Oro. Among the most prominent are: **Capacity building program for beneficiaries of the AUSCM**

strengthening and management of marine-coastal resources.

technical aspects and for organizations that provide.

like the Ministry of Environment and Water of Ecuador1

functions now fulfilled by the Under Secretariat of Natural Heritage.

**ManglarApp**

**Figure 6.**

Several key elements have been developed to strengthen the management of the

This training included the topic of organizational, administrative-financial

It is a series of 6 modules aimed both for partners of organizations in charge of

The ManglarApp mobile application is a digital tool that is part of the global trend of electronic government and digital citizenship, and that allows complaints, notifications and early alerts of anomalies in mangroves through a smartphone. This application was created in order to improve communication between the partners of organizations with AUSCM and the control entities in matters of mangroves

, Ministry of Production,

**Capacity building program for Technical Advisors of the AUSCM**

Foreign Trade, Investments and Fisheries and Prosecutor's Office) [32].

<sup>1</sup> On March 4, 2020, through executive decree 1007, President of Ecuador ordered the merger of the Ministry of the Environment (MAE) and the Secretariat of Water (SENAGUA) creating the Ministry of Environment and Water. With this change, the Undersecretary of Marine and Coastal Management, an entity that was decentralized, disappeared, and now operates from Quito (the capital of Ecuador). The

**102**

Few evaluations of management effectiveness have been performed in the AUSCM. The last evaluation was made in 2008 [33]. One of the main differences in the results of this study was the mangrove cover. While the 2008 assessment reports a loss of mangroves in the custody areas, the present investigation found a recovery of this ecosystem. Likewise, this research found greater compliance in the execution of management plans than the 2008 study. Another important difference is found in the Socio Manglar incentive, which did not exist in 2008 which is an important support for the management of the AUSCM.

The declaration of the mangroves of Ecuador by the Organic Environment Law (2017) as a national asset is an important milestone in mangrove ecosystem conservation because it gives this ecosystem a high-level legal protection, which is complemented by the recognition given by the Constitution of Ecuador as a "fragile and threatened" ecosystem.

Although all mangroves in Ecuador are protected through different mechanisms (protected areas, AUSCM and protective forests), it has been identified that, even within the areas protected by the State, the loss of mangroves continues, as shrimp farms convert mangrove forests into shrimp pools.

Both in the protected areas of the SNAP and in the areas under AUSCM, a land occupation by shrimp farming is observed, which shows that the monitoring systems of these areas is lacking behind, hence the convenience of strengthening monitoring systems through the use of satellite images, as well as other community monitoring mechanisms is evident.

Shrimp farming continues to be a factor in the loss of mangroves both in the State's protected areas (SNAP) and in the custody areas.

The elimination of the Under Secretariat of Marine and Coastal Management could imply a weakness in the support of the Ministry of the Environment and Water to the management of the AUSCM.

Organizations with custody areas, government and technical assistance entities, agree that Sustainable Use and Custody Agreements are an effective tool for the conservation and for the economy of ancestral communities and traditional users of the mangrove. It has been effective in curbing mangrove logging (as demonstrated by the multitemporal study), although overexploitation of bioaquatic resources and contamination of water and sediment persists, threats for which greater support and inter-institutional coordination are required by the authorities. Control entities (MAE, MPCEIP, Prosecutor's Office).

Mangrove Custody and Sustainable Use Agreements are an important and effective conservation strategy for the conservation of mangroves in the province of El Oro. The recovery of mangrove coverage and effectiveness of the mangrove management is "Satisfactory".

The Socio Manglar program has supported the organizations, providing financial means to improve their control and surveillance, pay basic organizational costs (office, material), however not all organizations receive this incentive, so it is necessary to seek new sources of financing to improve the success of the AUSCM without the Sociomanglar incentive.

*Coastal Environments*

### **Author details**

Fausto López-Rodríguez

Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Research Group: Gobernanza, Biodiversidad y Áreas Protegidas, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador

\*Address all correspondence to: fvlopezx@utpl.edu.ec

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**105**

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies*

Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 557-578. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-73016-5\_25.

No. 496 de 21 de Julio de 2011.

Guayaquil, Ecuador.

[8] Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador. (2011). Resolución 056. Registro Oficial

[9] Carvajal R. y X. Santillán. (2019). Plan de Acción Nacional para la Conservación de los Manglares del Ecuador Continental. Ministerio del Ambiente de Ecuador, Conservación Internacional Ecuador, Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (UNESCO) y la Comisión Permanente del Pacífico Sur (CPPS). Proyecto Conservación de Manglar en el Pacífico Este Tropical.

[10] Cámara Nacional de Acuacultura. (2017). Análisis de las Exportaciones de Camarón Diciembre – 2016. Consultado de: http://www.cna-ecuador.com/

[11] Hurtado, M. y Rodríguez, T. (2012). Caracterización de los ecosistemas marinos y su conectividad. Presentado en el Taller Ecosistemas Marinos y su Conectividad MAE-GIZ, Manta.

[12] Gobierno de la República del Ecuador (2008) Acuerdo Ministerial 149, RO No 412, del 27 de agosto de 2008. Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganadería, Acuacultura y Pesca.

[13] Grupo Spurrier (2012) Estudio del impacto de la acuicultura camaronera en

[14] Presidencia de la República del Ecuador. (2003). Texto Unificado de Legislación Secundaria de Medio Ambiente. Decreto Ejecutivo 3516. Registro Oficial Edición Especial 2 de

[15] Fundación Futuro Latinoamericano, "Gobernanza en las Áreas Protegidas

el Ecuador. Guayaquil.

31-mar. 2003.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

[1] Giri, C, E. Ochieng, L.; L. Tieszen, Z., Zhu, A., Singh, T., Loveland, J. Masek and N. Duke. (2010). Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite

[2] CLIRSEN-Centro de Levantamientos Integrados de Recursos Naturales por Sensores Remotos y PMRC-Programa de Manejo de Recursos Costeros. (2007). Actualización del estudio multitemporal de manglares, camaroneras y salinas en

datageb\_584 154.159.

**References**

la costa ecuatoriana al 2006.

Costero-POEMC.

camaroneras/.

[3] SETEMAR-Secretaría Técnica del Mar. (2014). Políticas Públicas Costeras y Oceánicas: Diagnóstico y propuesta de implementación. Biótica Cía. Ltda. Eds. Guayaquil: Editorial El Telégrafo.

[4] SENPLADES (Secretaria Nacional de Planificación y Desarrollo). (2017). Plan de Ordenamiento del Espacio Marino

[5] Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador. (2017). Regularización de camaroneras. Consultado de: http://www.ambiente. gob.ec/proyecto-regularizacion-de-

[6] Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador. (2017). Guía de derechos y deberes de las organizaciones custodios del manglar. Ministerio del Ambiente de Ecuador, Conservación Internacional Ecuador, Instituto Humanista para la Cooperación con los Países en Desarrollo, Organizaciones de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura y Fondo para el Medio Ambiente Mundial. Guayaquil, Ecuador.

[7] López-Rodríguez, FV. (2018). Mangrove Concessions: An Innovative Strategy for Community Mangrove Conservation in Ecuador. In: Makowski C and Finkl CW (eds) Threats to Mangrove Forests: Hazards, Vulnerability, and Management.

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

#### **References**

*Coastal Environments*

**104**

**Author details**

Fausto López-Rodríguez

Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Research Group: Gobernanza, Biodiversidad

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

y Áreas Protegidas, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador

\*Address all correspondence to: fvlopezx@utpl.edu.ec

provided the original work is properly cited.

[1] Giri, C, E. Ochieng, L.; L. Tieszen, Z., Zhu, A., Singh, T., Loveland, J. Masek and N. Duke. (2010). Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite datageb\_584 154.159.

[2] CLIRSEN-Centro de Levantamientos Integrados de Recursos Naturales por Sensores Remotos y PMRC-Programa de Manejo de Recursos Costeros. (2007). Actualización del estudio multitemporal de manglares, camaroneras y salinas en la costa ecuatoriana al 2006.

[3] SETEMAR-Secretaría Técnica del Mar. (2014). Políticas Públicas Costeras y Oceánicas: Diagnóstico y propuesta de implementación. Biótica Cía. Ltda. Eds. Guayaquil: Editorial El Telégrafo.

[4] SENPLADES (Secretaria Nacional de Planificación y Desarrollo). (2017). Plan de Ordenamiento del Espacio Marino Costero-POEMC.

[5] Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador. (2017). Regularización de camaroneras. Consultado de: http://www.ambiente. gob.ec/proyecto-regularizacion-decamaroneras/.

[6] Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador. (2017). Guía de derechos y deberes de las organizaciones custodios del manglar. Ministerio del Ambiente de Ecuador, Conservación Internacional Ecuador, Instituto Humanista para la Cooperación con los Países en Desarrollo, Organizaciones de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura y Fondo para el Medio Ambiente Mundial. Guayaquil, Ecuador.

[7] López-Rodríguez, FV. (2018). Mangrove Concessions: An Innovative Strategy for Community Mangrove Conservation in Ecuador. In: Makowski C and Finkl CW (eds) Threats to Mangrove Forests: Hazards, Vulnerability, and Management.

Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 557-578. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-73016-5\_25.

[8] Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador. (2011). Resolución 056. Registro Oficial No. 496 de 21 de Julio de 2011.

[9] Carvajal R. y X. Santillán. (2019). Plan de Acción Nacional para la Conservación de los Manglares del Ecuador Continental. Ministerio del Ambiente de Ecuador, Conservación Internacional Ecuador, Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (UNESCO) y la Comisión Permanente del Pacífico Sur (CPPS). Proyecto Conservación de Manglar en el Pacífico Este Tropical. Guayaquil, Ecuador.

[10] Cámara Nacional de Acuacultura. (2017). Análisis de las Exportaciones de Camarón Diciembre – 2016. Consultado de: http://www.cna-ecuador.com/

[11] Hurtado, M. y Rodríguez, T. (2012). Caracterización de los ecosistemas marinos y su conectividad. Presentado en el Taller Ecosistemas Marinos y su Conectividad MAE-GIZ, Manta.

[12] Gobierno de la República del Ecuador (2008) Acuerdo Ministerial 149, RO No 412, del 27 de agosto de 2008. Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganadería, Acuacultura y Pesca.

[13] Grupo Spurrier (2012) Estudio del impacto de la acuicultura camaronera en el Ecuador. Guayaquil.

[14] Presidencia de la República del Ecuador. (2003). Texto Unificado de Legislación Secundaria de Medio Ambiente. Decreto Ejecutivo 3516. Registro Oficial Edición Especial 2 de 31-mar. 2003.

[15] Fundación Futuro Latinoamericano, "Gobernanza en las Áreas Protegidas

Marinas y Costeras: el caso del Ecuador", Quito, 2011, 40 p.

[16] Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador. (2017). Crea la Red de Áreas Marinas y Costeras Protegidas. Registro Oficial 77 de 12-sep.-2017

[17] Castro, R. (2019). Determinación de la cobertura vegetal/uso actual del suelo y las dinámicas de cambio (2010- 2018) en las áreas protegidas marino costeras mediante la utilización de imágenes satelitales. Molina Moreira, N. & Galvis, F. (Comp). Primer Congreso Manglares de América. Universidad Espíritu Santo. Samborondón-Ecuador.

[18] Código Orgánico del Ambiente-CODA. (2017). Registro Oficial Nro. 983 de 12 de abril de 2017. Asamblea Nacional República del Ecuador.

[19] Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador. (2010). Procedimiento de Acuerdos de Uso Sustentable y Custodia de Manglar. Acuerdo Ministerial 129. Registro Oficial 283, 21 de septiembre de 2010.

[20] Ministerio del Ambiente y Agua. (2020). Tabla de convenios Socio Manglar. Documento no publicado.

[21] Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL) y Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. (2018). Hacia un manejo adaptativo de los ecosistemas costeros de la provincia de El Oro, Ecuador. Sistematización de la aplicación de la metodología Manejo Adaptativo de Riesgo y Vulnerabilidad en Sitios de Conservación (MARISCO). Quito – Ecuador. UTPL (*C. Naranjo*, F. López, M. Morocho, E. Toledo y M. Riofrio.) y GIZ

[22] Romero, N. (2014). Neoliberalismo e industria camaronera en Ecuador. Letras Verdes. Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios Socioambientales N. o 15, marzo 2014. FLACSO

[23] León, L. (2017). La sostenibilidad ambiental en el sector productivo bananero del cantón Machala. Universidad Técnica de Machala. II Congreso Internacional de Ciencia y Tecnología.

[24] INOCAR. (2019). El Niño: Generalidades. Consultado de: https:// www.inocar.mil.ec/modelamiento/ elnino/nino\_generalidades.php

[25] Morera, S., Condom, T., Crave, C., Steer, P. y Guyot, J., (2017). The impact of extreme El Niño events on modern sediment transport along the western Peruvian Andes (1968-2012). Scientific Reports.

[26] López-Rodríguez, A, Benítez, I, Jurrius. (2019). Efectividad de Manejo de Acuerdos de Uso Sustentable y Custodia de Manglar en la provincia de El Oro. Martha Molina Moreira (Comp.) Primer Congreso Manglares de América, Guayaquil, Ecuador

[27] Coello, S., D. Vinueza & R. Alemán. (2008). Evaluación del desempeño de los acuerdos de uso sustentable y custodia de manglar de la zona costera del Ecuador. Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador – Conservación Internacional – Unión Mundial para la Naturaleza (UICN) – Comisión Mundial de Áreas Protegidas de UICN – Programa de apoyo a la gestión descentralizada de los recursos naturales en las tres provincias del norte del Ecuador (PRODERENA) – Ecobiotec. Julio de 2008: 52pp.

[28] De Faria, H. (1993). Elaboración de un procedimiento para medir la efectividad de manejo de áreas silvestres protegidas y su aplicación en dos áreas protegidas de Costa Rica, Turrialba, Costa Rica, Tesis. Mag. Sc., CATIE, 1993.

[29] Cifuentes, M. & A. Izurieta. (1999). Evaluation of protected area management effectiveness: analysis of

**107**

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

procedures and outline for a manual. WWF Centroamérica. Turrialba,

[30] Ulloa, R. y Tamayo, D. (2012). Evaluación de efectividad de manejo de cinco áreas protegidas marinas y costeras del Ecuador continental: Parque Nacional Machalilla, Reserva Marina Galera-San Francisco, Refugio de Vida Silvestre Manglares El Morro, Refugio de Vida Silvestre Marino Costero Pacoche y Reserva de Producción Faunística Marino Costero Puntilla de Santa Elena. Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador y Conservación Internacional Ecuador.

[31] Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL). (2017). Evaluación de efectividad de manejo de los acuerdos de uso sustentable y custodia del manglar en la provincia de El Oro (Documento digital). SGMC, CI-Ecuador, HIVOS,

[32] Reyes-Bueno, F, Jurrius, I, López-Rodríguez, F, Astudillo, D. y Ramírez-Moreina, L. (2019). ManglarApp: una herramienta tecnológica de gobierno electrónico que facilita la comunicación entre usuarios del manglar y entes de Control sobre las amenazas socioambientales en los manglares. Molina Moreira, N. & Galvis, F. (Comp). Primer Congreso Manglares de América. Universidad Espíritu Santo.

[33] Coello, S., D. Vinueza & R. Alemán (2008). Evaluación del desempeño de los acuerdos de uso sustentable y custodia de manglar de la zona costera del Ecuador. Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador – Conservación Internacional – Unión Mundial para la Naturaleza (UICN) – Comisión Mundial de Áreas Protegidas de UICN – Programa de apoyo a la gestión descentralizada de los recursos naturales en las tres provincias del norte del Ecuador (PRODERENA) – Ecobiotec. Julio de 2008: 52 pp. + 4 Figuras +17 Tablas +5 Apéndices +29 mapas.

Costa Rica.

Guayaquil, Ecuador.

GEF y FAO. Loja. Ecuador.

Samborondón-Ecuador.

*Mangrove in Ecuador: Conservation and Management Strategies DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95572*

procedures and outline for a manual. WWF Centroamérica. Turrialba, Costa Rica.

*Coastal Environments*

Quito, 2011, 40 p.

Marinas y Costeras: el caso del Ecuador",

[23] León, L. (2017). La sostenibilidad ambiental en el sector productivo bananero del cantón Machala. Universidad Técnica de Machala. II Congreso Internacional de Ciencia y

[24] INOCAR. (2019). El Niño:

Generalidades. Consultado de: https:// www.inocar.mil.ec/modelamiento/ elnino/nino\_generalidades.php

[25] Morera, S., Condom, T., Crave, C., Steer, P. y Guyot, J., (2017). The impact of extreme El Niño events on modern sediment transport along the western Peruvian Andes (1968-2012). Scientific

[26] López-Rodríguez, A, Benítez, I, Jurrius. (2019). Efectividad de Manejo de Acuerdos de Uso Sustentable y Custodia de Manglar en la provincia de El Oro. Martha Molina Moreira (Comp.) Primer Congreso Manglares de América,

[27] Coello, S., D. Vinueza & R. Alemán. (2008). Evaluación del desempeño de los acuerdos de uso sustentable y custodia de manglar de la zona costera del Ecuador. Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador – Conservación Internacional – Unión Mundial para la Naturaleza (UICN) – Comisión Mundial de Áreas Protegidas de UICN – Programa de apoyo a la gestión descentralizada de los recursos naturales en las tres provincias del norte del Ecuador (PRODERENA) – Ecobiotec.

Tecnología.

Reports.

Guayaquil, Ecuador

Julio de 2008: 52pp.

1993.

[28] De Faria, H. (1993). Elaboración de un procedimiento para medir la efectividad de manejo de áreas silvestres protegidas y su aplicación en dos áreas protegidas de Costa Rica, Turrialba, Costa Rica, Tesis. Mag. Sc., CATIE,

[29] Cifuentes, M. & A. Izurieta. (1999). Evaluation of protected area management effectiveness: analysis of

[17] Castro, R. (2019). Determinación de la cobertura vegetal/uso actual del suelo y las dinámicas de cambio (2010- 2018) en las áreas protegidas marino costeras mediante la utilización de imágenes satelitales. Molina Moreira, N. & Galvis, F. (Comp). Primer Congreso Manglares de América. Universidad Espíritu Santo.

[16] Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador. (2017). Crea la Red de Áreas Marinas y Costeras Protegidas. Registro

Oficial 77 de 12-sep.-2017

Samborondón-Ecuador.

[18] Código Orgánico del Ambiente-CODA. (2017). Registro Oficial Nro. 983 de 12 de abril de 2017. Asamblea Nacional República del Ecuador.

[19] Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador. (2010). Procedimiento de Acuerdos de Uso Sustentable y Custodia de Manglar. Acuerdo Ministerial 129. Registro Oficial 283, 21 de septiembre de

[20] Ministerio del Ambiente y Agua. (2020). Tabla de convenios Socio Manglar. Documento no publicado.

[21] Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL) y Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. (2018). Hacia un manejo adaptativo de los ecosistemas costeros de la provincia de El Oro, Ecuador. Sistematización de la aplicación de la metodología Manejo Adaptativo de Riesgo y Vulnerabilidad en Sitios de Conservación (MARISCO). Quito – Ecuador. UTPL (*C. Naranjo*, F. López, M. Morocho, E. Toledo y M. Riofrio.) y

[22] Romero, N. (2014). Neoliberalismo e industria camaronera en Ecuador. Letras Verdes. Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios Socioambientales N. o 15,

**106**

marzo 2014. FLACSO

GIZ

2010.

[30] Ulloa, R. y Tamayo, D. (2012). Evaluación de efectividad de manejo de cinco áreas protegidas marinas y costeras del Ecuador continental: Parque Nacional Machalilla, Reserva Marina Galera-San Francisco, Refugio de Vida Silvestre Manglares El Morro, Refugio de Vida Silvestre Marino Costero Pacoche y Reserva de Producción Faunística Marino Costero Puntilla de Santa Elena. Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador y Conservación Internacional Ecuador. Guayaquil, Ecuador.

[31] Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL). (2017). Evaluación de efectividad de manejo de los acuerdos de uso sustentable y custodia del manglar en la provincia de El Oro (Documento digital). SGMC, CI-Ecuador, HIVOS, GEF y FAO. Loja. Ecuador.

[32] Reyes-Bueno, F, Jurrius, I, López-Rodríguez, F, Astudillo, D. y Ramírez-Moreina, L. (2019). ManglarApp: una herramienta tecnológica de gobierno electrónico que facilita la comunicación entre usuarios del manglar y entes de Control sobre las amenazas socioambientales en los manglares. Molina Moreira, N. & Galvis, F. (Comp). Primer Congreso Manglares de América. Universidad Espíritu Santo. Samborondón-Ecuador.

[33] Coello, S., D. Vinueza & R. Alemán (2008). Evaluación del desempeño de los acuerdos de uso sustentable y custodia de manglar de la zona costera del Ecuador. Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador – Conservación Internacional – Unión Mundial para la Naturaleza (UICN) – Comisión Mundial de Áreas Protegidas de UICN – Programa de apoyo a la gestión descentralizada de los recursos naturales en las tres provincias del norte del Ecuador (PRODERENA) – Ecobiotec. Julio de 2008: 52 pp. + 4 Figuras +17 Tablas +5 Apéndices +29 mapas.

**109**

Section 5

Coastal Geodynamics

Section 5
