Coastal Water and Water Pollution

*Coastal Environments*

Canada; 2020. p. 49-56.

1-7. 1 Wiley online library.

2015; 107-118.

Journal of Coastal Zone Studies: 28(3).

[26] Chesapeake Bay Program Science, Restoration, Partnership. Governance and Management Framework for the Chesapeake Bay Program Partnership. 2018. https://www.chesapeakebay.net/ documents/Chesapeake\_Bay\_Program\_ Governance\_Document\_version\_3.0\_% 28updated\_09.13.18%29.pdf. 20200815

[18] Hidaka T. The Satoumi concept. In: Li Y, Namikawa T, editors. In the Era of Big Change: Essays about Japanese Small-scale Fisheries. TBTI Global Publication Series, St. John's, NL,

[19] Uehara T, Hidaka T, Matsuda O, Sakurai R, Yanagi T, Yoshioka T. Satoumi: Re-connecting people to nature for sustainable use and conservation of coastal zones. People and Nature: 2019;

[20] Sakurai R, Uehara T, Yoshioka T. Students' perceptions of a marine education program at a junior high school in Japan with a specific focus on Satoumi. Environmental Education Research: 2018; DOI: 10.1080/13504622.2018.1436698.

[21] Hidaka T. A Study of multi-level management system for coastal areas by network governance. In: MEDCOAST 19: Proceedings of the Fourteenth International MEDOAST Congress on Coastal and Marine Sciences, Engineering, Management and Conservation, Vol.1. 2019; 23-32.

[22] Hidaka T. Satoumi and Coastal Management: Managing Satoumi. Tokyo: Agriculture, Forestry and Statistics Association; 2016. p.232-246.

[23] Kagawa Prefecture Government. Vision of Kagawa Satoumi Creation. 2013. https://www.pref.kagawa. lg.jp/kankyokanri/satoumi/vision/

[24] Nishimoto T. Tokyo bay revitalizing project. Journal of Coastal Zone Studies:

[25] Tsuda Y, Miyahara Y. Osaka bay revitalizing project. Journal of Coastal Zone Studies: 30(4). 2018; 34-40.

satoumibijon25.pdf

30(4). 2018; 27-33.

**18**

**21**

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Bangladesh

Coastal Water: Wisdom,

Contestation – A Case of

*Hamidul Huq and Tahmid Huq Easher*

opportunities using their ability of reconstruction.

**Keywords:** salinity, tidal surge, storm surge, water crisis, water logging,

uncertainties, adaptive management, water rights, water management, contestation

Coastal zones refer to areas where land and sea meet. The coastal zone of Bangladesh is delineated in various ways. Drawing upon a five years long empirical research (2001–2006), the three basic natural system processes and events that govern opportunities and vulnerabilities of the coastal zone of Bangladesh are tidal fluctuations; salinities; and cyclone and storm surge risk [1]. Based on these criteria, the boundary of the coastal zone of Bangladesh consists of 19 districts, where around 42 million people of 158.9 total population of Bangladesh [2] live, with a density of 743 people per sq.km, in a land area of 47,201 sq.km, which is 32% of total land area (147,570 sq.km) of Bangladesh [3]. The projected population of the coastal zone in 2050 is 58 million [1]. There is around 34,775 sq.km area of agriculture land, which is 28% of the total agriculture land area (122,954 sq.km) of Bangladesh [2].

Destruction, Conflicts and

Southwest Coastal Region of

The coastal zone of Bangladesh is full of opportunities and vulnerabilities. Water is the central source of these opportunities and vulnerabilities. Seawater, river water, canal water, floodplain water, wetlands water, pond water is the dominant source of livelihoods of coastal people. The propel of the coastal economy is dependent on this water. But salinity alone creates vulnerability of the economy and people dependent on this water. Tidal surge, storm surge, drainage congestion, waterlogging, saline water aquaculture are the driving forces of water crises. Water crises are the unsolved issues ever despite large scale interventions. A shortage of freshwater suffers coastal people ever in regards to crop production, drinking water, health, aquaculture, and so on. Uncertainties driven by cyclones, river erosion, outsiders' interventions-led consequences are the big challenges of the coastal zone in managing water. Coastal people are challenging, resilient, adaptive, and strong in contestations in managing water resources for their livelihoods. They exploit the

#### **Chapter 2**

## Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh

*Hamidul Huq and Tahmid Huq Easher*

### **Abstract**

The coastal zone of Bangladesh is full of opportunities and vulnerabilities. Water is the central source of these opportunities and vulnerabilities. Seawater, river water, canal water, floodplain water, wetlands water, pond water is the dominant source of livelihoods of coastal people. The propel of the coastal economy is dependent on this water. But salinity alone creates vulnerability of the economy and people dependent on this water. Tidal surge, storm surge, drainage congestion, waterlogging, saline water aquaculture are the driving forces of water crises. Water crises are the unsolved issues ever despite large scale interventions. A shortage of freshwater suffers coastal people ever in regards to crop production, drinking water, health, aquaculture, and so on. Uncertainties driven by cyclones, river erosion, outsiders' interventions-led consequences are the big challenges of the coastal zone in managing water. Coastal people are challenging, resilient, adaptive, and strong in contestations in managing water resources for their livelihoods. They exploit the opportunities using their ability of reconstruction.

**Keywords:** salinity, tidal surge, storm surge, water crisis, water logging, uncertainties, adaptive management, water rights, water management, contestation

#### **1. Introduction**

Coastal zones refer to areas where land and sea meet. The coastal zone of Bangladesh is delineated in various ways. Drawing upon a five years long empirical research (2001–2006), the three basic natural system processes and events that govern opportunities and vulnerabilities of the coastal zone of Bangladesh are tidal fluctuations; salinities; and cyclone and storm surge risk [1]. Based on these criteria, the boundary of the coastal zone of Bangladesh consists of 19 districts, where around 42 million people of 158.9 total population of Bangladesh [2] live, with a density of 743 people per sq.km, in a land area of 47,201 sq.km, which is 32% of total land area (147,570 sq.km) of Bangladesh [3]. The projected population of the coastal zone in 2050 is 58 million [1]. There is around 34,775 sq.km area of agriculture land, which is 28% of the total agriculture land area (122,954 sq.km) of Bangladesh [2].

It is widely argued that water scarcity throughout the world will put mounting pressure on one of the most abundant freshwater ecosystems on earth. Like many large water basins, the Great Lakes water tension has already begun [4], and water tension in the Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh has been on escalating trend. As long as coastal water used to be managed by the local people using their wisdom, ecosystems of all forms were functioning naturally. Until the introduction of hard civil engineering designed plans (since 1961), the ecosystems of both freshwater and tidal saline water were as active as is it naturally possible in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh. These structures are popularly known as 'Polder' under the Coastal Embankment Project. Their purpose was to protect the wetlands from saline water intrusion towards allowing farmers to grow rice at least two seasons a year. But these poorly planned water projects inherited issues like water scarcity, crisis, tension and conflicts in the coastal region. To address the issues generated by the immediate previous projects, one after another structural engineered projects were implemented under the policy arguments of the government, which nothing but magnified the issues.

However, water has always been an emotional issue in the region for thousands of years, but the structural engineered-dominant projects have been creating confusion among the different stakeholders – farmers, fishers, environmentalists, sociologists, and many others. Now the question is, are the millions of people living in this region can be freed from these confusions? It is argued (Ibid), though water issues often vexing, the public is obligated to understand them because water is the foundation of the ecosystem that keeps humans alive. But the abundance of freshwater in the region has been converted into scarcity and uncertainties by the influences of engineering structural water projects over the decades. It is important to help the general public bring the water into focus. Attempts are needed to engage the citizen and the young scientists, academics, professionals in this most important challenge/effort to protect the globally significant waters of the respective region for the next century and beyond.

#### **2. Methodology**

This article is written using data of the author's fieldwork mostly focused on the southwest coastal region of Bangladeshduring the 1991's post-cyclone period, ICZMP project during 2002–2005, post-cyclone Sidr in 2007, IWRM research project in 2007–2012, peri-urban water security research project in 2013–2015, ESPA-Delta research project in 2014–2017, women in aquaculture research project in 2014, and the author's post-doctoral research project in 2013–2014 in the coastal zone. The author has interviewed nine key informants among academics, NGO leaders, environmental activists, government officials, and journalists. Rigorous consultations of literature were done to complement the findings from the field research.

#### **3. Coastal water resources system**

The Coastal Water Resources System is defined as an integrated system, which performs various functions that refer to the capacity to support and control either natural systems such as storage of floods, facilitation of fish migration or assimilation of wastes; or human and economic activities, e.g., supplying water for domestic purposes, or providing navigable conditions in rivers. The coastal water resources system is naturally a productive system that produces goods and services for meeting up human needs as well as for the maintenance of ecosystems.

**23**

health [6].

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal…*

It has got an extensive range of water bodies including water resources sub-systems, which are an interlinked system of tidal rivers and channels; riverine flood plains including wetlands; intertidal lands along the coast and estuary branches; lakes and man-made ponds; the groundwater aquifer; and the sea [1]. The Bay of Bengal is the reservoir of seawater (saline water) along the Bangladesh coast. It is a northern extended arm of the Indian Ocean. The total area of the Bay of Bengal is about

The main sources of fresh surface water are the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Upper Meghna. These mighty rivers drain a basin of about 16,550,000 sq.km, which provides more than 92% fresh surface water to the coastal zone of Bangladesh [1]. The Coastal Zone has a capillary network of rivers and channels, most of them under a season-dependent tidal regime with twice daily variations of water levels and salinities. Ponds are common features in the coastal zone of Bangladesh as the reservoir of freshwater. Ponds are manmade and of different size and shape and depth and are used for different purposes like fish culture, household purposes,

Salinity is defined as the salt concentration, e.g., sodium and chloride in water, which is measured in the unit of PSU (practical salinity unit. Generally, the average salinity in the global ocean is 35.5 PSU, while freshwater like rivers or inland lakes has salinity close to 0 PSU. Observation of river salinity in the coastal zone of Bangladesh is around 10 PSU to 30+ PSU [5]. Salinity plays a significant role in the processes of the water resources system in the coastal zone. The landward intrusion of saline water determines its usefulness for drinking, household purposes, irrigation, aquaculture and other purposes. Salinity distribution in the estuary is strongly influenced by seasonal changes. During the monsoon (June through mid-October), salinity in the estuary drops and water becomes almost fresh. Salinity increases forthe rest of the time of the year with the effect of low discharges of freshwater from river Meghna, or due to further penetration of tide into the river system [1]. Salinity increases have also been caused by the effects of human interventions, e.g., upstream withdrawal of water and reducing the size of flood plains, dry season flow of the Ganges River has decreased since the Farakka barrage was built in India. Farakka Barrage is across the River Ganges located in Murshidabad district in the Indian state of West Bengal, roughly 18 kilometers from the border with Bangladesh near Shibganj. Construction was started in 1961 and completed in 1975 at a cost of US\$22 million. Operations began on 21 April 1975. The barrage is about 2304 meters long. The Feeder Canal (Farakka) from the barrage to the Bhagirathi-Hooghly River is about 42 km long having 109 sluice gates. The purpose of the barrage is to divert 1800 cubic meters per second (64,000 cu ft./s) of water from the Ganges to the Hooghly River for flushing out the sediment deposition from the Kolkata harbor without the need for regular mechanical dredging. Out of 109 gates, 108 are over the river and the 109thone over the low-lying land in Malda, as a precaution. The Barrage serves water to the Farakka Super Thermal Power Station. There are also sixty small canals, which can divert some water to other destinations for drinking and other purposes [6]. It has been observed that this water diversion generated negative impacts in the downstream such as salinity levels raised, contaminated fisheries, hindered navigation, and posed a threat to water quality and public

Another driving force of the increasing trend of salinity is 'Polderisation' in the coastal zone. After the devastating flood of 1954 and 1955, the United Nations

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

510,000 sq.km.

drinking water.

**4. Salinity**

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

It has got an extensive range of water bodies including water resources sub-systems, which are an interlinked system of tidal rivers and channels; riverine flood plains including wetlands; intertidal lands along the coast and estuary branches; lakes and man-made ponds; the groundwater aquifer; and the sea [1]. The Bay of Bengal is the reservoir of seawater (saline water) along the Bangladesh coast. It is a northern extended arm of the Indian Ocean. The total area of the Bay of Bengal is about 510,000 sq.km.

The main sources of fresh surface water are the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Upper Meghna. These mighty rivers drain a basin of about 16,550,000 sq.km, which provides more than 92% fresh surface water to the coastal zone of Bangladesh [1]. The Coastal Zone has a capillary network of rivers and channels, most of them under a season-dependent tidal regime with twice daily variations of water levels and salinities. Ponds are common features in the coastal zone of Bangladesh as the reservoir of freshwater. Ponds are manmade and of different size and shape and depth and are used for different purposes like fish culture, household purposes, drinking water.

#### **4. Salinity**

*Coastal Environments*

nothing but magnified the issues.

for the next century and beyond.

**3. Coastal water resources system**

**2. Methodology**

It is widely argued that water scarcity throughout the world will put mounting pressure on one of the most abundant freshwater ecosystems on earth. Like many large water basins, the Great Lakes water tension has already begun [4], and water tension in the Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh has been on escalating trend. As long as coastal water used to be managed by the local people using their wisdom, ecosystems of all forms were functioning naturally. Until the introduction of hard civil engineering designed plans (since 1961), the ecosystems of both freshwater and tidal saline water were as active as is it naturally possible in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh. These structures are popularly known as 'Polder' under the Coastal Embankment Project. Their purpose was to protect the wetlands from saline water intrusion towards allowing farmers to grow rice at least two seasons a year. But these poorly planned water projects inherited issues like water scarcity, crisis, tension and conflicts in the coastal region. To address the issues generated by the immediate previous projects, one after another structural engineered projects were implemented under the policy arguments of the government, which

However, water has always been an emotional issue in the region for thousands

This article is written using data of the author's fieldwork mostly focused on the southwest coastal region of Bangladeshduring the 1991's post-cyclone period, ICZMP project during 2002–2005, post-cyclone Sidr in 2007, IWRM research project in 2007–2012, peri-urban water security research project in 2013–2015, ESPA-Delta research project in 2014–2017, women in aquaculture research project in 2014, and the author's post-doctoral research project in 2013–2014 in the coastal zone. The author has interviewed nine key informants among academics, NGO leaders, environmental activists, government officials, and journalists. Rigorous consultations of literature were done to complement the findings from the field research.

The Coastal Water Resources System is defined as an integrated system, which performs various functions that refer to the capacity to support and control either natural systems such as storage of floods, facilitation of fish migration or assimilation of wastes; or human and economic activities, e.g., supplying water for domestic purposes, or providing navigable conditions in rivers. The coastal water resources system is naturally a productive system that produces goods and services for meeting up human needs as well as for the maintenance of ecosystems.

of years, but the structural engineered-dominant projects have been creating confusion among the different stakeholders – farmers, fishers, environmentalists, sociologists, and many others. Now the question is, are the millions of people living in this region can be freed from these confusions? It is argued (Ibid), though water issues often vexing, the public is obligated to understand them because water is the foundation of the ecosystem that keeps humans alive. But the abundance of freshwater in the region has been converted into scarcity and uncertainties by the influences of engineering structural water projects over the decades. It is important to help the general public bring the water into focus. Attempts are needed to engage the citizen and the young scientists, academics, professionals in this most important challenge/effort to protect the globally significant waters of the respective region

**22**

Salinity is defined as the salt concentration, e.g., sodium and chloride in water, which is measured in the unit of PSU (practical salinity unit. Generally, the average salinity in the global ocean is 35.5 PSU, while freshwater like rivers or inland lakes has salinity close to 0 PSU. Observation of river salinity in the coastal zone of Bangladesh is around 10 PSU to 30+ PSU [5]. Salinity plays a significant role in the processes of the water resources system in the coastal zone. The landward intrusion of saline water determines its usefulness for drinking, household purposes, irrigation, aquaculture and other purposes. Salinity distribution in the estuary is strongly influenced by seasonal changes. During the monsoon (June through mid-October), salinity in the estuary drops and water becomes almost fresh. Salinity increases forthe rest of the time of the year with the effect of low discharges of freshwater from river Meghna, or due to further penetration of tide into the river system [1].

Salinity increases have also been caused by the effects of human interventions, e.g., upstream withdrawal of water and reducing the size of flood plains, dry season flow of the Ganges River has decreased since the Farakka barrage was built in India. Farakka Barrage is across the River Ganges located in Murshidabad district in the Indian state of West Bengal, roughly 18 kilometers from the border with Bangladesh near Shibganj. Construction was started in 1961 and completed in 1975 at a cost of US\$22 million. Operations began on 21 April 1975. The barrage is about 2304 meters long. The Feeder Canal (Farakka) from the barrage to the Bhagirathi-Hooghly River is about 42 km long having 109 sluice gates. The purpose of the barrage is to divert 1800 cubic meters per second (64,000 cu ft./s) of water from the Ganges to the Hooghly River for flushing out the sediment deposition from the Kolkata harbor without the need for regular mechanical dredging. Out of 109 gates, 108 are over the river and the 109thone over the low-lying land in Malda, as a precaution. The Barrage serves water to the Farakka Super Thermal Power Station. There are also sixty small canals, which can divert some water to other destinations for drinking and other purposes [6]. It has been observed that this water diversion generated negative impacts in the downstream such as salinity levels raised, contaminated fisheries, hindered navigation, and posed a threat to water quality and public health [6].

Another driving force of the increasing trend of salinity is 'Polderisation' in the coastal zone. After the devastating flood of 1954 and 1955, the United Nations commissioned an international mission (known as 'Krug Mission') to solve the flood problem of the country. Following recommendations of this mission, the government implemented the Coastal Embankment Project (CEP) during the 1960s, which included the construction of 'Polders' to protect coastal flood plans from saline water intrusion and tidal surge. A Polder includes [earthen] embankment, sluice gates, and canals. Polderisation follows a process of first: construction of embankment/dike around a low lying area; then the construction of sluice gates to regulate water in and out; excavation of canals to keep internal drainage system active, and to replace the water in the reclaim area with freshwater. Empoldering can be carried out in coastal and inland areas such as lakes. Polders are enclosed by dikes to keep out the sea. To prevent the polders from being waterlogged, they are managed by drainage canals and pumps. Pumps and drainage canals are used to drain the area.

However, the 'polders' and subsequent flood control and irrigation projects converted the wetlands to dry land to facilitate the introduction of high-yielding variety rice which requires controlled irrigation. These interventions disconnected the wetlands from the rivers and prevented sediment formation inside the wetlands which gradually caused the drainage congestion of the rivers as the sediments deposited on the river bed and the river bed became higher than the wetlands in the surrounding basins. Nature's reaction against the intervention was already building up, siltation started getting deposited at the water entry point of the sluice gates, and rivers and canals' bed height began to increase, which resulted in water logging for huge areas and salinity in soil and water of all sources increased up to a level that they were unusable.

Diversion of the Ganges water at Farakka has caused increased river salinity in the southwest region of Bangladesh to intrude further inland. Both the coastal polders and the Farakka barrage had contributed to the gradual siltation of the coastal rivers and are the principal factors contributing to the tidal water level extremes. The coastal agriculture, forestry, industry, and drinking water sectors have suffered enormously as a result of salinity changes in recent years [7, 8].

Saltwater shrimp farming contributes increasingly higher salinity in the coastal zone, especially the southwest region of Bangladesh, since the 1990s. During this time there was a high demand for shrimp in the export market. The outside businessmen, in collaboration with political power and partnership with local large landowners, initiated shrimp farming displacing rice cultivation. Over the 10 years, almost a hundred percent polderised flood plains/agriculture fields got transformed into saltwater shrimp farms. This practice of shrimp farming is continuing. The permanent existence of saltwater in the flood plains generated extreme salinity in soil and surface and groundwater. However, surface salinity is relatively high across the coastal zone. It is projected that salinity will increase in river channels. This increase is more pronounced in the central and western regions with implications for agriculture, shrimp farming and local well-being [5].

#### **5. Water ecosystems services**

Until the 1960s, there was no 'development intervention' in water resources development in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. Coastal people enjoyed the ecosystem services of water to meet up their needs. Ponds were used as a source of drinking waterand also as the rainwater reservoir that served the villagers around with freshwater round the year. Open water fisheries were highly adequate. Almost every villager caughtenough fish from floodplains, canals, rivers for their consumption. Farmers grew one crop (Rice) a year. They created seasonal earthen dykes to protect

**25**

than saltwater shrimp [15].

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal…*

their cropland from saline water intrusion and after harvesting, they abolished the dykes. Farmers also grew some other crops like lentil, mastered seeds, etc. in high lands that are free from tidal surge. This environment refers to a statement that the coastal zone is an attractive place to live and work, with more than 500 million people, including 40 million in Bangladesh coastal zone, living in this environment worldwide [9]. The ecosystem services in the coastal zone, until dominant development interventions, provided for and enhanced the well-being of its human populations. Of course, the benefits to society from nature are dependent on biotic and abiotic earth systems and how these systems interact with social-economic and

The following decade of dominant development intervention in the form of polderisation in the coastal zone in the 1960s experienced social-economic and governance structures' interactions with ecosystems services. The central purposes were served – tidal floodplains were protected from tidal surge and saline water intrusion; three crops of rice in a year in polderised flood plains. Food security was ensured. But, the next decades until the present time, the ecosystems, particularly water and land, experienced destructive interactions with social-economic and governance structures by the massive increasing expansions of saline water shrimp

Increasingly massive shrimp aquaculture influenced changes in water and land use - altering agricultural lands into shrimp farms bringing saline water into freshwater fed croplands. Since the 1980s, shrimp aquaculture was started in the *ghers* - *ghers* are shrimp farms surrounded/impounded by earthen dykes, situated by riversides [10]. Two main factors together provided a catalyst to the process of accelerated shrimp farming: strong international market demand and high prices for shrimp product; and it was no longer financially viable to cultivate rice because

Changes in government policies made the shrimp business highly lucrative, shrimp took over as the biggest export earner of Bangladesh [12]. The yearly revenue of saltwater shrimp (*Penaeus monodon,* locally known as *Badga*) were high compare to agriculture. The price for 1 kg of shrimp was up to BDT800 (\$10), compared to BDT 25 (32 cents) per kg of rice, with much lower labor and input costs for shrimp. Shrimp was widely considered as 'white gold' that would lead to economic growth and the large farmers converted their agricultural land to shrimp aquaculture farms without considering the negative impacts in long run [13, 14]. With this economic incentive, *gher* owners moved their operations inside the polders by taking land on lease from medium and small farmers, applying muscle power and coercion. Against the law, the *gher* owners bring saline water into the polder by breaching the embankment, saltwater (Bagda shrimp) shrimp aquaculture, which was the beginning of the non-reversible loss of ecosystem services other

Although shrimp farming has a significant impact on the economy of

Bangladesh, it has high environmental costs, including the destruction of green vegetation, reduction in crop production, especially rice. Shrimp farming has altered the physical, ecological (aquatic and terrestrial), and socio-economic environment. Over the decades of the 1980s and 1990s and beyond, shrimp farming has emerged as a major industry in Bangladesh, which has impacts on economic, social and environmental dimensions. The increased salinity in water has created good conditions for shrimp cultivation, a practice that is now the main reason for the

aquaculture in the polderised flood plains displacing rice cultivation.

the polders had become waterlogged due to poor drainage [11, 12].

**6. Destructions in water ecosystem services**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

governance structures (ibid).

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

their cropland from saline water intrusion and after harvesting, they abolished the dykes. Farmers also grew some other crops like lentil, mastered seeds, etc. in high lands that are free from tidal surge. This environment refers to a statement that the coastal zone is an attractive place to live and work, with more than 500 million people, including 40 million in Bangladesh coastal zone, living in this environment worldwide [9]. The ecosystem services in the coastal zone, until dominant development interventions, provided for and enhanced the well-being of its human populations. Of course, the benefits to society from nature are dependent on biotic and abiotic earth systems and how these systems interact with social-economic and governance structures (ibid).

The following decade of dominant development intervention in the form of polderisation in the coastal zone in the 1960s experienced social-economic and governance structures' interactions with ecosystems services. The central purposes were served – tidal floodplains were protected from tidal surge and saline water intrusion; three crops of rice in a year in polderised flood plains. Food security was ensured. But, the next decades until the present time, the ecosystems, particularly water and land, experienced destructive interactions with social-economic and governance structures by the massive increasing expansions of saline water shrimp aquaculture in the polderised flood plains displacing rice cultivation.

#### **6. Destructions in water ecosystem services**

Increasingly massive shrimp aquaculture influenced changes in water and land use - altering agricultural lands into shrimp farms bringing saline water into freshwater fed croplands. Since the 1980s, shrimp aquaculture was started in the *ghers* - *ghers* are shrimp farms surrounded/impounded by earthen dykes, situated by riversides [10]. Two main factors together provided a catalyst to the process of accelerated shrimp farming: strong international market demand and high prices for shrimp product; and it was no longer financially viable to cultivate rice because the polders had become waterlogged due to poor drainage [11, 12].

Changes in government policies made the shrimp business highly lucrative, shrimp took over as the biggest export earner of Bangladesh [12]. The yearly revenue of saltwater shrimp (*Penaeus monodon,* locally known as *Badga*) were high compare to agriculture. The price for 1 kg of shrimp was up to BDT800 (\$10), compared to BDT 25 (32 cents) per kg of rice, with much lower labor and input costs for shrimp. Shrimp was widely considered as 'white gold' that would lead to economic growth and the large farmers converted their agricultural land to shrimp aquaculture farms without considering the negative impacts in long run [13, 14]. With this economic incentive, *gher* owners moved their operations inside the polders by taking land on lease from medium and small farmers, applying muscle power and coercion. Against the law, the *gher* owners bring saline water into the polder by breaching the embankment, saltwater (Bagda shrimp) shrimp aquaculture, which was the beginning of the non-reversible loss of ecosystem services other than saltwater shrimp [15].

Although shrimp farming has a significant impact on the economy of Bangladesh, it has high environmental costs, including the destruction of green vegetation, reduction in crop production, especially rice. Shrimp farming has altered the physical, ecological (aquatic and terrestrial), and socio-economic environment.

Over the decades of the 1980s and 1990s and beyond, shrimp farming has emerged as a major industry in Bangladesh, which has impacts on economic, social and environmental dimensions. The increased salinity in water has created good conditions for shrimp cultivation, a practice that is now the main reason for the

*Coastal Environments*

they were unusable.

drainage canals are used to drain the area.

commissioned an international mission (known as 'Krug Mission') to solve the flood problem of the country. Following recommendations of this mission, the government implemented the Coastal Embankment Project (CEP) during the 1960s, which included the construction of 'Polders' to protect coastal flood plans from saline water intrusion and tidal surge. A Polder includes [earthen] embankment, sluice gates, and canals. Polderisation follows a process of first: construction of embankment/dike around a low lying area; then the construction of sluice gates to regulate water in and out; excavation of canals to keep internal drainage system active, and to replace the water in the reclaim area with freshwater. Empoldering can be carried out in coastal and inland areas such as lakes. Polders are enclosed by dikes to keep out the sea. To prevent the polders from being waterlogged, they are managed by drainage canals and pumps. Pumps and

However, the 'polders' and subsequent flood control and irrigation projects converted the wetlands to dry land to facilitate the introduction of high-yielding variety rice which requires controlled irrigation. These interventions disconnected the wetlands from the rivers and prevented sediment formation inside the wetlands which gradually caused the drainage congestion of the rivers as the sediments deposited on the river bed and the river bed became higher than the wetlands in the surrounding basins. Nature's reaction against the intervention was already building up, siltation started getting deposited at the water entry point of the sluice gates, and rivers and canals' bed height began to increase, which resulted in water logging for huge areas and salinity in soil and water of all sources increased up to a level that

Diversion of the Ganges water at Farakka has caused increased river salinity in the southwest region of Bangladesh to intrude further inland. Both the coastal polders and the Farakka barrage had contributed to the gradual siltation of the coastal rivers and are the principal factors contributing to the tidal water level extremes. The coastal agriculture, forestry, industry, and drinking water sectors have suffered

Saltwater shrimp farming contributes increasingly higher salinity in the coastal zone, especially the southwest region of Bangladesh, since the 1990s. During this time there was a high demand for shrimp in the export market. The outside businessmen, in collaboration with political power and partnership with local large landowners, initiated shrimp farming displacing rice cultivation. Over the 10 years, almost a hundred percent polderised flood plains/agriculture fields got transformed into saltwater shrimp farms. This practice of shrimp farming is continuing. The permanent existence of saltwater in the flood plains generated extreme salinity in soil and surface and groundwater. However, surface salinity is relatively high across the coastal zone. It is projected that salinity will increase in river channels. This increase is more pronounced in the central and western regions with implications

Until the 1960s, there was no 'development intervention' in water resources development in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. Coastal people enjoyed the ecosystem services of water to meet up their needs. Ponds were used as a source of drinking waterand also as the rainwater reservoir that served the villagers around with freshwater round the year. Open water fisheries were highly adequate. Almost every villager caughtenough fish from floodplains, canals, rivers for their consumption. Farmers grew one crop (Rice) a year. They created seasonal earthen dykes to protect

enormously as a result of salinity changes in recent years [7, 8].

for agriculture, shrimp farming and local well-being [5].

**5. Water ecosystems services**

**24**

increasing soil salinity in Bangladesh. The salinity of shrimp cultivating areas is approximately 500% higher than in non-shrimp cultivating areas, which is extremely contradictory to official purposes/objectives of polderisation under the Coastal Embankment project [16].

#### **7. Water crises for agriculture**

'*Water, water everywhere, but not usable for agriculture'*, pointed by the farmers of Paikgacha of the southwest coastal region dramatically. This is a common situation concerning the availability of freshwater for irrigation. Saltwater aquaculture, waterlogging, storm surge, salinity in groundwater generated water crises for agriculture activities like plowing/tilling the cropland, raising paddy seedlings, etc. Farmers are to use low quality and inadequate water for irrigation, which reduced the crop yield to the extent that the farmers lost interest in cultivating crops because they cannot afford it. It is also a condition that the growth of rice plants decreases with increased salinity in irrigation water. The groundwater is highly affected by salinity and sodium and continuous use of such irrigation water, causes high sodium soils, breaks down the soil structure, and reduces soil aeration and water infiltration [16–19]. Rainwater is the only source for irrigation of *Aman* rice for most farmers. Heavy rain is required to wash out the soil salinity at the beginning of the rainy season. But, in recent years the rainfall pattern has changed. Rainfall has become erratic and there is a decreasing pattern of rain in the early monsoon which is unfriendly to agriculture. The amount of rainfall is decreasing particularly in the pre-monsoon and monsoon periods.

In the past, farmers used canal water for irrigation, which was fresh. But, since the recent past, the canal water cannot be used for irrigation purpose anymore because of its salinity, which is the contribution of saline water shrimp farms. The condition of pond water is also the same. Besides, the ponds and the canals are occupied by the shrimp farm owners through the means of manipulations and merged with shrimp farming. This practice refers to the absence of good governance and practices of *mal-governance* of water resources management and denial of rights to use of water resources for many purposes of the local people.

One alternative source of freshwater is groundwater, which is not easily available in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. The freshwater table is so deep (250–350 meters, is mostly unavailable) [20]; installation costs of a deep tube well are costly, most farmers cannot afford it. Large farmers privately install deep tube well and supply irrigation water to others on payment, which is also expensive for the medium and small farmers and sharecroppers. The consequences of the excessive amount of water pumped up from the ground/aquifer with the amount recharging it increases the entry of saltwater into freshwater aquifers [16, 19, 21].

#### **8. Water and livelihoods**

*Water is Life*. No one can disagree with this discourse, as long as we are respectful of 'water wisdom'. Wisdom here refers to responsibility that uses in multiple senses: responsible use of water resources; reasonableness towards other uses of water; awareness of what our actions and interventions mean to others, particularly the poor and disadvantaged; and responsibility towards future generations, other forms of life and nature [22].

**27**

farming areas [24].

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal…*

education) is livelihoods. The term livelihood is associated or relevant or applicable only for the 'poor people'. It is applicable only in addressing 'needs'. If it is beyond that, meaning fulfilling 'wants', then it refers to economic growth, which in other words 'economic development'. Economic growth and development refers to meet-

The Coastal zone of Bangladesh was once prosperous fisheries and agricultural hub. Freshwater was available; saline water was beneficial because it flows naturally; the forest was full of resources to serve local people: and the villages were rich in having trees of fruits, timbers; households had have cows, chicken and duck. Overall, the ecosystem services were available at a level that served local people's livelihoods. This inspired me to recall Mahatma Gandhi, "Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed". Water ecosystem services were available in ample quantity – fishers could catch fish from open water enough for their consumption and to sell for earning cash income; other villagers could catch fish enough for their consumption; villagers could collect vegetables of many types from the crop fields for their consumption. Due to sufficient natural siltation, there were enough crops; there were practices of shared cropping, which provided the landless and small farmers to grow rice that was enough for their annual food stock. Rich bio-diversity and natural environment supported livestock. Farmers were depended on each other for their agriculture work, which kept them tightened in collective initiatives. Thus they lived in harmony; there was little space for inequality and limited power exercise between themselves or by external forces; rich bio-diversity and open access to the natural food sources allowed the poor and disadvantaged people to avoid conflicts with landlords or big farmers [23]. The family structure was simple, joint family – everyone worked and earned for the joint family, work between men and women were segregated; the females looked after the household and in addition to that grew vegetables, fruits and took care of livestock adjacent to their household (ibid).

Today, communities face a regional depletion of natural resources including safe drinking water, and struggle to maintain livelihoods. Both natural and polderisation-induced disasters and the effects of climate change place increasing pressure on the region, hindering livelihoods. Over the past 40 years, development interventions made modifications to the natural environment by controlling the tidal water/ rivers. But they failed to control storm surge which is a driving force of ecosystems destructions. On top of that, sponsoring shrimp farming displacing rice production, sponsoring aquaculture in rice fields that centralized the controlling of natural resources in hands of the rich and powerful elites; constructions of engineering infrastructures (roads, bridges that improved transportations to do marketing of industrial products to coastal zone), created huge drainage congestions of rivers, canals, channels. The introduction of tube wells and PSF (pond-sand-filter) technology for drinking water supply by displacing the thousands of years of practice of using [protected] ponds as a dependable (sustainable) source of drinking water. These modifications have caused extensive environmental damage to the point where we are today. Livelihoods are under big threats and the natural environment

Livestock makes vital contributions in the rural livelihoods in respect to both diet (milk and meat) and generation of income. Livestock faces mainly two types of vulnerabilities due to increased shrimp farming: reduced sources of fodder, and increased mortality rates because of salinity. Saltwater shrimp farming occupied state-owned lands where the people grazed their cattle and also reduced the quantity of fodder and other cattle feed. The current number of cattle had decreased significantly compared with the number of cattle before the period of shrimp farming. The poor farmers either sold their livestock or took them outside of shrimp

is extremely fragileand under increasing pressure.

ing up 'wants', which are unlimited, endless, and known as man's greed.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

Livelihoods refer to 'poor' people's living. For them, earning bread is a livelihood. Earning to meet up the basic needs (food, cloth, shelter, health care, and

#### *Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

education) is livelihoods. The term livelihood is associated or relevant or applicable only for the 'poor people'. It is applicable only in addressing 'needs'. If it is beyond that, meaning fulfilling 'wants', then it refers to economic growth, which in other words 'economic development'. Economic growth and development refers to meeting up 'wants', which are unlimited, endless, and known as man's greed.

The Coastal zone of Bangladesh was once prosperous fisheries and agricultural hub. Freshwater was available; saline water was beneficial because it flows naturally; the forest was full of resources to serve local people: and the villages were rich in having trees of fruits, timbers; households had have cows, chicken and duck. Overall, the ecosystem services were available at a level that served local people's livelihoods. This inspired me to recall Mahatma Gandhi, "Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed". Water ecosystem services were available in ample quantity – fishers could catch fish from open water enough for their consumption and to sell for earning cash income; other villagers could catch fish enough for their consumption; villagers could collect vegetables of many types from the crop fields for their consumption. Due to sufficient natural siltation, there were enough crops; there were practices of shared cropping, which provided the landless and small farmers to grow rice that was enough for their annual food stock. Rich bio-diversity and natural environment supported livestock. Farmers were depended on each other for their agriculture work, which kept them tightened in collective initiatives. Thus they lived in harmony; there was little space for inequality and limited power exercise between themselves or by external forces; rich bio-diversity and open access to the natural food sources allowed the poor and disadvantaged people to avoid conflicts with landlords or big farmers [23]. The family structure was simple, joint family – everyone worked and earned for the joint family, work between men and women were segregated; the females looked after the household and in addition to that grew vegetables, fruits and took care of livestock adjacent to their household (ibid).

Today, communities face a regional depletion of natural resources including safe drinking water, and struggle to maintain livelihoods. Both natural and polderisation-induced disasters and the effects of climate change place increasing pressure on the region, hindering livelihoods. Over the past 40 years, development interventions made modifications to the natural environment by controlling the tidal water/ rivers. But they failed to control storm surge which is a driving force of ecosystems destructions. On top of that, sponsoring shrimp farming displacing rice production, sponsoring aquaculture in rice fields that centralized the controlling of natural resources in hands of the rich and powerful elites; constructions of engineering infrastructures (roads, bridges that improved transportations to do marketing of industrial products to coastal zone), created huge drainage congestions of rivers, canals, channels. The introduction of tube wells and PSF (pond-sand-filter) technology for drinking water supply by displacing the thousands of years of practice of using [protected] ponds as a dependable (sustainable) source of drinking water. These modifications have caused extensive environmental damage to the point where we are today. Livelihoods are under big threats and the natural environment is extremely fragileand under increasing pressure.

Livestock makes vital contributions in the rural livelihoods in respect to both diet (milk and meat) and generation of income. Livestock faces mainly two types of vulnerabilities due to increased shrimp farming: reduced sources of fodder, and increased mortality rates because of salinity. Saltwater shrimp farming occupied state-owned lands where the people grazed their cattle and also reduced the quantity of fodder and other cattle feed. The current number of cattle had decreased significantly compared with the number of cattle before the period of shrimp farming. The poor farmers either sold their livestock or took them outside of shrimp farming areas [24].

*Coastal Environments*

Coastal Embankment project [16].

**7. Water crises for agriculture**

pre-monsoon and monsoon periods.

**8. Water and livelihoods**

forms of life and nature [22].

increasing soil salinity in Bangladesh. The salinity of shrimp cultivating areas is approximately 500% higher than in non-shrimp cultivating areas, which is extremely contradictory to official purposes/objectives of polderisation under the

'*Water, water everywhere, but not usable for agriculture'*, pointed by the farmers of Paikgacha of the southwest coastal region dramatically. This is a common situation concerning the availability of freshwater for irrigation. Saltwater aquaculture, waterlogging, storm surge, salinity in groundwater generated water crises for agriculture activities like plowing/tilling the cropland, raising paddy seedlings, etc. Farmers are to use low quality and inadequate water for irrigation, which reduced the crop yield to the extent that the farmers lost interest in cultivating crops because they cannot afford it. It is also a condition that the growth of rice plants decreases with increased salinity in irrigation water. The groundwater is highly affected by salinity and sodium and continuous use of such irrigation water, causes high sodium soils, breaks down the soil structure, and reduces soil aeration and water infiltration [16–19]. Rainwater is the only source for irrigation of *Aman* rice for most farmers. Heavy rain is required to wash out the soil salinity at the beginning of the rainy season. But, in recent years the rainfall pattern has changed. Rainfall has become erratic and there is a decreasing pattern of rain in the early monsoon which is unfriendly to agriculture. The amount of rainfall is decreasing particularly in the

In the past, farmers used canal water for irrigation, which was fresh. But, since the recent past, the canal water cannot be used for irrigation purpose anymore because of its salinity, which is the contribution of saline water shrimp farms. The condition of pond water is also the same. Besides, the ponds and the canals are occupied by the shrimp farm owners through the means of manipulations and merged with shrimp farming. This practice refers to the absence of good governance and practices of *mal-governance* of water resources management and denial of rights

One alternative source of freshwater is groundwater, which is not easily available in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. The freshwater table is so deep (250–350 meters, is mostly unavailable) [20]; installation costs of a deep tube well are costly, most farmers cannot afford it. Large farmers privately install deep tube well and supply irrigation water to others on payment, which is also expensive for the medium and small farmers and sharecroppers. The consequences of the excessive amount of water pumped up from the ground/aquifer with the amount recharging it increases

*Water is Life*. No one can disagree with this discourse, as long as we are respectful of 'water wisdom'. Wisdom here refers to responsibility that uses in multiple senses: responsible use of water resources; reasonableness towards other uses of water; awareness of what our actions and interventions mean to others, particularly the poor and disadvantaged; and responsibility towards future generations, other

Livelihoods refer to 'poor' people's living. For them, earning bread is a livelihood. Earning to meet up the basic needs (food, cloth, shelter, health care, and

to use of water resources for many purposes of the local people.

the entry of saltwater into freshwater aquifers [16, 19, 21].

**26**

The people's practice of conflicting livelihoods that the contestation between saline water and freshwater in the southwest coastal zone in Bangladesh, can be traced in history in the way water has been managed and the way politicaleconomic forces influenced water systems [25].

The unique tidal wetlands of the southwest have always maintained some level of salinity yet the soil remained fertile and rice production was high. It was not until the introduction of the embankment system and subsequent, promotion and proliferation of shrimp farming that salinity became such a serious problem. Today, the southwest faces a development-induced disaster as salinity infiltrates soil and watertablesthreatens crops andkills vegetation. Shrimpfarming perpetuates and increases salinity levels in the region, reducing options for livelihood diversification and day-laboring opportunities. People are now often forced to migrate to cities for work [26].

#### **9. Drinking water**

It was in 1987. I went to Patharghata, an offshore island, under the Borguna district located on the southwest border of the Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh for a study purpose. I was having a meeting with a youth club. There was a tube-well (suction pump) in front of the club office. I asked for water to drink. The youth leader asked one member to go to his house and bring water for me. He brought water in a jug and offered me a glass of water. I was surprised to see that they did not offer me the tube-well water. I asked them, why not tube-well water? They said it is not drinkable, because it is too salty. I went to the tube well and tested its water and I was extremely shocked by the taste of water, which was too salty. I drank water that they offered me and found a bit different taste that we do find in tap water in the cities. I asked them the source of that water. That was pond water. They told me, people of this island use pond water as drinking water for thousands of years. After the meeting, they brought me to the pond side. A big pond, full of green with coconut trees on the banks, no other trees, and water was looking so clean. This pond is used only as a source of drinking water, no other purpose. Everyone is abided by this unwritten rule, the youth told me.

My second visit to this island was in 2005 for another study purpose. I met the same person, the then youth club leader, and asked him (after we discussed water and sanitation on the island) about that pond which they used to use as a source of drinking water. He answered me, we were just standing on the bank of that pond, where I saw, at that moment, 10 to15 men were taking bath in the pond, few were washing clothes, one man was cleaning his cow on another side, the water looks unclean, and the *ghat* is with concrete steps and platform for villagers convenient for bathing and washing. He showed me some more concrete work, which is the structure of PSF (pond-sand-filter), constructed by a local NGO with funding and technical supports of an international NGO around three years back. Since then the pond is open to all for uses. But the PSF is not working anymore (after working for about two years). So, the pond water is no longer usable for drinking. The only source of drinking water is few Deep Tube Wells, which is far away from many and saline too.

Historically, people in the coastal zone of Bangladesh, especially the Southwest region, all along used to use pond water for drinking. The community collectively excavated the pond deep as the reservoir of rainwater, constructed earthen banks strong and high to protect the pond from saline water intrusion, planted coconut trees on the blinks for shade on the water to keep the water cool. One pond did serve neighboring two-three villages, even more. Zamindars also excavated ponds to

**29**

water' [22].

the local people.

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal…*

supply drinking water for their citizens/people. But with the influences of 'development interventions' of public health programs on the government using ADB/ WB loan, since the mid-1980s, a massive shift from surface water to groundwater sources for domestic water supply. Sadly, in around two decades, the situation turned to reverse: availability of safe drinking water reduced because of arsenic poisoning in tube well water, resulted in the dealing with saline groundwater by the people of coastal areas. The availability of safe drinking water is poor for the coastal communities, as fresh groundwater is only available at great depths, if at all [1]. Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) of Bangladesh Government, spending loan fund supports from multilateral organizations, especially the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank, IDBand funding supports of DANIDA, UNICEFimplementeda number of water supply projects include installation of Deep Tubewells, 'Pond-Sand-Filter' (PSF) system since the late 1990s. NGOs have

Despite all these initiatives of development interventions in drinking water supply during the last more than four decades, the coastal people are not ensured with safe drinking water supply. Study [27] shows, at least two-third of coastal rural households fell into the water scarcity and the root causes are saline water intrusion, reduction of upstream flow, sea-level rise, disasters, polder, arsenic contamination, shrimp cultivation in brackish water, excessive use of underground water and lack of appropriate aquifer were highly influential for the disturbance of potable water supply. Water scientists [28] argue that uses of deep tube-wells render the aquifers to overdrawing, which is a potential cause for upcoming. The overdrawing of groundwater is also contributing to declining the capacity of freshwater in flushing out the saline water from the aquifers. This is becoming a great concern in this region [28]. It is argued that recharge to deep aquifers is extremely low in southwest coastal Bangladesh. Water at a depth between 100 and 300 m in this area is a few thousand to >10 thousand years old, suggesting that these aquifers are not receiving any current recharge [28–32]. It is so unfortunate, this scientific knowledge of groundwater dynamics is often ignored in the development interventions in the water supply sector in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh leading to

Currently, the coastal rural households are dependent on tube well water, which

The whole experience of development interventions inthe 'coastal water supply' sector of Bangladesh can be denoted as capillary chaos of projects and programs initiated by the outsiders, which generated permanent water crises in the coastal zone. Water crises refer to 'grossly inequitable distribution of the available water; the decline of traditional water management and conservation systems; the disappearance of once-numerous water bodies; the damage to ecological systems from the interventions in nature in the form water resources development projects; the infliction of hardship, inequity and injustice on poor, disadvantaged communities particularly the ethnic groups, and on women; and uncontrollable, unmanageable generation of waste of all kinds, and the consequent reduction in the availability of

Drinking water in the southwest region, both surface and groundwater, has become unfit for human consumption since the salinity has exceeded the

is not saline and arsenic-free; PSF water, which is available only for monsoon months and only where PSF projects were implemented; rainwater that villagers harvest; and open pond water. One study shows, in some cases, 97% of local people collect their drinking water directly from ponds [33]. Ministry of Water Resources of Bangladesh Government has recently initiated a new project of excavation *deeghi* (big pond) in the southwest coastal region to ensure safe drinking water supply for

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

been implementing their PSF projects since 2000.

high risks of water shortage and water crises.

#### *Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

supply drinking water for their citizens/people. But with the influences of 'development interventions' of public health programs on the government using ADB/ WB loan, since the mid-1980s, a massive shift from surface water to groundwater sources for domestic water supply. Sadly, in around two decades, the situation turned to reverse: availability of safe drinking water reduced because of arsenic poisoning in tube well water, resulted in the dealing with saline groundwater by the people of coastal areas. The availability of safe drinking water is poor for the coastal communities, as fresh groundwater is only available at great depths, if at all [1].

Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) of Bangladesh Government, spending loan fund supports from multilateral organizations, especially the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank, IDBand funding supports of DANIDA, UNICEFimplementeda number of water supply projects include installation of Deep Tubewells, 'Pond-Sand-Filter' (PSF) system since the late 1990s. NGOs have been implementing their PSF projects since 2000.

Despite all these initiatives of development interventions in drinking water supply during the last more than four decades, the coastal people are not ensured with safe drinking water supply. Study [27] shows, at least two-third of coastal rural households fell into the water scarcity and the root causes are saline water intrusion, reduction of upstream flow, sea-level rise, disasters, polder, arsenic contamination, shrimp cultivation in brackish water, excessive use of underground water and lack of appropriate aquifer were highly influential for the disturbance of potable water supply. Water scientists [28] argue that uses of deep tube-wells render the aquifers to overdrawing, which is a potential cause for upcoming. The overdrawing of groundwater is also contributing to declining the capacity of freshwater in flushing out the saline water from the aquifers. This is becoming a great concern in this region [28]. It is argued that recharge to deep aquifers is extremely low in southwest coastal Bangladesh. Water at a depth between 100 and 300 m in this area is a few thousand to >10 thousand years old, suggesting that these aquifers are not receiving any current recharge [28–32]. It is so unfortunate, this scientific knowledge of groundwater dynamics is often ignored in the development interventions in the water supply sector in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh leading to high risks of water shortage and water crises.

Currently, the coastal rural households are dependent on tube well water, which is not saline and arsenic-free; PSF water, which is available only for monsoon months and only where PSF projects were implemented; rainwater that villagers harvest; and open pond water. One study shows, in some cases, 97% of local people collect their drinking water directly from ponds [33]. Ministry of Water Resources of Bangladesh Government has recently initiated a new project of excavation *deeghi* (big pond) in the southwest coastal region to ensure safe drinking water supply for the local people.

The whole experience of development interventions inthe 'coastal water supply' sector of Bangladesh can be denoted as capillary chaos of projects and programs initiated by the outsiders, which generated permanent water crises in the coastal zone. Water crises refer to 'grossly inequitable distribution of the available water; the decline of traditional water management and conservation systems; the disappearance of once-numerous water bodies; the damage to ecological systems from the interventions in nature in the form water resources development projects; the infliction of hardship, inequity and injustice on poor, disadvantaged communities particularly the ethnic groups, and on women; and uncontrollable, unmanageable generation of waste of all kinds, and the consequent reduction in the availability of water' [22].

Drinking water in the southwest region, both surface and groundwater, has become unfit for human consumption since the salinity has exceeded the

*Coastal Environments*

work [26].

**9. Drinking water**

economic forces influenced water systems [25].

The people's practice of conflicting livelihoods that the contestation between saline water and freshwater in the southwest coastal zone in Bangladesh, can be traced in history in the way water has been managed and the way political-

The unique tidal wetlands of the southwest have always maintained some level of salinity yet the soil remained fertile and rice production was high. It was not until the introduction of the embankment system and subsequent, promotion and proliferation of shrimp farming that salinity became such a serious problem. Today, the southwest faces a development-induced disaster as salinity infiltrates soil and watertablesthreatens crops andkills vegetation. Shrimpfarming perpetuates and increases salinity levels in the region, reducing options for livelihood diversification and day-laboring opportunities. People are now often forced to migrate to cities for

It was in 1987. I went to Patharghata, an offshore island, under the Borguna district located on the southwest border of the Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh for a study purpose. I was having a meeting with a youth club. There was a tube-well (suction pump) in front of the club office. I asked for water to drink. The youth leader asked one member to go to his house and bring water for me. He brought water in a jug and offered me a glass of water. I was surprised to see that they did not offer me the tube-well water. I asked them, why not tube-well water? They said it is not drinkable, because it is too salty. I went to the tube well and tested its water and I was extremely shocked by the taste of water, which was too salty. I drank water that they offered me and found a bit different taste that we do find in tap water in the cities. I asked them the source of that water. That was pond water. They told me, people of this island use pond water as drinking water for thousands of years. After the meeting, they brought me to the pond side. A big pond, full of green with coconut trees on the banks, no other trees, and water was looking so clean. This pond is used only as a source of drinking water, no other

purpose. Everyone is abided by this unwritten rule, the youth told me.

My second visit to this island was in 2005 for another study purpose. I met the same person, the then youth club leader, and asked him (after we discussed water and sanitation on the island) about that pond which they used to use as a source of drinking water. He answered me, we were just standing on the bank of that pond, where I saw, at that moment, 10 to15 men were taking bath in the pond, few were washing clothes, one man was cleaning his cow on another side, the water looks unclean, and the *ghat* is with concrete steps and platform for villagers convenient for bathing and washing. He showed me some more concrete work, which is the structure of PSF (pond-sand-filter), constructed by a local NGO with funding and technical supports of an international NGO around three years back. Since then the pond is open to all for uses. But the PSF is not working anymore (after working for about two years). So, the pond water is no longer usable for drinking. The only source of drinking water is few Deep Tube Wells, which is far away from many and

Historically, people in the coastal zone of Bangladesh, especially the Southwest region, all along used to use pond water for drinking. The community collectively excavated the pond deep as the reservoir of rainwater, constructed earthen banks strong and high to protect the pond from saline water intrusion, planted coconut trees on the blinks for shade on the water to keep the water cool. One pond did serve neighboring two-three villages, even more. Zamindars also excavated ponds to

**28**

saline too.

recommended level of 960 μmho/cm for potable water since 1987 [7, 34]. Drinking water from natural sources in coastal Bangladesh has become contaminated by varying degrees of salinity due to saltwater intrusion from rising sea levels, cyclone and storm surges, and upstream withdrawal of freshwater [13].

In the pre-shrimp farming period, pond water could be used for drinking purposes even in the dry season, but after the introduction of shrimp cultivation, the pond water becomes too salty to use even for bathing in summer. There are deep tube wells, which are privately owned by the large and the middle farmers. The poorer households depend on these deep tube wells for drinking water. In the previous time, the scarcity of drinking water was not as much as it is at present [25]. As per the opinions of the specialists, the main causes of drinking water scarcity are salinity, arsenic, and the shortage of groundwater. The sea level of this region is rising 3–4 ml per year and it creates new salinity affected areas, which creates further scarcity of drinking water [35]. The average estimated sodium intakes from drinking water ranged from 5 to 16 g/day in the dry season, compared with 0.6–1.2 g/ day in the rainy season. The average daily sodium excretion in urine was 3.4 g/day (range, 0.4–7.7 g/day). Women who drank shallow tube-well water were more likely to have urine sodium >100 mmol/day than women who drank rainwater [odds ratio (OR) = 2.05; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.11–3.80]. The annual hospital prevalence of hypertension in pregnancy was higher in the dry season (OR = 12.2%; 95% CI, 9.5–14.8) than in the rainy season (OR = 5.1%; 95% CI, 2.91–7.26). The estimated salt intake from drinking water in this population exceeded recommended limits. The problem of saline intrusion into drinking water has multiple causes and is likely to be exacerbated by climate change-induced sea-level rise [13]. This study finding suggests that the mean sodium intake in pregnant women is well above WHO/ FAO–recommended levels and above those of many other countries. Hypertension in pregnancy is associated with increased rates of adverse maternal and fetal outcomes, both acute and long term, including impaired liver function, low platelet count, intrauterine growth retardation, preterm birth, and maternal and prenatal deaths. The adverse outcomes are substantially increased in women who develop superimposed (pre)eclampsia. It further suggestshypertension in pregnancy is associated with increased rates of adverse maternal and fetal outcomes, both acute and long term, including impaired liver function, low platelet count, intrauterine growth retardation, preterm birth, and maternal and prenatal deaths. The adverse outcomes are substantially increased in women who develop superimposed (pre) eclampsia [36].

#### **10. Discussions**

Coastal people are naturally resilient to natural hazards. They are educated by nature. They are knowledgeable about the coastal context up to a higher level. Their knowledge is rooted in 'learn by doing'. They are born to win over the challenges of exploiting the opportunities of livelihoods. Their day-to-day life-world is full of risks, threats, pressure along withthrills, joys, and happiness. Philosophy and Forms of their initiatives of exploiting natural resources – ecosystem services of all forms are embedded in fulfilling needs, not wants. They have followed this discourse for thousands of years until the 'development interventions' were introduced on the coast in the recent past (the 1960s). I have discussed these interventions in the previous sections.

Local people, from their full understandings of possible consequences of the proposed development projects, opposed, protested, and non-cooperated the

**31**

vulnerability.

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal…*

The local people first contested one of the projects of the Coastal Embankment Project (CEP): one five-vent sluice gate became nonfunctioning because the link canal got silted up, in six years of its construction in 1967, resulting in waterlogged areas in 1973. People demanded a solution, but no response was there from the government side. People waited for three years but no action was taken. Then local people (in 1976), especially the farmers were organized and excavated an alternative canal (because people have no access to government built structure to do any repairing work) and connect it directly to the link river (*Bhadra* river), which released the waterlogging of 65,000 hectares land and 54 villages. In this case, water-logging is referred by FAO technically to a situation when the level of groundwater meets the plants' root zone [37]. This may last for at least three months and may prolong up to 8–9 months or even become perennial. The depth of flooding varies, according to the topography of the area, and can reach up to 3 m. This study grouped the effects of water-logging into two categories: (a) immediate loss of life, property, and access to essential services such, e.g., potable water and food, humanitarian assistance, and (b) damage to infrastructure and other assets which underpin livelihoods, health, and sanitation, shelters, etc. They further assessed, at the homestead level, the direct impacts of water-logging is the loss of shelter/house, loss of animals, plants, trees, and access to safe food and water. The affected communities are deprived of basic services such as health, children's education. Over the longer term, as water stands and stagnates, health risks go higher. This study suggests that during waterlogged periods both the poverty and nutrition situation quickly worsens, negative coping strategies, e.g., sale of assets, are adopted, that insecurity due to waterlogging may be a factor in early child marriage, and that spread of disease and social breakdown combine to aggravate underlying

Some other studies showed that within 10 years of implementation, the ill effects of the polder surfaced in massive areas such as many drainage canals became inoperative due to siltation, rendering vast tracts of lands waterlogged all year round [38]. The civil engineering structures impeded vast volumes of sedimentladen monsoon flood flows. The floodwaters caused consequently deposited silt and sediment in the riverbeds and channels. The effect caused a reduction in the bulkcarrying capacity of the water by the rivers and channels, leading to further flooding due to severe congestion of drainage, which progressively led to water-logging. It is classed as a man-made disaster. The cumulative impacts were increased salinity, loss of soil fertility, a decrease in income, worsening of sanitation conditions, loss of livelihoods, and problems in gaining access to residents' homes, agricultural land, and infrastructure facilities. Many people were compelled to move onto embankments and roadsides. Educational institutions were severely damaged and remained closed; children were forced to discontinue schooling. Biodiversity and livestock were adversely affected. Safe drinking water became scarce. Waterborne diseases like diarrhea and scabies became epidemic. Moreover, unemployment forced many

implementations of the projects. For example, while implementing the Coastal Embankment Project (CEP) local people registered their protest against the project identifyingthe wrong design and irrelevance of the project. Violent protests were also there. But the CEP was implemented and contributed dramatic increases in rice production in the embanked/polderised area. Farmers were able to harvest two or even three bumper crops per year. But nature's reaction against the intervention was already building up. Within 15 years of the construction of embankments, siltation started at the water entry point of the sluice gates and rivers and canals' bed height began to increase. As a result, the polderised flood plains started getting water-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

logged one after another.

#### *Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

implementations of the projects. For example, while implementing the Coastal Embankment Project (CEP) local people registered their protest against the project identifyingthe wrong design and irrelevance of the project. Violent protests were also there. But the CEP was implemented and contributed dramatic increases in rice production in the embanked/polderised area. Farmers were able to harvest two or even three bumper crops per year. But nature's reaction against the intervention was already building up. Within 15 years of the construction of embankments, siltation started at the water entry point of the sluice gates and rivers and canals' bed height began to increase. As a result, the polderised flood plains started getting waterlogged one after another.

The local people first contested one of the projects of the Coastal Embankment Project (CEP): one five-vent sluice gate became nonfunctioning because the link canal got silted up, in six years of its construction in 1967, resulting in waterlogged areas in 1973. People demanded a solution, but no response was there from the government side. People waited for three years but no action was taken. Then local people (in 1976), especially the farmers were organized and excavated an alternative canal (because people have no access to government built structure to do any repairing work) and connect it directly to the link river (*Bhadra* river), which released the waterlogging of 65,000 hectares land and 54 villages. In this case, water-logging is referred by FAO technically to a situation when the level of groundwater meets the plants' root zone [37]. This may last for at least three months and may prolong up to 8–9 months or even become perennial. The depth of flooding varies, according to the topography of the area, and can reach up to 3 m. This study grouped the effects of water-logging into two categories: (a) immediate loss of life, property, and access to essential services such, e.g., potable water and food, humanitarian assistance, and (b) damage to infrastructure and other assets which underpin livelihoods, health, and sanitation, shelters, etc. They further assessed, at the homestead level, the direct impacts of water-logging is the loss of shelter/house, loss of animals, plants, trees, and access to safe food and water. The affected communities are deprived of basic services such as health, children's education. Over the longer term, as water stands and stagnates, health risks go higher. This study suggests that during waterlogged periods both the poverty and nutrition situation quickly worsens, negative coping strategies, e.g., sale of assets, are adopted, that insecurity due to waterlogging may be a factor in early child marriage, and that spread of disease and social breakdown combine to aggravate underlying vulnerability.

Some other studies showed that within 10 years of implementation, the ill effects of the polder surfaced in massive areas such as many drainage canals became inoperative due to siltation, rendering vast tracts of lands waterlogged all year round [38]. The civil engineering structures impeded vast volumes of sedimentladen monsoon flood flows. The floodwaters caused consequently deposited silt and sediment in the riverbeds and channels. The effect caused a reduction in the bulkcarrying capacity of the water by the rivers and channels, leading to further flooding due to severe congestion of drainage, which progressively led to water-logging. It is classed as a man-made disaster. The cumulative impacts were increased salinity, loss of soil fertility, a decrease in income, worsening of sanitation conditions, loss of livelihoods, and problems in gaining access to residents' homes, agricultural land, and infrastructure facilities. Many people were compelled to move onto embankments and roadsides. Educational institutions were severely damaged and remained closed; children were forced to discontinue schooling. Biodiversity and livestock were adversely affected. Safe drinking water became scarce. Waterborne diseases like diarrhea and scabies became epidemic. Moreover, unemployment forced many

*Coastal Environments*

recommended level of 960 μmho/cm for potable water since 1987 [7, 34]. Drinking water from natural sources in coastal Bangladesh has become contaminated by varying degrees of salinity due to saltwater intrusion from rising sea levels, cyclone

In the pre-shrimp farming period, pond water could be used for drinking purposes even in the dry season, but after the introduction of shrimp cultivation, the pond water becomes too salty to use even for bathing in summer. There are deep tube wells, which are privately owned by the large and the middle farmers. The poorer households depend on these deep tube wells for drinking water. In the previous time, the scarcity of drinking water was not as much as it is at present [25]. As per the opinions of the specialists, the main causes of drinking water scarcity are salinity, arsenic, and the shortage of groundwater. The sea level of this region is rising 3–4 ml per year and it creates new salinity affected areas, which creates further scarcity of drinking water [35]. The average estimated sodium intakes from drinking water ranged from 5 to 16 g/day in the dry season, compared with 0.6–1.2 g/ day in the rainy season. The average daily sodium excretion in urine was 3.4 g/day (range, 0.4–7.7 g/day). Women who drank shallow tube-well water were more likely to have urine sodium >100 mmol/day than women who drank rainwater [odds ratio (OR) = 2.05; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.11–3.80]. The annual hospital prevalence of hypertension in pregnancy was higher in the dry season (OR = 12.2%; 95% CI, 9.5–14.8) than in the rainy season (OR = 5.1%; 95% CI, 2.91–7.26). The estimated salt intake from drinking water in this population exceeded recommended limits. The problem of saline intrusion into drinking water has multiple causes and is likely to be exacerbated by climate change-induced sea-level rise [13]. This study finding suggests that the mean sodium intake in pregnant women is well above WHO/ FAO–recommended levels and above those of many other countries. Hypertension in pregnancy is associated with increased rates of adverse maternal and fetal outcomes, both acute and long term, including impaired liver function, low platelet count, intrauterine growth retardation, preterm birth, and maternal and prenatal deaths. The adverse outcomes are substantially increased in women who develop superimposed (pre)eclampsia. It further suggestshypertension in pregnancy is associated with increased rates of adverse maternal and fetal outcomes, both acute and long term, including impaired liver function, low platelet count, intrauterine growth retardation, preterm birth, and maternal and prenatal deaths. The adverse outcomes are substantially increased in women who develop superimposed (pre)

Coastal people are naturally resilient to natural hazards. They are educated by nature. They are knowledgeable about the coastal context up to a higher level. Their knowledge is rooted in 'learn by doing'. They are born to win over the challenges of exploiting the opportunities of livelihoods. Their day-to-day life-world is full of risks, threats, pressure along withthrills, joys, and happiness. Philosophy and Forms of their initiatives of exploiting natural resources – ecosystem services of all forms are embedded in fulfilling needs, not wants. They have followed this discourse for thousands of years until the 'development interventions' were introduced on the coast in the recent past (the 1960s). I have discussed these interventions in the

Local people, from their full understandings of possible consequences of the proposed development projects, opposed, protested, and non-cooperated the

and storm surges, and upstream withdrawal of freshwater [13].

**30**

eclampsia [36].

**10. Discussions**

previous sections.

people to migrate to cities. Strong competition for the rapidly diminishing resource base heightened tensions and conflicts between sectors of society and created a volatile social situation.

However, collective initiatives and actions of local people to address the issues like waterlogging continued. One of the other experiences of contestations occurred in 1986. After 15 years of construction of two parallel large sluice gates on a deep river (Hari river in 1965), the river was silted up and resulted in waterlogging, which flooded 139 villages and croplands around. Local people of all strata demanded the removal of waterlogging but got no response from the govt. side. So, thousands of villagers collectively cut the embankment at an appropriate point that resulted in releasing waterlogging from this area.

Immediate and continuous consequences of the engineering structure dominant 'flood control' projects over water systems in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh compelled the local people contesting the interventions that work against interests of naturally grown natural systems of ecosystems of all forms, which provide local people with services to meet up their needs. But these outsiders' designed projects, ignoring and undermining the science and wisdom of ecological systems, embrace explicit notions of befitting the outside professionals, businessmen, politicians, and civil bureaucrats both immediately and in long run. These contestations exist since the project's interventions until now for the survival of the local people. These include organized protests, collective actions to solve the issues, and local initiatives of managing ecosystem services for local people's livelihoods and reducing disaster risks. For example, among many collective actions, one action took place in July 1988. More than 20 thousand people were organized and made a 'public cut' of an embankment, released a big shrimp farm from logged saline water, and brought the land back to rice cultivation. The govt. parties engaged hired terrorists and police against the mob, one farmer and policeman were killed. Govt party sued 300 farmers. Another historical people's movement against a system rehabilitation project, which took place in 1990. Knowing the project design/ plan, the local people were convinced that this project would not help in releasing waterlogging in large wetlands, locally known as *BeelDakatia*. The govt. line agency Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) started the project into action on people's protests. At one point the project river dredger got trap by siltation in the river (Solmari river). Mass agitation inoculated against the project, which was eventually withdrawn after completing only 11% of the required construction. Then in September 1990, a large number of people gathered and cut the embankment to release waterloggedBeelDakatiathrough connecting regular tide with the link river (Hamkura river in the area). Through regular tidal actions and the accumulation of alluvium, the land formation process of the *Beel*resumed [39].

Conflicts of disciplinary boundaries, as well as professional knowledge versus local knowledge and people's wisdom, exist in the polderisation processes all along with the project life. Repeated failure of the 'system rehabilitation' approach throughout the 1980s, 1990s, and beyond invoked public protests and collective actions. In cases of implementation of Drainage Rehabilitation Projects, defying army deployment, local people took civil actions that included road blockades, burning cars of the project officials and government high officials visiting project sites; public cut of the embankment to release the stagnant floodwaters and at the same time, to allow tidal inflows to let the natural circulation of water. These contestations worked up to a certain level protecting local interests and popularized in the whole coastal zone and the knowledge world. Following lessons learned and experiences, the local people demanded that their knowledge of 'Tidal River Management' - to allow tidal flow in the basin to increase tidal volume, to store floodwater during flood current and to trap sediment during the long storage

**33**

**11. Conclusion**

**Figure 1.**

coastal people.

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal…*

period of sedimentation–must be taken into account of project processes, particularly in coastal drainage improvement project design. But the government line agencies keep denying it. Rather the government line agencies and their development partners together have been undertaking projects one after another showing justifications of addressing issues generated by the previous projects. One may easily argue, next projects are taken up by the government to deal with the problems caused by the previous projects but very project generates new problems and escalate the water-related complexities to a further higher level (See the **Figure 1**). The processes of coastal water projects and funding are complex and not easy to understand. Many seek to profit from it and would wish it to continue [37]. But it is expected that the local people's demand together withthe pressure of intellectual work from home and abroad, and negotiations of the civil society remain continued

*Structural engineered water projects over the years in the southwest coastal regions of Bangladesh.*

Historically, the management of coastal water resources was in hands of local people for thousands of years. Water is life, water for life – for humans, animals, trees, fish, biomass, and so on are naturally relevant to coastal overall life-world. Coastal nature is grown naturally and water is the life of this nature. Coastal life-worldis rooted in water systems. Water is the dominant system of overall biophysical systems that embraces major opportunities and vulnerabilities of the

Water means to coastal people is surface water – sea, river, canal, pond, *beel/*floodplains, and rainwater. Other than rainwater, all the systems are guided by a unique natural system which is called 'Tidal System'. If any external intervention is designed in technical/engineering science or even social science or multidisciplinary approach, it is essential to understand this tidal water system. Otherwise, you are absolutely wrong, and if you implement any project, which is designed ignoring and undermining the deeply rooted complexities of the tidal water system, you

for the interests of protecting coastal zone ecosystems.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Coastal Environments*

volatile social situation.

resulted in releasing waterlogging from this area.

alluvium, the land formation process of the *Beel*resumed [39].

Conflicts of disciplinary boundaries, as well as professional knowledge versus

local knowledge and people's wisdom, exist in the polderisation processes all along with the project life. Repeated failure of the 'system rehabilitation' approach throughout the 1980s, 1990s, and beyond invoked public protests and collective actions. In cases of implementation of Drainage Rehabilitation Projects, defying army deployment, local people took civil actions that included road blockades, burning cars of the project officials and government high officials visiting project sites; public cut of the embankment to release the stagnant floodwaters and at the same time, to allow tidal inflows to let the natural circulation of water. These contestations worked up to a certain level protecting local interests and popularized in the whole coastal zone and the knowledge world. Following lessons learned and experiences, the local people demanded that their knowledge of 'Tidal River Management' - to allow tidal flow in the basin to increase tidal volume, to store floodwater during flood current and to trap sediment during the long storage

people to migrate to cities. Strong competition for the rapidly diminishing resource base heightened tensions and conflicts between sectors of society and created a

Immediate and continuous consequences of the engineering structure dominant 'flood control' projects over water systems in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh compelled the local people contesting the interventions that work against interests of naturally grown natural systems of ecosystems of all forms, which provide local people with services to meet up their needs. But these outsiders' designed projects, ignoring and undermining the science and wisdom of ecological systems, embrace explicit notions of befitting the outside professionals, businessmen, politicians, and civil bureaucrats both immediately and in long run. These contestations exist since the project's interventions until now for the survival of the local people. These include organized protests, collective actions to solve the issues, and local initiatives of managing ecosystem services for local people's livelihoods and reducing disaster risks. For example, among many collective actions, one action took place in July 1988. More than 20 thousand people were organized and made a 'public cut' of an embankment, released a big shrimp farm from logged saline water, and brought the land back to rice cultivation. The govt. parties engaged hired terrorists and police against the mob, one farmer and policeman were killed. Govt party sued 300 farmers. Another historical people's movement against a system rehabilitation project, which took place in 1990. Knowing the project design/ plan, the local people were convinced that this project would not help in releasing waterlogging in large wetlands, locally known as *BeelDakatia*. The govt. line agency Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) started the project into action on people's protests. At one point the project river dredger got trap by siltation in the river (Solmari river). Mass agitation inoculated against the project, which was eventually withdrawn after completing only 11% of the required construction. Then in September 1990, a large number of people gathered and cut the embankment to release waterloggedBeelDakatiathrough connecting regular tide with the link river (Hamkura river in the area). Through regular tidal actions and the accumulation of

However, collective initiatives and actions of local people to address the issues like waterlogging continued. One of the other experiences of contestations occurred in 1986. After 15 years of construction of two parallel large sluice gates on a deep river (Hari river in 1965), the river was silted up and resulted in waterlogging, which flooded 139 villages and croplands around. Local people of all strata demanded the removal of waterlogging but got no response from the govt. side. So, thousands of villagers collectively cut the embankment at an appropriate point that

**32**

*Structural engineered water projects over the years in the southwest coastal regions of Bangladesh.*

period of sedimentation–must be taken into account of project processes, particularly in coastal drainage improvement project design. But the government line agencies keep denying it. Rather the government line agencies and their development partners together have been undertaking projects one after another showing justifications of addressing issues generated by the previous projects. One may easily argue, next projects are taken up by the government to deal with the problems caused by the previous projects but very project generates new problems and escalate the water-related complexities to a further higher level (See the **Figure 1**). The processes of coastal water projects and funding are complex and not easy to understand. Many seek to profit from it and would wish it to continue [37]. But it is expected that the local people's demand together withthe pressure of intellectual work from home and abroad, and negotiations of the civil society remain continued for the interests of protecting coastal zone ecosystems.

#### **11. Conclusion**

Historically, the management of coastal water resources was in hands of local people for thousands of years. Water is life, water for life – for humans, animals, trees, fish, biomass, and so on are naturally relevant to coastal overall life-world. Coastal nature is grown naturally and water is the life of this nature. Coastal life-worldis rooted in water systems. Water is the dominant system of overall biophysical systems that embraces major opportunities and vulnerabilities of the coastal people.

Water means to coastal people is surface water – sea, river, canal, pond, *beel/*floodplains, and rainwater. Other than rainwater, all the systems are guided by a unique natural system which is called 'Tidal System'. If any external intervention is designed in technical/engineering science or even social science or multidisciplinary approach, it is essential to understand this tidal water system. Otherwise, you are absolutely wrong, and if you implement any project, which is designed ignoring and undermining the deeply rooted complexities of the tidal water system, you

generate water-related problems of all forms in the coastal zone permanently. And it happened to the coastal zone, particularly in the southwest region of Bangladesh.

Water was a natural resource, which required no economic investment for its management for thousands of years in the case of Bangladesh's coastal zone until the 1960s. Heavy interventions by development projects began in the 1960s, which resulted in problems of so many kinds for the insiders that required more projects to address those problems, and implementations of new projects generated further problems, which required further projects. The coastal water has been using as a commodity of development projects business of outsiders- the politicians, businessmen, professionals, multilateral moneylenders, international and national NGOs, consultancy firms, water industries, and so on.

Coastal water is made a 'commodity' from 'natural resource' with the influences of water sector projects. 'Water Resources Management', which was in hands of local people for thousands of years, has been shifted to the 'Water Development' paradigm, which ensured the protection of outsiders' interests at the costs of continued and sustained sufferings of the insiders. Costal water is no longer within the control of insiders, but a central control of outsiders has been already established, which will remain established unless the government draws a hard-line of "Tradeoff".

### **Author details**

Hamidul Huq1 \* and Tahmid Huq Easher2

1 Institute of Development Studies and Sustainability (IDSS), United International University (UIU), Dhaka, Bangladesh

2 Department of Environmental Science and Management, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

\*Address all correspondence to: hamidulhuq@idss.uiu.ac.bd

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**35**

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal…*

Human Interventions, *American Journal of Climate Change*, 2013, 2, 62-70 doi:10.4236/ajcc.2013.21007 Published Online March 2013(http://www.scirp.

[9] Ericson, J.P., C.J. Vorosmarty, S.L. Dingman, L.G. Ward, and M. Meybeck (2006), Effective sea-level rise and deltas: Causes of Change and human dimension implications. Global and Planetary Change. https//doi. org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2005.07.004.

[10] Islam, M. S., Milstein, A., Wahab, M. A., Kamal, A. H. M., and Dewan, S (2005),Production and economic return of shrimp aquaculture in coastal ponds of different sizes and with different management regimes. Aquaculture International (2005) 13:489\_500 *\_* Springer 2005. DOI 10.1007/

[11] Karim, M (1986), Brackishwater shrimp culture demonstration in

[12] Alauddin, M. and M. A. Hamid (1999) Shrimp culture in Bangladesh with emphasis on social and economic aspects in Paul Smith (Ed) Towards sustainable shrimp culture in Thailand and the region, ACIAR Proceedings #90, 53-62, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. Available at: http://aciar.gov. au/files/node/2196/pr90chapter09.pdf

[13] Khan, A. E., Ireson, A., Kovats, S., Mojumder, S. K., Khusru, A., Rahman, A., and Vineis, P (2011), Drinking Water Salinity and Maternal Health in Coastal Bangladesh: Implications of Climate Change. in Environmental Health Perspectives. 2011 September; 119(9): 1328-1332. Published online 2011 April 12. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1002804

PMCID: PMC3230389 Research

[14] Adams, H., Adger, W.N., Huq, H., Rahman, R. and Salehin, M. (2013)

org/journal/ajcc)

s10499-005-9000-7

Bangladesh. agris.fao.org

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

[1] Islam, M.R. and Ahmad, M (2004),

Living in the Coast: Problems, Opportunities and Challenges. PDO-ICZMP, WARPO, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of Bangladesh. Available at: http://www.warpo.gov.bd/ rep/liv/living2.pdf. p-33,42,47,130.

[2] BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics), Statistical Pocketbook - 2015 - Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. http://203.112.218.65:8008/ WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/

LatestReports/PB2015.pdf

aspx?ReferenceID=1878157

Washington DC,2009.

Switzerland. p-317,330.

wiki/Farakka\_Barrage

New York Inc.

[4] Annin P. The Great Lakes Water Wars. 1st edition. Island press,

[5] Bricheno, L and Wolf, J (2018), Modelling Tidal River Salinity in Coastal Bangladesh, in Nicholls et al eds., Ecosystem Services for Well-being in Deltas: Integrated Assessment for Policy Analysis, Palgrave Macmillan,

[6] Wikipedia*:* https://en.wikipedia.org/

[7] Mirza, M. Q (1998), Diversion of the Ganges Water at Farakka and Its Effects on Salinity in Bangladesh. Environmental Management, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp. 711-722 r 1998 Springer-Verlag

[8] Mondal, M.S., Jalal, M.R., Khan, M.S.A., Kumar, U., Rhman, R., Huq,H (2013), Hydro-Meteorological Trends in Southwest Coastal Bangladesh: Perspectives of Climate Change and

[3] BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics), 2003, Population Census—2001. Community Series. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Dhaka. https:// www.scirp.org/(S(lz5mqp453edsnp55r rgjct55))/reference/ReferencesPapers.

**References**

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

#### **References**

*Coastal Environments*

**34**

**Author details**

Dhaka, Bangladesh

\* and Tahmid Huq Easher2

consultancy firms, water industries, and so on.

\*Address all correspondence to: hamidulhuq@idss.uiu.ac.bd

University (UIU), Dhaka, Bangladesh

provided the original work is properly cited.

1 Institute of Development Studies and Sustainability (IDSS), United International

generate water-related problems of all forms in the coastal zone permanently. And it happened to the coastal zone, particularly in the southwest region of Bangladesh. Water was a natural resource, which required no economic investment for its management for thousands of years in the case of Bangladesh's coastal zone until the 1960s. Heavy interventions by development projects began in the 1960s, which resulted in problems of so many kinds for the insiders that required more projects to address those problems, and implementations of new projects generated further problems, which required further projects. The coastal water has been using as a commodity of development projects business of outsiders- the politicians, businessmen, professionals, multilateral moneylenders, international and national NGOs,

Coastal water is made a 'commodity' from 'natural resource' with the influences of water sector projects. 'Water Resources Management', which was in hands of local people for thousands of years, has been shifted to the 'Water Development' paradigm, which ensured the protection of outsiders' interests at the costs of continued and sustained sufferings of the insiders. Costal water is no longer within the control of insiders, but a central control of outsiders has been already established, which will remain established unless the government draws a hard-line of

2 Department of Environmental Science and Management, North South University,

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Hamidul Huq1

"Tradeoff".

[1] Islam, M.R. and Ahmad, M (2004), Living in the Coast: Problems, Opportunities and Challenges. PDO-ICZMP, WARPO, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of Bangladesh. Available at: http://www.warpo.gov.bd/ rep/liv/living2.pdf. p-33,42,47,130.

[2] BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics), Statistical Pocketbook - 2015 - Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. http://203.112.218.65:8008/ WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/ LatestReports/PB2015.pdf

[3] BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics), 2003, Population Census—2001. Community Series. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Dhaka. https:// www.scirp.org/(S(lz5mqp453edsnp55r rgjct55))/reference/ReferencesPapers. aspx?ReferenceID=1878157

[4] Annin P. The Great Lakes Water Wars. 1st edition. Island press, Washington DC,2009.

[5] Bricheno, L and Wolf, J (2018), Modelling Tidal River Salinity in Coastal Bangladesh, in Nicholls et al eds., Ecosystem Services for Well-being in Deltas: Integrated Assessment for Policy Analysis, Palgrave Macmillan, Switzerland. p-317,330.

[6] Wikipedia*:* https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Farakka\_Barrage

[7] Mirza, M. Q (1998), Diversion of the Ganges Water at Farakka and Its Effects on Salinity in Bangladesh. Environmental Management, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp. 711-722 r 1998 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

[8] Mondal, M.S., Jalal, M.R., Khan, M.S.A., Kumar, U., Rhman, R., Huq,H (2013), Hydro-Meteorological Trends in Southwest Coastal Bangladesh: Perspectives of Climate Change and

Human Interventions, *American Journal of Climate Change*, 2013, 2, 62-70 doi:10.4236/ajcc.2013.21007 Published Online March 2013(http://www.scirp. org/journal/ajcc)

[9] Ericson, J.P., C.J. Vorosmarty, S.L. Dingman, L.G. Ward, and M. Meybeck (2006), Effective sea-level rise and deltas: Causes of Change and human dimension implications. Global and Planetary Change. https//doi. org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2005.07.004.

[10] Islam, M. S., Milstein, A., Wahab, M. A., Kamal, A. H. M., and Dewan, S (2005),Production and economic return of shrimp aquaculture in coastal ponds of different sizes and with different management regimes. Aquaculture International (2005) 13:489\_500 *\_* Springer 2005. DOI 10.1007/ s10499-005-9000-7

[11] Karim, M (1986), Brackishwater shrimp culture demonstration in Bangladesh. agris.fao.org

[12] Alauddin, M. and M. A. Hamid (1999) Shrimp culture in Bangladesh with emphasis on social and economic aspects in Paul Smith (Ed) Towards sustainable shrimp culture in Thailand and the region, ACIAR Proceedings #90, 53-62, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. Available at: http://aciar.gov. au/files/node/2196/pr90chapter09.pdf

[13] Khan, A. E., Ireson, A., Kovats, S., Mojumder, S. K., Khusru, A., Rahman, A., and Vineis, P (2011), Drinking Water Salinity and Maternal Health in Coastal Bangladesh: Implications of Climate Change. in Environmental Health Perspectives. 2011 September; 119(9): 1328-1332. Published online 2011 April 12. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1002804 PMCID: PMC3230389 Research

[14] Adams, H., Adger, W.N., Huq, H., Rahman, R. and Salehin, M. (2013)

Wellbeing-ecosystem service links: Mechanisms and dynamics in the southwest coastal zone of Bangladesh, ESPA Deltas Working Paper #2, UK, source: www.espadeltas.net.

[15] Nandy, G., Ali, S., and Farid, T.I. (2007) Chingri O Jano-Arthoniti: Kar Lav Kar Khoti (Shrimp and People-Economy: Who gains who losses), ActionAid Bangladesh supported publication (Bangla). Dhaka.

[16] Rahman, M. H., Lund, T. and Bryceson, I (2011), Salinity impacts on agro-biodiversity in three coastal, rural villages of Bangladesh.Ocean & Coastal Management, Volume 54, Issue 6, June 2011, Pages 455-468. Available at: http:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ pii/S0964569111000317

[17] Miah, G., Bari, N., and Rahman, A (2004), Agricultural Activities and their Impacts on the Ecology and Biodiversity of the Sundarbans area of Bangladesh, in Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka>Vol 31, No 1&2 (2003). Available at:http://www. sljol.info/index.php/JNSFSL/article/ view/3032

[18] Gain, P., Mannan, M. A., Pal, P. S., Hossain, M. M., and Parvin, S (2004), Effect of salinity on some yield attributes of rice. Pak. J. Biol. Sci., 7 (2004), pp. 760-762

[19] Shamsuddin, S., Xiaoyong, C., and M.K. Hazarika, M. K (2006), Evaluation of groundwater quality for irrigation in Bangladesh using geographic information system. J. Hydrol. Hydromech., 54 (2006)

[20] Datta, D.K. and Ghosh, P.K. (2015), Groundwater of the municipalities of southwestern coastal Bangladesh, in: Subramaniam, V. (Ed.) Surface and Sub-surface Water in Asia: Issues and Perspectives, IOS Press, The Netherlands.

[21] BADC (2004), Survey Report on Irrigation Equipment and Irrigated Area in Boro/2003 Season. Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation (BADC). Dhaka

[22] Iyer, R. R (2007), Towards Water Wisdom: Limits, Justice, Harmony. Sage Publications India Private Ltd, New Delhi.p-224,41.

[23] Huq, H (2015), Polderisation in Tidal Floodplains: Exploring Impacts on Social Processes in Bangladesh Southwest Delta. CSD, ULAB, Dhaka

[24] Swapan, M. S. H. and Gavin, M (2011), A desert in the delta: Participatory assessment of changing livelihoods induced by commercial shrimp farming in Southwest Bangladesh, in, Ocean & Coastal Management, Volume 54, Issue 1, January 2011, Pages 45-54. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S0964569110001614#

[25] Alamgir, Fariba (2010), Contested Waters, Conflicting Livelihoods and Water Regimes in Bangladesh, unpublished research paper of MDS programme, ISS, The Hague, The Netherlands, November, 2010

[26] Solidarites International &Uttaran (2012), Chronic Poverty in the Southwest Coastal Belt of Bangladesh. Source:http://www.eldis. org/vfile/upload/1/document/1302/ Chronic\_Poverty\_in\_the\_Southwest\_of\_ Bangladesh\_Article\_11Dec12.pdf

[27] Rahman, islam 2018 M. A. Rahman and M. N. Islam (2018), Scarcity of Safe Drinking Water in the South-West Coastal Bangladesh, J. Environ. Sci. & Natural Resources, 11(1&2):17-25, 2018 ISSN 1999-7361 17

[28] Datta, D. K., Ghosh, P. K., Md. Rezaul Karim, Md. Mujibor Rahman (2009), Geochemical options for water security in a coastal urban agglomerate

**37**

D8280709.

June 22, 2017

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal…*

[34] MPO (Master Plan Organisation). 1987. Surface water availability. Technical report No. 10. MPO, Dhaka

[35] Joypasa (2009), Scarcity of drinking water; in perspective of Southwest Coastal region of Bangladesh. *Available at: http://community.eldis.org/joypasa/ Blog/Scarcity-of-drinking-water--inperspective-of-Southwest-Coastal-region-*

[36] Nahian, M.A., Ahmed, A., Lázár, A.N., Hutton, C.W., Salehin, M. and Streatfield, P.K., 2018. Drinking water salinity associated health crisis in coastal Bangladesh. *Elem Sci Anth*, 6(1), p.2. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1525/

[37] FAO (2015), Mapping Exercise on Waterlogging In South West of Bangladesh Mapping Exercise on Waterlogging In South West of

Bangladesh, an unpublished document of Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations, March 2015

[38] Nowreen, S., Jalal, M. R., and Khan, M. S. A (2014), Historical analysis of rationalizing South West coastal polders of Bangladesh. Water Policy 16 (2014)

[39] Tutu, Ashraf-Ul-Alam Tutu (2009), Tidal River Management in Bangladesh: People's Initiative on the Coastal River Basin Management to Solve Waterlogging in the Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh, In Water for the People: People's Water Resource Management Strategies, an unpublished document of Water for the People Network, IBON International, The

*of-Bangladesh* Jul 13, 2009

elementa.143

264-279

Philippines.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

[29] Aggarwal, P.K., Basu, A.R., Poreda, R.J., Kulkarni, K.M., Froehlich, K., Tarafdar, S.A., Ali, M., Ahmed, N., Hussain, A., Rahman, M., Ahmed, S.R., 2000. A Report on Isotope Hydrology of Groundwater in Bangladesh: Implications for Characterization and Mitigation of Arsenic in Groundwater.

(Report prepared within the

Bangladesh).

s10040-011- 0723-4

IAEA-TC project BGD/8/016, Dhaka,

[30] Shamsudduha, M., Taylor, R.G., Ahmed, K.M., Zahid, A., 2011. The impact of intensive groundwater abstraction on recharge to a shallow regional aquifer system: evidence from Bangladesh. Hydrogeol. J. 19, 901-916. https://doi.org/10.1007/

[31] George, G.J., 2013. Characterization of Salinity Sources in Southwestern Bangladesh Evaluated through Surface Water and Groundwater Geochemical Analyses. Unpublished MSc Thesis. Faculty of the Graduate School, Vanderbilt University, USA

[32] Sultana, S., Ahmed, K.M., Mahtab-Ul-Alam, S.M., Hasan, M., Tuinhof, A., Ghosh, S.K., Rahman, M.S., Ravenscroft, P., Zheng, Y., 2015. Low-cost aquifer storage and recovery: implications for improving drinking water access for rural communities in coastal Bangladesh. J. Hydrol. Eng. 20, B5014007. https://doi.org/10.7916/

[33] WaterAid (2017), Synthesis Report Climate resilient drinking water infrastructure based on a demandsupply and gap analysis For 39 Unions of 5 Upazilas under Khulna and Satkhira District of southwest coastal Bangladesh, an unpublished report,

of Lower Bengal Delta, Bangladesh, Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Elsevier. Journal homepage: www. elsevier.com/locate/gexplo

*Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation – A Case of Southwest Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95002*

of Lower Bengal Delta, Bangladesh, Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Elsevier. Journal homepage: www. elsevier.com/locate/gexplo

*Coastal Environments*

Wellbeing-ecosystem service links: Mechanisms and dynamics in the southwest coastal zone of Bangladesh, ESPA Deltas Working Paper #2, UK,

[21] BADC (2004), Survey Report on Irrigation Equipment and Irrigated Area in Boro/2003 Season. Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation

[22] Iyer, R. R (2007), Towards Water Wisdom: Limits, Justice, Harmony. Sage Publications India Private Ltd, New

[23] Huq, H (2015), Polderisation in Tidal Floodplains: Exploring Impacts on Social Processes in Bangladesh Southwest Delta. CSD, ULAB, Dhaka

[24] Swapan, M. S. H. and Gavin, M (2011), A desert in the delta: Participatory assessment of changing livelihoods induced by commercial shrimp farming in Southwest Bangladesh, in, Ocean & Coastal Management, Volume 54, Issue 1, January 2011, Pages 45-54. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S0964569110001614#

[25] Alamgir, Fariba (2010), Contested Waters, Conflicting Livelihoods and Water Regimes in Bangladesh, unpublished research paper of MDS programme, ISS, The Hague, The Netherlands, November, 2010

[27] Rahman, islam 2018 M. A. Rahman and M. N. Islam (2018), Scarcity of Safe Drinking Water in the South-West Coastal Bangladesh, J. Environ. Sci. & Natural Resources, 11(1&2):17-25, 2018

[28] Datta, D. K., Ghosh, P. K., Md. Rezaul Karim, Md. Mujibor Rahman (2009), Geochemical options for water security in a coastal urban agglomerate

[26] Solidarites International &Uttaran (2012), Chronic Poverty in the Southwest Coastal Belt of Bangladesh. Source:http://www.eldis. org/vfile/upload/1/document/1302/ Chronic\_Poverty\_in\_the\_Southwest\_of\_ Bangladesh\_Article\_11Dec12.pdf

ISSN 1999-7361 17

(BADC). Dhaka

Delhi.p-224,41.

[15] Nandy, G., Ali, S., and Farid, T.I. (2007) Chingri O Jano-Arthoniti: Kar Lav Kar Khoti (Shrimp and People-Economy: Who gains who losses), ActionAid Bangladesh supported publication (Bangla). Dhaka.

[16] Rahman, M. H., Lund, T. and Bryceson, I (2011), Salinity impacts on agro-biodiversity in three coastal, rural villages of Bangladesh.Ocean & Coastal Management, Volume 54, Issue 6, June 2011, Pages 455-468. Available at: http:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/

[17] Miah, G., Bari, N., and Rahman, A (2004), Agricultural Activities and their Impacts on the Ecology and Biodiversity of the Sundarbans area of Bangladesh, in Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka>Vol 31, No 1&2 (2003). Available at:http://www. sljol.info/index.php/JNSFSL/article/

[18] Gain, P., Mannan, M. A., Pal, P. S., Hossain, M. M., and Parvin, S (2004), Effect of salinity on some yield attributes of rice. Pak. J. Biol. Sci., 7

[19] Shamsuddin, S., Xiaoyong, C., and M.K. Hazarika, M. K (2006), Evaluation of groundwater quality for irrigation in Bangladesh using geographic information system. J. Hydrol. Hydromech., 54 (2006)

[20] Datta, D.K. and Ghosh, P.K. (2015), Groundwater of the municipalities of southwestern coastal Bangladesh, in: Subramaniam, V. (Ed.) Surface and Sub-surface Water in Asia: Issues and Perspectives, IOS Press, The

pii/S0964569111000317

view/3032

(2004), pp. 760-762

source: www.espadeltas.net.

**36**

Netherlands.

[29] Aggarwal, P.K., Basu, A.R., Poreda, R.J., Kulkarni, K.M., Froehlich, K., Tarafdar, S.A., Ali, M., Ahmed, N., Hussain, A., Rahman, M., Ahmed, S.R., 2000. A Report on Isotope Hydrology of Groundwater in Bangladesh: Implications for Characterization and Mitigation of Arsenic in Groundwater. (Report prepared within the IAEA-TC project BGD/8/016, Dhaka, Bangladesh).

[30] Shamsudduha, M., Taylor, R.G., Ahmed, K.M., Zahid, A., 2011. The impact of intensive groundwater abstraction on recharge to a shallow regional aquifer system: evidence from Bangladesh. Hydrogeol. J. 19, 901-916. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10040-011- 0723-4

[31] George, G.J., 2013. Characterization of Salinity Sources in Southwestern Bangladesh Evaluated through Surface Water and Groundwater Geochemical Analyses. Unpublished MSc Thesis. Faculty of the Graduate School, Vanderbilt University, USA

[32] Sultana, S., Ahmed, K.M., Mahtab-Ul-Alam, S.M., Hasan, M., Tuinhof, A., Ghosh, S.K., Rahman, M.S., Ravenscroft, P., Zheng, Y., 2015. Low-cost aquifer storage and recovery: implications for improving drinking water access for rural communities in coastal Bangladesh. J. Hydrol. Eng. 20, B5014007. https://doi.org/10.7916/ D8280709.

[33] WaterAid (2017), Synthesis Report Climate resilient drinking water infrastructure based on a demandsupply and gap analysis For 39 Unions of 5 Upazilas under Khulna and Satkhira District of southwest coastal Bangladesh, an unpublished report, June 22, 2017

[34] MPO (Master Plan Organisation). 1987. Surface water availability. Technical report No. 10. MPO, Dhaka

[35] Joypasa (2009), Scarcity of drinking water; in perspective of Southwest Coastal region of Bangladesh. *Available at: http://community.eldis.org/joypasa/ Blog/Scarcity-of-drinking-water--inperspective-of-Southwest-Coastal-regionof-Bangladesh* Jul 13, 2009

[36] Nahian, M.A., Ahmed, A., Lázár, A.N., Hutton, C.W., Salehin, M. and Streatfield, P.K., 2018. Drinking water salinity associated health crisis in coastal Bangladesh. *Elem Sci Anth*, 6(1), p.2. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1525/ elementa.143

[37] FAO (2015), Mapping Exercise on Waterlogging In South West of Bangladesh Mapping Exercise on Waterlogging In South West of Bangladesh, an unpublished document of Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations, March 2015

[38] Nowreen, S., Jalal, M. R., and Khan, M. S. A (2014), Historical analysis of rationalizing South West coastal polders of Bangladesh. Water Policy 16 (2014) 264-279

[39] Tutu, Ashraf-Ul-Alam Tutu (2009), Tidal River Management in Bangladesh: People's Initiative on the Coastal River Basin Management to Solve Waterlogging in the Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh, In Water for the People: People's Water Resource Management Strategies, an unpublished document of Water for the People Network, IBON International, The Philippines.

**39**

**Chapter 3**

**Abstract**

Indicator

Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve

Po-210 is an alpha rays emitter in U-238 decay series and a natural radionuclide found in the ocean, and bivalve is the best biological indicator compared to the other organisms because of their feeding methods that are filter-feeding and suspension-feeding. They are able to accumulate toxic substances from marine environment in their tissue and researches were conducted in edible tissues of *Meretrix meretrix, Perna virid, Glauconome virens, Anadara granosa, Anadara ovalis, Pholas orientalis, Donax* sp*., Polymesoda bengalensis, Phapia undulata,* and *Tellina virgate.* Result showed Po-210 activity distributions were ranging from 2.61 ± 1.50 to 517.46 ± 56.64 Bq/kg. The lowest value of Po-210 activity recorded in *Anadara granosa* and the highest value recorded in *Donax* sp. Small-sized of bivalve species contained higher Po-210 activity than the larger one. Higher Po-210 contents in bivalve obtained from the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia might be closely related to anthropogenic factors from the coastline. This study also found that *Donax* sp*.* is able to be a good indicator of environmental pollutants as it accumulates Po-210 in higher concentrations than other bivalve species. *Donax* sp*.* can be found in several parts of Malaysia and available in large quantities but it appears to be seasonal. While for seafood safety monitoring, *Anadara granosa* is capable of becoming a good benchmark for seafood security as it found in most parts of Malaysia. It is not

Species in Peninsular Malaysia

Waters as Recent Pollution

*Nurhanisah Zakri and Che Abd Rahim Mohamed*

seasonal and a kind of Malaysian favorite seafood.

**1. Introduction of Polonium-210**

**Keywords:** Polonium-210, bivalves, species, pollution, seafood

Polonium (Po) is a highly radioactive and semi-metal element that is rarely encountered with the symbol Po and atomic number 84. Polonium is a radioactive element that occurs naturally in very low concentrations in the earth's crust (about one per million trillion). Po has a low melting point and reactive metal in its pure form. Over 25 isotopes of polonium are known, with atomic masses between Po-192 to Po-218 (isotopes are different forms of an element that have the same number of protons in the nucleus but different numbers of neutrons). All isotopes of polonium radioactive but only three have a long half-life that enables to do research which is polonium-208 (42 years), polonium-209 (2.9 years), and Po-210 (138.4 days).

#### **Chapter 3**

## Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution Indicator

*Nurhanisah Zakri and Che Abd Rahim Mohamed*

#### **Abstract**

Po-210 is an alpha rays emitter in U-238 decay series and a natural radionuclide found in the ocean, and bivalve is the best biological indicator compared to the other organisms because of their feeding methods that are filter-feeding and suspension-feeding. They are able to accumulate toxic substances from marine environment in their tissue and researches were conducted in edible tissues of *Meretrix meretrix, Perna virid, Glauconome virens, Anadara granosa, Anadara ovalis, Pholas orientalis, Donax* sp*., Polymesoda bengalensis, Phapia undulata,* and *Tellina virgate.* Result showed Po-210 activity distributions were ranging from 2.61 ± 1.50 to 517.46 ± 56.64 Bq/kg. The lowest value of Po-210 activity recorded in *Anadara granosa* and the highest value recorded in *Donax* sp. Small-sized of bivalve species contained higher Po-210 activity than the larger one. Higher Po-210 contents in bivalve obtained from the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia might be closely related to anthropogenic factors from the coastline. This study also found that *Donax* sp*.* is able to be a good indicator of environmental pollutants as it accumulates Po-210 in higher concentrations than other bivalve species. *Donax* sp*.* can be found in several parts of Malaysia and available in large quantities but it appears to be seasonal. While for seafood safety monitoring, *Anadara granosa* is capable of becoming a good benchmark for seafood security as it found in most parts of Malaysia. It is not seasonal and a kind of Malaysian favorite seafood.

**Keywords:** Polonium-210, bivalves, species, pollution, seafood

#### **1. Introduction of Polonium-210**

Polonium (Po) is a highly radioactive and semi-metal element that is rarely encountered with the symbol Po and atomic number 84. Polonium is a radioactive element that occurs naturally in very low concentrations in the earth's crust (about one per million trillion). Po has a low melting point and reactive metal in its pure form. Over 25 isotopes of polonium are known, with atomic masses between Po-192 to Po-218 (isotopes are different forms of an element that have the same number of protons in the nucleus but different numbers of neutrons). All isotopes of polonium radioactive but only three have a long half-life that enables to do research which is polonium-208 (42 years), polonium-209 (2.9 years), and Po-210 (138.4 days).

#### **Figure 1.**

*The naturally occurring U-238, U-235 and Th-232 decay series, all of which contain polonium isotopes. Source: Carvalho [1].*

Po-210 is a natural isotope that has a low melting point, volatile with 50% will vaporize at a temperature of 55° C within 45 hours. Po-210 is soluble in dilute acid but partially soluble in alkali. Po-210 is a product of the radioactive decay series of uranium-238 together with lead-210, it is one of the two products of decay of radon-222 and it decays to lead-206, which generate stable alpha particles. The energy released by the decay is more than 140 watts and temperature reach above 500° C.

Polonium-210 (Po-210) is produced by the natural decay of uranium-238, released widely in small amounts in the earth's crust (**Figure 1**). Uranium ores contain less than 0.1 mg of Po-210 per ton due to lack of Po-210 source. It will produce by synthetically in nuclear reactors by bombarding bismuth-209 (stable isotope) with neutrons. This form bismuth-210, which has a half-life of 5 days and beta emitter decays to produce Po-210. A large number of milligrams of Po-210 can be produced in addition to Po-209 and Po-208 by bombardment of bismuth-210.

Po-210 is usually used as a chemical to eliminate the effects of static electricity in the industrial paper processing machinery, sheet, plastics and synthetic fibers [2]. Po-210 is generally coated on a support foil and put in the brush holder, tube or other. The alpha particles from polonium ionize adjacent air and air ions then neutralize static electricity on the surface in contact with air. These devices typically need to be replaced every year because of the short half-life of this radioisotope. Po-210 is also used in brushes to remove dust from photographic film and camera lenses. Static electricity eraser materials usually contain tens to hundreds

**41**

**2.2 Water**

*Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution…*

of Po-210 mCi. Po-210 can also be combined with beryllium to produce neutron sources and used as a catalyst for the production of neutrons of the first phase in the creation of atomic weapons [3]. Moreover, Po-210 is also a source of heat for the

In the environment, the contaminants of Po-210 is present as naturally and synthetically. Po-210 is highly toxic to human health because it has a high affinity and actively bind tightly and gathered on the particles and tissues of the organism addition to being the main contributor with 90% of the radiation dose and toxicity of naturally accepted by many marine organisms [1]. Humans are exposed to natural radiation in the high rate is through the consumption of food, especially seafood because marine organisms have a high capacity of bioaccumulation of radionuclides and other toxic elements from water. Determination of radioactivity in seafood such as crustaceans, mollusks and fish can be an indicator of the ecosystem and food security situation at the time. The level of this element influenced the quality of the marine environment, marine life and affect human health as the highest trophic level of the food chain. Then the objectives of this writing are (i) to determine the distribution of Po-210 in tissues of different species of bivalves, (ii) to compare the Po-210 concentrations in the tissues of bivalves from different locations, and (iii) to

In the vicinity, Po-210 is naturally present in very low concentrations. Po-210 is produced from the decay of radon-222, it can be found in the atmosphere. Po-210 is also released into the atmosphere during processing phosphate rock to elemental phosphorus. Previous studies have found the deposition from the atmosphere on tobacco leaves are in high concentrations [4]. The content of Po-210 in tobacco smoke is also high and the health impact is greater in smokers than non-smokers. In the marine environment, Po-210 is produced in large quantities by the decay of Pb-210 from the atmosphere. Then small amounts of Po-210 in the ocean are comes from the atmospheric Po-210. While, Po-210 concentrations in river and sea is usually widely varied as they involve the geological system and weathering processes of an area. The concentration of Po-210 is also increased by the presence of industrial activity around the river and the sea [5]. Polonium has existed widely in the environment and the natural background radiation wildlife. Therefore, the study and measurement concentration of polonium is important not only for physical health but also important in the field of geochronology and environmental science.

Water covers 71% entire surface of the earth and an important medium ecosystem. All the natural elements dissolved in water and water into a source of nutrient storage and transfer medium of nutrients in the ecosystem abiotic and biotic [6]. Then, Po-210 has the same features as the nutrients contained in the surface waters where nutrients and Po-210 is taken as food by phytoplankton and released to other areas such as the euphotic zone [1]. Based on a study by Hong et al. [7] along Japanese waters, Po-210 concentrations in water columns decrease with depth and from winter to summer. Most studies Po-210 and Pb-210 found, the ratio of Po-210/ Pb-210 in seawater is less than 1.0 and Po-210 becomes more reactive to organic particles than particles of inorganic [8, 9]. Po-210 activity against organic particles

identify the pollution sources of Po-210 in the bivalves species.

**2. Polonium-210 in marine ecosystem**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

thermoelectric device.

**2.1 Environment**

*Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

of Po-210 mCi. Po-210 can also be combined with beryllium to produce neutron sources and used as a catalyst for the production of neutrons of the first phase in the creation of atomic weapons [3]. Moreover, Po-210 is also a source of heat for the thermoelectric device.

In the environment, the contaminants of Po-210 is present as naturally and synthetically. Po-210 is highly toxic to human health because it has a high affinity and actively bind tightly and gathered on the particles and tissues of the organism addition to being the main contributor with 90% of the radiation dose and toxicity of naturally accepted by many marine organisms [1]. Humans are exposed to natural radiation in the high rate is through the consumption of food, especially seafood because marine organisms have a high capacity of bioaccumulation of radionuclides and other toxic elements from water. Determination of radioactivity in seafood such as crustaceans, mollusks and fish can be an indicator of the ecosystem and food security situation at the time. The level of this element influenced the quality of the marine environment, marine life and affect human health as the highest trophic level of the food chain. Then the objectives of this writing are (i) to determine the distribution of Po-210 in tissues of different species of bivalves, (ii) to compare the Po-210 concentrations in the tissues of bivalves from different locations, and (iii) to identify the pollution sources of Po-210 in the bivalves species.

#### **2. Polonium-210 in marine ecosystem**

#### **2.1 Environment**

*Coastal Environments*

Po-210 is a natural isotope that has a low melting point, volatile with 50% will vaporize at a temperature of 55° C within 45 hours. Po-210 is soluble in dilute acid but partially soluble in alkali. Po-210 is a product of the radioactive decay series of uranium-238 together with lead-210, it is one of the two products of decay of radon-222 and it decays to lead-206, which generate stable alpha particles. The energy released by the decay is more than 140 watts and temperature reach above

*The naturally occurring U-238, U-235 and Th-232 decay series, all of which contain polonium isotopes.* 

Polonium-210 (Po-210) is produced by the natural decay of uranium-238, released widely in small amounts in the earth's crust (**Figure 1**). Uranium ores contain less than 0.1 mg of Po-210 per ton due to lack of Po-210 source. It will produce by synthetically in nuclear reactors by bombarding bismuth-209 (stable isotope) with neutrons. This form bismuth-210, which has a half-life of 5 days and beta emitter decays to produce Po-210. A large number of milligrams of Po-210 can be produced in addition to Po-209 and Po-208 by bombardment of bismuth-210. Po-210 is usually used as a chemical to eliminate the effects of static electricity in the industrial paper processing machinery, sheet, plastics and synthetic fibers [2]. Po-210 is generally coated on a support foil and put in the brush holder, tube or other. The alpha particles from polonium ionize adjacent air and air ions then neutralize static electricity on the surface in contact with air. These devices typically need to be replaced every year because of the short half-life of this radioisotope. Po-210 is also used in brushes to remove dust from photographic film and camera lenses. Static electricity eraser materials usually contain tens to hundreds

**40**

500° C.

**Figure 1.**

*Source: Carvalho [1].*

In the vicinity, Po-210 is naturally present in very low concentrations. Po-210 is produced from the decay of radon-222, it can be found in the atmosphere. Po-210 is also released into the atmosphere during processing phosphate rock to elemental phosphorus. Previous studies have found the deposition from the atmosphere on tobacco leaves are in high concentrations [4]. The content of Po-210 in tobacco smoke is also high and the health impact is greater in smokers than non-smokers. In the marine environment, Po-210 is produced in large quantities by the decay of Pb-210 from the atmosphere. Then small amounts of Po-210 in the ocean are comes from the atmospheric Po-210. While, Po-210 concentrations in river and sea is usually widely varied as they involve the geological system and weathering processes of an area. The concentration of Po-210 is also increased by the presence of industrial activity around the river and the sea [5]. Polonium has existed widely in the environment and the natural background radiation wildlife. Therefore, the study and measurement concentration of polonium is important not only for physical health but also important in the field of geochronology and environmental science.

#### **2.2 Water**

Water covers 71% entire surface of the earth and an important medium ecosystem. All the natural elements dissolved in water and water into a source of nutrient storage and transfer medium of nutrients in the ecosystem abiotic and biotic [6]. Then, Po-210 has the same features as the nutrients contained in the surface waters where nutrients and Po-210 is taken as food by phytoplankton and released to other areas such as the euphotic zone [1]. Based on a study by Hong et al. [7] along Japanese waters, Po-210 concentrations in water columns decrease with depth and from winter to summer. Most studies Po-210 and Pb-210 found, the ratio of Po-210/ Pb-210 in seawater is less than 1.0 and Po-210 becomes more reactive to organic particles than particles of inorganic [8, 9]. Po-210 activity against organic particles

resembling the profile element where the concentrations of nutrients in surface water is low and increased in the mid-depth and reduced to a maximum depth [9, 10]. Po-210 concentrations in seawater are usually depending on the season, chemical and biological factors [7].

#### **2.3 Sediment**

Sediment is broken stone fragments that are chemically or by natural weathering. Sediment is the transition between the sandstone. Sediment deposition can occur anywhere and the sea is the last settlement. Sediment interaction with living organisms in aquatic ecosystems is high. There are nutrients in sediments and to be medium for marine life such as seaweed and benthic survive [11].

While sediment is one of the essential components for aquatic life and also a place for accumulate pollutants. Sediment can be an indicator of pollution due to contaminants in aquatic systems deposited on the seabed. Accumulation of pollutants in sediment at the seabed is important for pollution studies. Feature Po-210 has a high affinity bind to the particle that makes the sediment as the main source of contamination indicator Po-210 [12].

Generally, the content of Po-210 increased with increasing amount of silt, clay and organic matter [13]. Po-210 concentrations were high in the sediments occurs as sedimentary fragments of organic waste. Then, sediments rich with Po-210 is an important medium for removal polonium from water column into the organisms [14].

#### **2.4 Marine flora**

Marine flora is an important resource in the stability of marine ecosystems and phytoplankton is a primary source in the entire food chain of marine life. Phytoplankton accumulate Po-210 were found in the water column without involving light energy and temperature. This method involves passive adsorption on the surface of cells and cell control the intake of Po-210 in phytoplankton [15]. Po-210 concentrations in marine phytoplankton are varied and depend on the size and composition of the proteins in the cell [15]. Analysis by Cherry and Shannon [16] found the concentration range of Po-210 in phytoplankton at the Peru waters is ranging from 32 Bq/kg to 132 Bq/kg, and studied by Heyraud and Cherry [17] is about 237 Bq/kg. In addition, analysis by Folsom and Beasley [18] found concentration of Po-210 is too low, so the 0:07 Bq/kg in dinoflagellate taken from waters off California are experiencing an explosion of algae bloom.

Laboratory studies have found the accumulation of Po-210 by bacteria and phytoplankton depends on the cell structure protein [19, 20] and it is consistent with studies that have been conducted in animal protein [21, 22]. Seaweed or algae is rich in protein but Po-210 concentration is high in seaweed [14]. The level concentration of Po-210 is high in seaweed during winter and low during summer [23]. Finally the levels of Po-210 in marine biota were also influenced by the changing seasons with ranging from 10 Bq/kg to 70 Bq/kg especially in crab, squid and fish [17].

#### **2.5 Edible seafood - bivalve**

The feeding activities of bivalve usually proportion the contents of water column and sediment–water interface of seabed. These relationships provide ecosystem services that affect the entire food chain. Bivalves are an essential component in the river and ocean because it can act as a filter for bacteria, algae and other small particles. The ability of bivalves as a natural filter improves water

**43**

**Figure 2.**

*Various edible species of bivalve in Malaysia waters.*

*Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution…*

quality, particularly marine ecosystems. Malaysian water is rich coastal area of sandy and muddy mangrove habitat is suitable for a variety of flora and fauna. Malaysia's tropical climate is hot and humid all year creating diversity on land and sea. This makes Malaysia is rich in marine life, especially species of shelled bivalves. Species of bivalves are often used as a food source population is as clams (*Meretrix meretrix*), Mussels (*Perna viridis* & *Glaucoma virens*), Shellfish (*Anadara granosa*), Conch shell (*Anadara ovalis*), Mentarang (*Pholas orientalis*), mussels (*Donax* sp.), seashell mangrove (*Polymesoda bengalensis*) and lala (*Phapia undulate* & *Tellina virgata*) and others can be found throughout Malaysia, especially coastal areas of

Previous studies have found particularly bivalves *Mytilus* sp. able to accumulate toxic heavy metals found in the environment [24, 25]. These organisms accumulate many contaminants found in the water column as well as a bio-indicator contamination of an area [26]. Many studies have been conducted and found that alpha particles naturally released Po-210 accumulated in the tissues of various marine organisms, especially in organisms at high levels and concentrations higher than Pb-210 [22, 27] and tissue hepatopancreas in animals marine invertebrates has the highest concentration of natural dose in the marine ecosystem [17, 28, 29]. In the United Kingdom, researchers are focusing on fish and shellfish in areas that are not contaminated to trace the source of natural radionuclides produced by anthropogenic. The concentration of radionuclides Pb-210, Ra-226, U-238 and Th-232 in marine organisms is much lower than the concentration of Po-210 and varied according to diet of the users [30]. The study by Carvalho [31] found that the main exposure Shaheof Po-210 is through the consumption of seafood, the accumulation of these radionuclides is three times higher than people who consume foods

Bivalve is an organism that takes phytoplankton and suspended particles in the bottom of the sea as a food source. The variations levels of Po-210 in the edible tissue of bivalve is always different based on the digestive technique either using filtration or suspension method [32, 33]. Bivalves that do food intake filtration techniques have concentrations of Po-210 higher than the suspension food intake [34]. Connan et al. [23] found that the concentration of Po-210 in bivalve is highly during winter than summer season. This situation points out that the bivalves less accumulated Po-210 during summer than winter season. In winter season bivalves will produce the gametogenesis and reproductive processes will occur during the summer period [35]. Then there is the interconnection between Po-210 concentrations in bivalves with a variety of physiological, biochemical and sexual abuse that are reported to the concentration of heavy metals in bivalves [36]. Po-210 concentration is also dependent on the sampling location. The study conducted

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

Peninsular Malaysia (**Figure 2**).

mainland.

*Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

quality, particularly marine ecosystems. Malaysian water is rich coastal area of sandy and muddy mangrove habitat is suitable for a variety of flora and fauna. Malaysia's tropical climate is hot and humid all year creating diversity on land and sea. This makes Malaysia is rich in marine life, especially species of shelled bivalves. Species of bivalves are often used as a food source population is as clams (*Meretrix meretrix*), Mussels (*Perna viridis* & *Glaucoma virens*), Shellfish (*Anadara granosa*), Conch shell (*Anadara ovalis*), Mentarang (*Pholas orientalis*), mussels (*Donax* sp.), seashell mangrove (*Polymesoda bengalensis*) and lala (*Phapia undulate* & *Tellina virgata*) and others can be found throughout Malaysia, especially coastal areas of Peninsular Malaysia (**Figure 2**).

Previous studies have found particularly bivalves *Mytilus* sp. able to accumulate toxic heavy metals found in the environment [24, 25]. These organisms accumulate many contaminants found in the water column as well as a bio-indicator contamination of an area [26]. Many studies have been conducted and found that alpha particles naturally released Po-210 accumulated in the tissues of various marine organisms, especially in organisms at high levels and concentrations higher than Pb-210 [22, 27] and tissue hepatopancreas in animals marine invertebrates has the highest concentration of natural dose in the marine ecosystem [17, 28, 29]. In the United Kingdom, researchers are focusing on fish and shellfish in areas that are not contaminated to trace the source of natural radionuclides produced by anthropogenic. The concentration of radionuclides Pb-210, Ra-226, U-238 and Th-232 in marine organisms is much lower than the concentration of Po-210 and varied according to diet of the users [30]. The study by Carvalho [31] found that the main exposure Shaheof Po-210 is through the consumption of seafood, the accumulation of these radionuclides is three times higher than people who consume foods mainland.

Bivalve is an organism that takes phytoplankton and suspended particles in the bottom of the sea as a food source. The variations levels of Po-210 in the edible tissue of bivalve is always different based on the digestive technique either using filtration or suspension method [32, 33]. Bivalves that do food intake filtration techniques have concentrations of Po-210 higher than the suspension food intake [34].

Connan et al. [23] found that the concentration of Po-210 in bivalve is highly during winter than summer season. This situation points out that the bivalves less accumulated Po-210 during summer than winter season. In winter season bivalves will produce the gametogenesis and reproductive processes will occur during the summer period [35]. Then there is the interconnection between Po-210 concentrations in bivalves with a variety of physiological, biochemical and sexual abuse that are reported to the concentration of heavy metals in bivalves [36]. Po-210 concentration is also dependent on the sampling location. The study conducted

**Figure 2.**

*Various edible species of bivalve in Malaysia waters.*

*Coastal Environments*

**2.3 Sediment**

organisms [14].

**2.4 Marine flora**

chemical and biological factors [7].

contamination indicator Po-210 [12].

resembling the profile element where the concentrations of nutrients in surface water is low and increased in the mid-depth and reduced to a maximum depth [9, 10]. Po-210 concentrations in seawater are usually depending on the season,

Sediment is broken stone fragments that are chemically or by natural weathering. Sediment is the transition between the sandstone. Sediment deposition can occur anywhere and the sea is the last settlement. Sediment interaction with living organisms in aquatic ecosystems is high. There are nutrients in sediments and to be

While sediment is one of the essential components for aquatic life and also a place for accumulate pollutants. Sediment can be an indicator of pollution due to contaminants in aquatic systems deposited on the seabed. Accumulation of pollutants in sediment at the seabed is important for pollution studies. Feature Po-210 has a high affinity bind to the particle that makes the sediment as the main source of

Generally, the content of Po-210 increased with increasing amount of silt, clay and organic matter [13]. Po-210 concentrations were high in the sediments occurs as sedimentary fragments of organic waste. Then, sediments rich with Po-210 is an important medium for removal polonium from water column into the

Marine flora is an important resource in the stability of marine ecosystems and phytoplankton is a primary source in the entire food chain of marine life. Phytoplankton accumulate Po-210 were found in the water column without involving light energy and temperature. This method involves passive adsorption on the surface of cells and cell control the intake of Po-210 in phytoplankton [15]. Po-210 concentrations in marine phytoplankton are varied and depend on the size and composition of the proteins in the cell [15]. Analysis by Cherry and Shannon [16] found the concentration range of Po-210 in phytoplankton at the Peru waters is ranging from 32 Bq/kg to 132 Bq/kg, and studied by Heyraud and Cherry [17] is about 237 Bq/kg. In addition, analysis by Folsom and Beasley [18] found concentration of Po-210 is too low, so the 0:07 Bq/kg in dinoflagellate taken from waters off

Laboratory studies have found the accumulation of Po-210 by bacteria and phytoplankton depends on the cell structure protein [19, 20] and it is consistent with studies that have been conducted in animal protein [21, 22]. Seaweed or algae is rich in protein but Po-210 concentration is high in seaweed [14]. The level concentration of Po-210 is high in seaweed during winter and low during summer [23]. Finally the levels of Po-210 in marine biota were also influenced by the changing seasons with

ranging from 10 Bq/kg to 70 Bq/kg especially in crab, squid and fish [17].

The feeding activities of bivalve usually proportion the contents of water column and sediment–water interface of seabed. These relationships provide ecosystem services that affect the entire food chain. Bivalves are an essential component in the river and ocean because it can act as a filter for bacteria, algae and other small particles. The ability of bivalves as a natural filter improves water

California are experiencing an explosion of algae bloom.

medium for marine life such as seaweed and benthic survive [11].

**42**

**2.5 Edible seafood - bivalve**

by McDonald et al. [37] in six different sampling locations in Scotland, England, France and Monaco have found concentrations of Po-210 in the soft tissues of the organism is in the ranging from 111 Bq/kg to 459 Bq/kg and depending on the size of bivalve [38]. The level of Po-210 in edible tissue usually increased with decreasing size of bivalve as well reported by Bustamante et al. [34]. But the contrast findings reported by Conan et al. [23], where the larger size of bivalve containing high level Po-210. The difference of this study was more pronounced with age and associating the difference of each species of bivalves metabolism.

The distribution contents of Po-210 in tissue as well as organs with different species, life and habitat of bivalves are not well documented. According to Wildgust et al. [39], digestive organ tissue is about 10% of the total body weight but from that 15–36% is containing Po-210. The digestive system is the main route of Po-210 entering into bivalve body from marine environment. The highest level of Po-210 was recorded in the digestive tissues of *Chlamys Vaira* [34]. The high concentration of Po-210 has also been found in the digestive tissues of several species such as *M.trossulus, P.yessoensis* and *B.cornutus* [40, 41]. The level of Po-210 is different based on the function of organs as well described by Connan et al., [23].

In *Chlamys islandicus*, Po-210 concentrations were the highest recorded in the gill tissue, where the gill is the first organ of polonium entering into the bivalve body [34]. However Connan et al. [23] reported the digestive organ, gills and mantle of oyster containing highest level of Po-210 among other tissues. The concentration of Po-210 in soft tissue of *Chlamys varia* is two to three times higher than *Mytilus edulis* and suitable as pollution indicator but Po-210 concentrations recorded by this species is lower than *Chlamys varia* [34]. Po-210 concentrations in the digestive system was strong relationship with the changing contents of suspended particles, then proposed a major input Po-210 in the organism is of leachate sediment particles in the water column.

#### **3. Human health and pollution indicator**

#### **3.1 Human health**

Alpha particles are able to penetrate several sheets of paper or epidermis of the skin and can be stopped by clothing and skin. Thus, alpha radiation represents internal contamination and internal radiation hazard only if the particles inhaled, ingested or injected and penetrated through the opening cuts. By weight, Po-210 is 250,000 times more toxic than hydrogen cyanide and one gram of Po-210 can result in 50 million to 50 million of morbidity and mortality in humans [42]. Po-210 only becomes carcinogenic when introduced into the body. External physical exposure is less dangerous. The primary means of exposure is through ingestion of food and water as well as inhalation of air containing Po-210. Animal studies have found that 50–90% of Po-210 was taken through food and drink will soon leave the body through the feces and the remainder enters the bloodstream [43].

Generally, lung and kidney is important organ compare with others organ in human body. Almost 45% of Po-210, which is eaten, will be stored in the lungs, kidneys and liver, while 10% is stored in bone marrow and the remainder is distributed throughout the body [1]. Through breathing, Po-210 in the air will be deposited in the lungs. Po-210 is inhaled during breathing, either from radon in the air or cigarette smoke, can be stored in the mucous lining of the respiratory tract. The alpha particles emitted in the lungs can cause the cells lining the airways disturbed and damaged. Cell damage can potentially lead to lung cancer. The effect usually occurs in the kidney compared to the lungs, although higher doses in the lungs. Alpha particles are free from Po-210 can interrupt the system by destroying

**45**

*Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution…*

DNA cells, modifying the structure and function of cells and cause mortality cells. Previous studies have found the risk of mortality from cancer can be occurred and Carpenter et al. [44] reported the radiation of these radionuclides would be affect-

Pollution is the entry of pollutants such as chemicals, noise, heat, light and energy into the environment resulting in destructive effect to endanger human health, natural resources and threatened ecosystems and interfere with the amenity and environmental use. Definition of pollution more informed in accordance with the Environmental Quality Act 1974 which states that pollution is any change either directly or indirectly to the physical properties, chemical, biological or radiation level of any part of the environment with the release, issue or placing waste to the detriment of beneficial uses, which gives rise to a dangerous situation or may be harmful to the health, safety or welfare or other organisms, plants and animals.

Water and ocean play an important role in controlling the balance of wildlife and the environment. Compared pollution on land can be seen clearly and more easily manage, pollution at sea cannot be delimited. Its negative impact will occur globally and are rapidly but cannot be seen with the naked eye. Sea was made barrels such as plastic waste, industrial waste and oil. This situation led to disruption of the ecosystem, destroying habitat and marine life. Even in small concentrations, pollutant toxic components capable of retarding the ability of marine life to breed and grow. The fact that the toxic substance decomposes difficult due to long life than through the food chain causing it to accumulate and poison the animals, especially marine shellfish and its impact will be seen in the highest levels of human food [45].

Radioactive contamination is usually expressed in units of radioactivity per unit

SI unit for measurement pollution in the organism is a unit of radioactivity per unit weight of organisms as Bq/kg. Radioactive contamination may be fixed or removable. In the case of fixed contamination, the radioactive material is distributed by definition, but still measurable. Monitoring involves the measurement of radioactive contamination or radiation dose of radionuclides associated with the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances and the interpretation of results [46]. Methodological and technical details for the design and operation of environmental radiation monitoring program at different types of radionuclides will

As reported by Utusan Malaysia [47], industrial waste pollution flowing into the sea in Malaysia, especially in the industrial states of Penang, Selangor and Johor had to be addressed. This is because the pollution can affect marine life and the next source of food and traditional fishing economy. For example, the local shellfish contain heavy metals lead and other toxic substances to be used as case studies of high institutes of higher learning and overseas. In fact, many may recall, not long ago there were countries that had prevented the importation of scallops from our country. Another consequence, shellfish breeders Sungai Juru, Penang, which is a major producer of oyster country, reported losses of up to half of the shell as a result of death, death or disability due to the quality of seawater in the state is too bad. In fact, the actual farming shellfish aquaculture is one of the main branches of the

The seafood and the result is the main source of protein coastal population. Toxic pollutants and radionuclides are present in marine environments can also exist and be detected in the tissues of marine life. The concentration of toxic substances in the tissues of marine life increases with increasing trophic level. Po-210

). The

area but for international unit (SI) is the Becquerel per square meter (Bq/m2

be guided by the International Atomic Energy Agency standard protocol.

state, with cockles *Anadara* sp*.* 40,000 tonnes in 1991 [48].

ing the tissue and genetic cause by the alpha particles emitted.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

**3.2 Po-210 as polluter and pollution indicator**

DNA cells, modifying the structure and function of cells and cause mortality cells. Previous studies have found the risk of mortality from cancer can be occurred and Carpenter et al. [44] reported the radiation of these radionuclides would be affecting the tissue and genetic cause by the alpha particles emitted.

#### **3.2 Po-210 as polluter and pollution indicator**

*Coastal Environments*

by McDonald et al. [37] in six different sampling locations in Scotland, England, France and Monaco have found concentrations of Po-210 in the soft tissues of the organism is in the ranging from 111 Bq/kg to 459 Bq/kg and depending on the size of bivalve [38]. The level of Po-210 in edible tissue usually increased with decreasing size of bivalve as well reported by Bustamante et al. [34]. But the contrast findings reported by Conan et al. [23], where the larger size of bivalve containing high level Po-210. The difference of this study was more pronounced with age and

The distribution contents of Po-210 in tissue as well as organs with different species, life and habitat of bivalves are not well documented. According to Wildgust et al. [39], digestive organ tissue is about 10% of the total body weight but from that 15–36% is containing Po-210. The digestive system is the main route of Po-210 entering into bivalve body from marine environment. The highest level of Po-210 was recorded in the digestive tissues of *Chlamys Vaira* [34]. The high concentration of Po-210 has also been found in the digestive tissues of several species such as *M.trossulus, P.yessoensis* and *B.cornutus* [40, 41]. The level of Po-210 is different based

In *Chlamys islandicus*, Po-210 concentrations were the highest recorded in the gill tissue, where the gill is the first organ of polonium entering into the bivalve body [34]. However Connan et al. [23] reported the digestive organ, gills and mantle of oyster containing highest level of Po-210 among other tissues. The concentration of Po-210 in soft tissue of *Chlamys varia* is two to three times higher than *Mytilus edulis* and suitable as pollution indicator but Po-210 concentrations recorded by this species is lower than *Chlamys varia* [34]. Po-210 concentrations in the digestive system was strong relationship with the changing contents of suspended particles, then proposed a major input

Alpha particles are able to penetrate several sheets of paper or epidermis of the skin and can be stopped by clothing and skin. Thus, alpha radiation represents internal contamination and internal radiation hazard only if the particles inhaled, ingested or injected and penetrated through the opening cuts. By weight, Po-210 is 250,000 times more toxic than hydrogen cyanide and one gram of Po-210 can result in 50 million to 50 million of morbidity and mortality in humans [42]. Po-210 only becomes carcinogenic when introduced into the body. External physical exposure is less dangerous. The primary means of exposure is through ingestion of food and water as well as inhalation of air containing Po-210. Animal studies have found that 50–90% of Po-210 was taken through food and drink will soon leave the body

Generally, lung and kidney is important organ compare with others organ in human body. Almost 45% of Po-210, which is eaten, will be stored in the lungs, kidneys and liver, while 10% is stored in bone marrow and the remainder is distributed throughout the body [1]. Through breathing, Po-210 in the air will be deposited in the lungs. Po-210 is inhaled during breathing, either from radon in the air or cigarette smoke, can be stored in the mucous lining of the respiratory tract. The alpha particles emitted in the lungs can cause the cells lining the airways disturbed and damaged. Cell damage can potentially lead to lung cancer. The effect usually occurs in the kidney compared to the lungs, although higher doses in the lungs. Alpha particles are free from Po-210 can interrupt the system by destroying

associating the difference of each species of bivalves metabolism.

on the function of organs as well described by Connan et al., [23].

Po-210 in the organism is of leachate sediment particles in the water column.

through the feces and the remainder enters the bloodstream [43].

**3. Human health and pollution indicator**

**3.1 Human health**

**44**

Pollution is the entry of pollutants such as chemicals, noise, heat, light and energy into the environment resulting in destructive effect to endanger human health, natural resources and threatened ecosystems and interfere with the amenity and environmental use. Definition of pollution more informed in accordance with the Environmental Quality Act 1974 which states that pollution is any change either directly or indirectly to the physical properties, chemical, biological or radiation level of any part of the environment with the release, issue or placing waste to the detriment of beneficial uses, which gives rise to a dangerous situation or may be harmful to the health, safety or welfare or other organisms, plants and animals.

Water and ocean play an important role in controlling the balance of wildlife and the environment. Compared pollution on land can be seen clearly and more easily manage, pollution at sea cannot be delimited. Its negative impact will occur globally and are rapidly but cannot be seen with the naked eye. Sea was made barrels such as plastic waste, industrial waste and oil. This situation led to disruption of the ecosystem, destroying habitat and marine life. Even in small concentrations, pollutant toxic components capable of retarding the ability of marine life to breed and grow. The fact that the toxic substance decomposes difficult due to long life than through the food chain causing it to accumulate and poison the animals, especially marine shellfish and its impact will be seen in the highest levels of human food [45].

Radioactive contamination is usually expressed in units of radioactivity per unit area but for international unit (SI) is the Becquerel per square meter (Bq/m2 ). The SI unit for measurement pollution in the organism is a unit of radioactivity per unit weight of organisms as Bq/kg. Radioactive contamination may be fixed or removable. In the case of fixed contamination, the radioactive material is distributed by definition, but still measurable. Monitoring involves the measurement of radioactive contamination or radiation dose of radionuclides associated with the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances and the interpretation of results [46]. Methodological and technical details for the design and operation of environmental radiation monitoring program at different types of radionuclides will be guided by the International Atomic Energy Agency standard protocol.

As reported by Utusan Malaysia [47], industrial waste pollution flowing into the sea in Malaysia, especially in the industrial states of Penang, Selangor and Johor had to be addressed. This is because the pollution can affect marine life and the next source of food and traditional fishing economy. For example, the local shellfish contain heavy metals lead and other toxic substances to be used as case studies of high institutes of higher learning and overseas. In fact, many may recall, not long ago there were countries that had prevented the importation of scallops from our country. Another consequence, shellfish breeders Sungai Juru, Penang, which is a major producer of oyster country, reported losses of up to half of the shell as a result of death, death or disability due to the quality of seawater in the state is too bad. In fact, the actual farming shellfish aquaculture is one of the main branches of the state, with cockles *Anadara* sp*.* 40,000 tonnes in 1991 [48].

The seafood and the result is the main source of protein coastal population. Toxic pollutants and radionuclides are present in marine environments can also exist and be detected in the tissues of marine life. The concentration of toxic substances in the tissues of marine life increases with increasing trophic level. Po-210 radioisotope study in bivalves has been widely carried out abroad. In Malaysia, the research focused on the determination of trace elements, metal and heavy metal and radionuclide studies to be lacking. The main natural radiation exposure is through the consumption of seafood containing radioactive elements [49]. Therefore, many countries and international organizations have been monitoring and determining the health risks of seafood through diet by population and dose seafood safety by the use of human [30, 40, 50–52].

Today many researchers conducting a study on natural radionuclides e.g., Po-210 because a lot negative impact on human health were reported. Previous studies have found marine organisms accumulate Po-210 in high concentrations and food chain is one of the main routes of distribution and accumulation of Po-210 in marine organisms (e.g. [21, 53, 54]).

Ongoing studies towards the marine environmental conditions are important to all countries in an effort to reduce and prevent pollution from becoming widespread. Therefore, constant and systematic monitoring is necessary. The usage of marine organism as a bio-indicator for heavy metal pollutions has shown promising results [8]. Bivalve of *Mytilus* sp. has been a good pollution indicator and is widely used due to its ability to accumulate heavy metals from its environmental habitat [24].

Recently, biological indicator has been used to monitor the concentration level of heavy metals and both the stable and unstable radioactive materials in the marine environments in which has become the norm for researchers worldwide. Organisms capable of accumulating pollutants such as bivalve are preferred as indicators in order to determine the presence of specific pollutants in the environment.

The main characteristics for the bio-indicating organisms are the ability to accumulate widely-spread pollutants, can be easily found throughout the region geographically, may survived a whole year round, highly sensitive and tolerant of pollutants without affecting the organisms itself, may be easily obtain for sampling and preservation as well as showing positive correlation between pollutant concentration and environmental pollution [55]. In addition to its ability to act as a pollutant source and environmental quality bio-indicator, it also allows comparisons between elements such as heavy metals and radioisotopes in organisms from different geographical areas.

#### **4. Sampling and methodology**

Malaysia has nearly 4800 km of coastline area that includes sandy beaches and muddy beaches. The region is rich in rich resources and livelihoods that are vital to the stability of the ecosystem and contribute to the national economy. This makes Malaysia rich in marine life, especially for bivalve species. These species can be found throughout Malaysia, especially the coastal areas of Peninsular Malaysia.

The sampling has been carried out carried out during March to December of 2012 around the shoreline areas of interest around Peninsular Malaysia and the sampling location is as shown in **Figure 3**. The bivalve samples were purchased from around the coastal areas of each state (**Table 1**).

The samples obtained were frozen and taken back to the Chemical Oceanography Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor. In the laboratory, the species of each sample was identified. A total of 10 species per species were taken at random for analysis. Once the species was identified, the samples were cleaned from sediment, epiphyte, epifauna and washed with distilled water. The soft tissue portion of the bivalve was removed and separated from the shell. The weight of wet tissue was measured using an electronic

**47**

**Table 1.**

**Figure 3.**

*Sampling location conducting during this study.*

*List of sampling sites were conducted during this study.*

*Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution…*

**State Station Location Date of sampling** Perlis ST01 Penjaja Kuala Perlis April 2012 Kedah ST02 Pasar Basah Kuala Kedah April 2012 Perak ST03 Pasar Kuala Gula April 2012 Pulau Pinang ST04 Pasar Basah Juru, Seberang Perai April 2012

Selangor ST06 Penjaja Pantai Remis, Kuala Selangor September 2012

Melaka ST08 Penjaja Sebatu December 2012 Johor ST09 Pasar Basah Mersing March 2012 Pahang ST10 Pasar Nelayan Berserah, Kuantan July 2012 Terengganu ST11 Penjaja Setiu, Kuala Terengganu October 2012 Kelantan ST12 Pasar Siti Katijah, Tok Bali July 2012

ST05 Pasar Bayan Baru July 2012

ST07 Pasar Basah Tanjung Karang September 2012

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

*Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

**Figure 3.** *Sampling location conducting during this study.*


#### **Table 1.**

*Coastal Environments*

radioisotope study in bivalves has been widely carried out abroad. In Malaysia, the research focused on the determination of trace elements, metal and heavy metal and radionuclide studies to be lacking. The main natural radiation exposure is through the consumption of seafood containing radioactive elements [49]. Therefore, many countries and international organizations have been monitoring and determining the health risks of seafood through diet by population and dose

Today many researchers conducting a study on natural radionuclides e.g., Po-210 because a lot negative impact on human health were reported. Previous studies have found marine organisms accumulate Po-210 in high concentrations and food chain is one of the main routes of distribution and accumulation of Po-210 in

to its ability to accumulate heavy metals from its environmental habitat [24].

Ongoing studies towards the marine environmental conditions are important to all countries in an effort to reduce and prevent pollution from becoming widespread. Therefore, constant and systematic monitoring is necessary. The usage of marine organism as a bio-indicator for heavy metal pollutions has shown promising results [8]. Bivalve of *Mytilus* sp. has been a good pollution indicator and is widely used due

Recently, biological indicator has been used to monitor the concentration level of heavy metals and both the stable and unstable radioactive materials in the marine environments in which has become the norm for researchers worldwide. Organisms capable of accumulating pollutants such as bivalve are preferred as indicators in order to determine the presence of specific pollutants in the environment.

The main characteristics for the bio-indicating organisms are the ability to accumulate widely-spread pollutants, can be easily found throughout the region geographically, may survived a whole year round, highly sensitive and tolerant of pollutants without affecting the organisms itself, may be easily obtain for sampling and preservation as well as showing positive correlation between pollutant concentration and environmental pollution [55]. In addition to its ability to act as a pollutant source and environmental quality bio-indicator, it also allows comparisons between elements such as heavy metals and radioisotopes in organisms from

Malaysia has nearly 4800 km of coastline area that includes sandy beaches and muddy beaches. The region is rich in rich resources and livelihoods that are vital to the stability of the ecosystem and contribute to the national economy. This makes Malaysia rich in marine life, especially for bivalve species. These species can be found throughout Malaysia, especially the coastal areas of Peninsular Malaysia. The sampling has been carried out carried out during March to December of 2012 around the shoreline areas of interest around Peninsular Malaysia and the sampling location is as shown in **Figure 3**. The bivalve samples were purchased

The samples obtained were frozen and taken back to the Chemical Oceanography Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor. In the laboratory, the species of each sample was identified. A total of 10 species per species were taken at random for analysis. Once the species was identified, the samples were cleaned from sediment, epiphyte, epifauna and washed with distilled water. The soft tissue portion of the bivalve was removed and separated from the shell. The weight of wet tissue was measured using an electronic

seafood safety by the use of human [30, 40, 50–52].

marine organisms (e.g. [21, 53, 54]).

different geographical areas.

**4. Sampling and methodology**

from around the coastal areas of each state (**Table 1**).

**46**

*List of sampling sites were conducted during this study.*

scale and readings were taken. Then, the samples were dried in an oven at 60°C for 24 hours to obtain the dry weight of the tissue. Once dried, the dry weight of tissue is taken. The difference in weight is between 15 and 20%. The dried samples were incised using mortar and stored in aluminum foil for radiochemical analysis.

A modified radiochemical separation method has been used for Po-210 analysis in the organism samples (e.g., [56–58]). The known Po-209 traces were added to 0.5 g of dried samples. Then, the samples were dissolved and digested using HNO3 and H2O2. Once digested, the solution is filtered and heated to a moderate temperature for the evaporation process to occur till it dries. The dried sample solution was dissolved in 50 ml of 0.5 M HCl. The ascorbic acid was added to lower Fe (III) and Po-210 was deposited on silver discs of 2 cm in diameter for 3 to 4 hours at 70 to 90° C. The silver discs were then dried and the Po-210 activity was calculated with the Alpha Spectrometer system. Po-210 radiochemical analysis was performed within 2 months from the date of sampling and activity was calculated on the sampling date. The quality of the method and analysis were determined using the IAEA-134 standard reference material.

#### **5. Distribution of Po-210 in the edible tissues of bivalve species from Malaysian waters**

The results showed that the concentration range of Po-210 in the studied bivalves was in between of 2.61–517.46 Bq/kg based on **Table 2**. The lowest Po-210 concentrations in bivalve tissue were recorded in *Anadara granosa*, and the highest values were recorded in *Donax* sp. In general, it can be observed that the concentration of Po-210 in the bivalve tissue decreased with increasing tissue weight and shell size. This relationship is shown in species *Anadara granosa, Anadara ovalis, Meretrix meretrix, Paphia undalata, Pholas orientalis* and *Polymesoda bengalensis.* The concentration of Po-210 was found to be higher for the smaller-sized individuals compared to larger ones. Based on Ryan et al. [38], the Po-210 concentration depends on size. The results are concordant with previous study [34, 46, 59].

Bivalves filtering water from environment for food intake which Po-210 present in the environment [60]. The concentration of Po-210 in bivalves depends on the content of Po-210 found in food [61], the rate of food intake, the degree of absorption of food by bivalves [62] and the rate of Po-210 metabolism [46]; all these


**49**

*Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution…*

factors depend on the size and weight of bivalves. The concentration of Po-210 in small-sized bivalve tissues is higher because it has a higher rate of metabolism to grow and its nutritional activity is higher than that of larger and older bivalves [63]. In terms of general physiology of life, the small size of organism is still in juvenile stage, therefore, has yet to have a matured organ system. The juvenile organ system is unable to function properly as it contains substances that cannot be absorbed by

Moreover, physically smaller size and weight contributes to a smaller volume. When the amount of Po-210 read as per the volume of bivalve will give a greater concentration reading value then a higher concentration of Po-210 is found in the bivalve smaller in size with low volume. A factor that also contributes to the high concentration of Po-210 in small-sized bivalve species is movement. The smaller and lighter size facilitates the movement of bivalve, the more movements performed the wider the area traversed then the more Po-210 from the environment

However, it differs with *Donax* sp.*, Perna viridis, Pholas orientalis* and *Glauconome virens* in which has shown that an increased size of the shell exhibits higher concentration of Po-210 in the tissue. As for *Pholas orientalis* and *Tellina virgate,* the level of Po-210 is proportion with tissue weight as similar as published by Conan et al. [23]. According to the study conducted, larger-sized bivalves have higher concentrations of Po-210. The differences in the results of our study are more clear shows by relating the effects of age and the difference in metabolic rate

In addition, the physical characteristics of the thickness and physical structure of the shell may also be contributing [64]. Notably, *Donax sp.* and *Pholas orientalis* has thin and consistent shells for every size. Physically, the absorption of Po-210 from the environment is high at a larger surface area. *Donax* sp*.* and *Pholas orientalis* the larger ones have a surface area for greater absorption. Thus, the concentration of Po-210 is higher with increasing size. The feature of having a consistent shell thickness for each size can also be observed in *Perna viridis* However, these features are not seen in *Tellina virgata* and *Glauconome virens* because it has a thick shell and

Based on **Figure 4**, it can be seen that the highest average Po-210 concentration in the bivalve tissues was recorded in *Donax* sp*.,* followed by *Meretrix meretrix, Glauconome virens, Paphia undulata, Tellina virgata, Anadara granosa* and *Pholas orientalis* with a Po-210 concentration more than 50.0 Bq/kg. On the other hand, the *Anadara ovalis, Perna viridis,* and *Polymesoda bengalensis* recorded an average less than 50.0 Bq/kg. The same characteristics can be observed in the five species that record the highest Po-210 concentration values are taxonomically from the order Veneroida. Veneroids generally have thick and muscular valve muscles of the same size [65], most of these species move actively against the sessile. It tends to be filtered eater and eat through chambers paired with suspension with folded gill structure features. Veneroida habitat is at the base of shallow substrate shallow water and sandy beaches [66]. For *Anadara granosa*, nutrient uptake from the water column and direct interaction with sediment on the seabed is a factor of high Po-210 concentration in its tissues [67]. Bivalve is an organism that takes phytoplankton and suspended particles on the seabed as food sources. The activity of Po-210 in organic particles resembles the profile of nutrient elements where the concentration is low on the surface of the water and increases at mid-depth and decreases at maximum depth [9, 10]. The variation rate of Po-210 concentration in

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

will accumulate in the tissues.

of each species of bivalve.

its thickness increases with increasing size.

**5.1 Concentration of Po-210 in different species of bivalve tissues**

the juvenile organ and accumulates in the body [46].

#### **Table 2.**

*The range of size and Po-210 concentration for ten species in this study.*

#### *Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

factors depend on the size and weight of bivalves. The concentration of Po-210 in small-sized bivalve tissues is higher because it has a higher rate of metabolism to grow and its nutritional activity is higher than that of larger and older bivalves [63]. In terms of general physiology of life, the small size of organism is still in juvenile stage, therefore, has yet to have a matured organ system. The juvenile organ system is unable to function properly as it contains substances that cannot be absorbed by the juvenile organ and accumulates in the body [46].

Moreover, physically smaller size and weight contributes to a smaller volume. When the amount of Po-210 read as per the volume of bivalve will give a greater concentration reading value then a higher concentration of Po-210 is found in the bivalve smaller in size with low volume. A factor that also contributes to the high concentration of Po-210 in small-sized bivalve species is movement. The smaller and lighter size facilitates the movement of bivalve, the more movements performed the wider the area traversed then the more Po-210 from the environment will accumulate in the tissues.

However, it differs with *Donax* sp.*, Perna viridis, Pholas orientalis* and *Glauconome virens* in which has shown that an increased size of the shell exhibits higher concentration of Po-210 in the tissue. As for *Pholas orientalis* and *Tellina virgate,* the level of Po-210 is proportion with tissue weight as similar as published by Conan et al. [23]. According to the study conducted, larger-sized bivalves have higher concentrations of Po-210. The differences in the results of our study are more clear shows by relating the effects of age and the difference in metabolic rate of each species of bivalve.

In addition, the physical characteristics of the thickness and physical structure of the shell may also be contributing [64]. Notably, *Donax sp.* and *Pholas orientalis* has thin and consistent shells for every size. Physically, the absorption of Po-210 from the environment is high at a larger surface area. *Donax* sp*.* and *Pholas orientalis* the larger ones have a surface area for greater absorption. Thus, the concentration of Po-210 is higher with increasing size. The feature of having a consistent shell thickness for each size can also be observed in *Perna viridis* However, these features are not seen in *Tellina virgata* and *Glauconome virens* because it has a thick shell and its thickness increases with increasing size.

#### **5.1 Concentration of Po-210 in different species of bivalve tissues**

Based on **Figure 4**, it can be seen that the highest average Po-210 concentration in the bivalve tissues was recorded in *Donax* sp*.,* followed by *Meretrix meretrix, Glauconome virens, Paphia undulata, Tellina virgata, Anadara granosa* and *Pholas orientalis* with a Po-210 concentration more than 50.0 Bq/kg. On the other hand, the *Anadara ovalis, Perna viridis,* and *Polymesoda bengalensis* recorded an average less than 50.0 Bq/kg. The same characteristics can be observed in the five species that record the highest Po-210 concentration values are taxonomically from the order Veneroida. Veneroids generally have thick and muscular valve muscles of the same size [65], most of these species move actively against the sessile. It tends to be filtered eater and eat through chambers paired with suspension with folded gill structure features. Veneroida habitat is at the base of shallow substrate shallow water and sandy beaches [66]. For *Anadara granosa*, nutrient uptake from the water column and direct interaction with sediment on the seabed is a factor of high Po-210 concentration in its tissues [67]. Bivalve is an organism that takes phytoplankton and suspended particles on the seabed as food sources. The activity of Po-210 in organic particles resembles the profile of nutrient elements where the concentration is low on the surface of the water and increases at mid-depth and decreases at maximum depth [9, 10]. The variation rate of Po-210 concentration in

*Coastal Environments*

standard reference material.

**Malaysian waters**

scale and readings were taken. Then, the samples were dried in an oven at 60°C for 24 hours to obtain the dry weight of the tissue. Once dried, the dry weight of tissue is taken. The difference in weight is between 15 and 20%. The dried samples were incised using mortar and stored in aluminum foil for radiochemical analysis.

**5. Distribution of Po-210 in the edible tissues of bivalve species from** 

The results showed that the concentration range of Po-210 in the studied bivalves was in between of 2.61–517.46 Bq/kg based on **Table 2**. The lowest Po-210 concentrations in bivalve tissue were recorded in *Anadara granosa*, and the highest values were recorded in *Donax* sp. In general, it can be observed that the concentration of Po-210 in the bivalve tissue decreased with increasing tissue weight and shell size. This relationship is shown in species *Anadara granosa, Anadara ovalis, Meretrix meretrix, Paphia undalata, Pholas orientalis* and *Polymesoda bengalensis.* The concentration of Po-210 was found to be higher for the smaller-sized individuals compared to larger ones. Based on Ryan et al. [38], the Po-210 concentration depends on size. The results are concordant with previous study [34, 46, 59].

Bivalves filtering water from environment for food intake which Po-210 present in the environment [60]. The concentration of Po-210 in bivalves depends on the content of Po-210 found in food [61], the rate of food intake, the degree of absorption of food by bivalves [62] and the rate of Po-210 metabolism [46]; all these

**Species Size range (mm) Range of Po-210 concentration (Bq/kg)**

*Anadara granosa* 15–32 2.61–308.54 *Donax* sp. 15–24 34.34–517. 46 *Anadara ovalis* 21–56 3.03–221.65 *Meretrix meretrix* 25–57 12.45–419.12 *Perna viridis* 55–80 12.45–41.10 *Paphia undulata* 30–45 28.0–288.0 *Pholas orientalis* 65–104 18.13–200.2 *Glauconome virens* 22–35 47.71–234.97 *Polymesoda bengalensis* 55–66 4.92–50.14 *Tellina virgata* 29–39 31.37–169.54

*The range of size and Po-210 concentration for ten species in this study.*

A modified radiochemical separation method has been used for Po-210 analysis in the organism samples (e.g., [56–58]). The known Po-209 traces were added to 0.5 g of dried samples. Then, the samples were dissolved and digested using HNO3 and H2O2. Once digested, the solution is filtered and heated to a moderate temperature for the evaporation process to occur till it dries. The dried sample solution was dissolved in 50 ml of 0.5 M HCl. The ascorbic acid was added to lower Fe (III) and Po-210 was deposited on silver discs of 2 cm in diameter for 3 to 4 hours at 70 to 90° C. The silver discs were then dried and the Po-210 activity was calculated with the Alpha Spectrometer system. Po-210 radiochemical analysis was performed within 2 months from the date of sampling and activity was calculated on the sampling date. The quality of the method and analysis were determined using the IAEA-134

**48**

**Table 2.**

**Figure 4.** *Contents of Po-210 in edible tissue of bivalve species.*

most bivalves is also high based on its nutritional techniques. Bivalve that performs filtered food intake technique has a higher content of Po-210 concentration than those that perform food intake technique by suspension [34].

The habitat of bivalves also influences the concentration of Po-210 in its tissue [67]. The results of this study found that bivalves living in muds such as *Pholas orientalis* and *Polymesoda bengalensis* have lower average readings compared to *Polymesoda bengalensis* that lives in mangrove swamps. In general, the content of Po-210 increases with increasing silt, clay and organic matter [13]. The high Po-210 concentration in the sediment is due to the sedimentation of organic debris. Therefore, sediment rich in Po-210 is an important medium for the transfer of polonium from water column to the organisms [14].

Differences in sizes may also contribute to the content of Po-210 concentrations in bivalve tissues. Small-sized bivalve species contain higher concentrations of Po-210 than larger ones. The average sample size of *Donax* sp*.,* is 20 mm, followed by *Anadara granosa* with an average size of 25 mm, *Glauconome virens* with an average size of 29 mm, *Tellina virgate* with an average size of 33 mm and *Meretrix meretrix* with an average size of 34 mm. Meanwhile, the largest average size is the *Pholas orientalis* with an average size of 89 mm following *Perna viridis* with an average size of 62 mm and *Polymesoda bengalensis* with an average size of 60 mm. The same findings were obtained as distribution in each species, which the smaller the bivalve's size, the higher the Po-210 concentration in the tissue. The physical factors such as smaller size and weight also contributes to the concentrations. The small size gives the lower volume value, therefore the higher Po-210 concentration value will be found in the smaller sized bivalves tissue as the amount of Po-210 concentration obtained will be divided by the weight of the sample of the studied organism.

#### **5.2 Contents of Po-210 at different pollution sources**

The highest average concentration of Po-210 in the tissue of *Anadara Granosa* was recorded in samples taken from Kedah following by Johor and Perlis with the

**51**

locations.

*Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution…*

concentrations of >60.0 Bq /kg (**Table 3**). These three areas are located in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The highest average concentration of Po-210 recorded in the tissues of *Anadara ovalis* from Melaka with an average concentration of 107 Bq/kg followed by samples from Perak at 41 Bq/kg. Whereas, for *Meretrix meretrix* the highest concentration was from the location of Kelantan, followed by samples from Perlis at a value more than 100 Bq/kg. For *Paphia undulata,* samples from the Pahang are deemed higher than the samples taken in Selangor. Lastly, a higher concentration was recorded in Perlis for *Pholas orientals* rather than samples from Selangor. Overall, the relationship between Po-210 concentration and sampling location is unclear as not all bivalves species are obtained from each location. However, the sampling location located west coast of Peninsular Malaysia recorded higher Po-210 concentration in most bivalves species studied. The concentration of Po-210 in seawater depends on the season, chemical and biological factors [68, 69]. Connan et al. [23] found that Po-210 concentration was higher during winter and lower in summer. This situation indicates that bivalves accumulate less Po-210 during the summer than in winter. Winter is the season for bivalves to undergo gametogenesis while reproduction process occurs throughout the summer [35]. Thus, there is an association between Po-210 concentration levels in bivalves with physiological, biochemical and sexual variations as well as seasonal changes. The discrepancy in the results of this study may be due to the sampling conducted throughout March to December 2012. The inconsistent weather changes throughout the year may be the factor for different Po-210 concentrations for each species from different locations. Previous study by Khan [46] showed Po-210 concentration among mussels varied significantly based on the season and the concentration is lesser during monsoon

Besides that, the concentration of Po-210 also depends on the sampling location. A study conducted by McDonald et al. [37], six different sampling sites in Scotland, England, France and Monaco has shown that the concentration of Po-210 in the soft tissue of the organism was in the range 111–459 Bq/kg. The level of industrial development in an area contributes to the anthropogenic entry of Po-210 into the sea [1]. In this study, the Po-210 concentration values were higher in bivalves sample taken from west coast of Peninsular Malaysia rather than samples taken from the east coast location. The Straits of Malacca is a strategic location for major international shipping lane and the concentration of agriculture, industry and urbanization on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, which lead to the pollution [70]. The removal and release of toxic materials from ships may be a factor of high Po-210 concentration. The industries such as coal power station and processing factories at the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia discharge or release their effluents through air, river or sea and finally settle into the ocean. The effluent and radionuclide derivatives also contribute to the high concentration of Po-210 in bivalve's tissue. In general, samples obtained from west coast such as Perlis, Penang, Johor and Kedah gave higher readings of almost all bivalves species studied. No obvious factor can be discussed due to the lack of industrial area in Perlis. The possibility is probably due to both location geographically are close to Thailand. Seasonal factors and wind speeds may be associated with high Po-210 concentration content in samples from this location [71]. The transfer of particles containing Po-210 from the air, land or nearby ocean may occur because Po-210 is known to have a high affinity bound to the particles [12]. According to the study of Theng et al. [72], the concentration of Po-210 in clams in Kuala Selangor is based on environmental factors and sampling location. The content of the Po-210 concentration in the bivalve studied was different at different locations (**Table 4**). Mustafha et al. [80] stated the Po-210 concentration vary greatly in different

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

due to physiological and metabolic changes.

#### *Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

concentrations of >60.0 Bq /kg (**Table 3**). These three areas are located in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The highest average concentration of Po-210 recorded in the tissues of *Anadara ovalis* from Melaka with an average concentration of 107 Bq/kg followed by samples from Perak at 41 Bq/kg. Whereas, for *Meretrix meretrix* the highest concentration was from the location of Kelantan, followed by samples from Perlis at a value more than 100 Bq/kg. For *Paphia undulata,* samples from the Pahang are deemed higher than the samples taken in Selangor. Lastly, a higher concentration was recorded in Perlis for *Pholas orientals* rather than samples from Selangor. Overall, the relationship between Po-210 concentration and sampling location is unclear as not all bivalves species are obtained from each location. However, the sampling location located west coast of Peninsular Malaysia recorded higher Po-210 concentration in most bivalves species studied. The concentration of Po-210 in seawater depends on the season, chemical and biological factors [68, 69]. Connan et al. [23] found that Po-210 concentration was higher during winter and lower in summer. This situation indicates that bivalves accumulate less Po-210 during the summer than in winter. Winter is the season for bivalves to undergo gametogenesis while reproduction process occurs throughout the summer [35]. Thus, there is an association between Po-210 concentration levels in bivalves with physiological, biochemical and sexual variations as well as seasonal changes. The discrepancy in the results of this study may be due to the sampling conducted throughout March to December 2012. The inconsistent weather changes throughout the year may be the factor for different Po-210 concentrations for each species from different locations. Previous study by Khan [46] showed Po-210 concentration among mussels varied significantly based on the season and the concentration is lesser during monsoon due to physiological and metabolic changes.

Besides that, the concentration of Po-210 also depends on the sampling location. A study conducted by McDonald et al. [37], six different sampling sites in Scotland, England, France and Monaco has shown that the concentration of Po-210 in the soft tissue of the organism was in the range 111–459 Bq/kg. The level of industrial development in an area contributes to the anthropogenic entry of Po-210 into the sea [1]. In this study, the Po-210 concentration values were higher in bivalves sample taken from west coast of Peninsular Malaysia rather than samples taken from the east coast location. The Straits of Malacca is a strategic location for major international shipping lane and the concentration of agriculture, industry and urbanization on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, which lead to the pollution [70]. The removal and release of toxic materials from ships may be a factor of high Po-210 concentration. The industries such as coal power station and processing factories at the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia discharge or release their effluents through air, river or sea and finally settle into the ocean. The effluent and radionuclide derivatives also contribute to the high concentration of Po-210 in bivalve's tissue. In general, samples obtained from west coast such as Perlis, Penang, Johor and Kedah gave higher readings of almost all bivalves species studied. No obvious factor can be discussed due to the lack of industrial area in Perlis. The possibility is probably due to both location geographically are close to Thailand. Seasonal factors and wind speeds may be associated with high Po-210 concentration content in samples from this location [71]. The transfer of particles containing Po-210 from the air, land or nearby ocean may occur because Po-210 is known to have a high affinity bound to the particles [12]. According to the study of Theng et al. [72], the concentration of Po-210 in clams in Kuala Selangor is based on environmental factors and sampling location. The content of the Po-210 concentration in the bivalve studied was different at different locations (**Table 4**). Mustafha et al. [80] stated the Po-210 concentration vary greatly in different locations.

*Coastal Environments*

**Figure 4.**

most bivalves is also high based on its nutritional techniques. Bivalve that performs filtered food intake technique has a higher content of Po-210 concentration than

The habitat of bivalves also influences the concentration of Po-210 in its tissue [67]. The results of this study found that bivalves living in muds such as *Pholas orientalis* and *Polymesoda bengalensis* have lower average readings compared to *Polymesoda bengalensis* that lives in mangrove swamps. In general, the content of Po-210 increases with increasing silt, clay and organic matter [13]. The high Po-210 concentration in the sediment is due to the sedimentation of organic debris. Therefore, sediment rich in Po-210 is an important medium for the transfer of

Differences in sizes may also contribute to the content of Po-210 concentrations

The highest average concentration of Po-210 in the tissue of *Anadara Granosa* was recorded in samples taken from Kedah following by Johor and Perlis with the

in bivalve tissues. Small-sized bivalve species contain higher concentrations of Po-210 than larger ones. The average sample size of *Donax* sp*.,* is 20 mm, followed by *Anadara granosa* with an average size of 25 mm, *Glauconome virens* with an average size of 29 mm, *Tellina virgate* with an average size of 33 mm and *Meretrix meretrix* with an average size of 34 mm. Meanwhile, the largest average size is the *Pholas orientalis* with an average size of 89 mm following *Perna viridis* with an average size of 62 mm and *Polymesoda bengalensis* with an average size of 60 mm. The same findings were obtained as distribution in each species, which the smaller the bivalve's size, the higher the Po-210 concentration in the tissue. The physical factors such as smaller size and weight also contributes to the concentrations. The small size gives the lower volume value, therefore the higher Po-210 concentration value will be found in the smaller sized bivalves tissue as the amount of Po-210 concentration obtained will be divided by the weight of the sample of the studied organism.

those that perform food intake technique by suspension [34].

polonium from water column to the organisms [14].

*Contents of Po-210 in edible tissue of bivalve species.*

**5.2 Contents of Po-210 at different pollution sources**

**50**


#### **Table 3.**

**53**

*Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution…*

**Location Po-210 (Bq/kg) References** Peninsular Malaysia 2.61–518 This study Kapar, Malaysia 4.61–240 Alam et al. [71] Cuba 21–30 Alonso-Hernandez et al. [56] England 16–36 Young et al. [73] India 305–597 Suriyanarayanan et al. [14] Ribble Estuary 29 Rollo et al. [74] Portuguese Coast 5.8–132 Carvalho [75] Kuala Selangor, Malaysia 31.2–92.4 Theng and Mohamed [76] Kudankulam Coast, India 5.4–248 Khan and Wesley [77] Tiruchirappalli, India 57.42–106 Shaheed et al. [78] Kalpakkam, India 35.19 Iyengar et al. [79]

The study found that the concentration of Po-210 is varied in different species of bivalve. Biological, chemical and physical factors as well as seasonal and sampling location contribute to the different concentration of Po-210 in the bivalve tissues studied. The study found that the distribution range of the concentration of Po-210 in bivalves were between 2.61–517.46 Bq/kg. The lowest concentration of Po-210 in bivalve tissues recorded in *Anadara granosa* and the highest was recorded in *Donax* sp., Smaller size bivalve species contain high concentration of Po-210 compare to bivalve with larger size. In addition, high concentration of Po-210 in bivalve tissues from the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia were observed to have a relationship with the anthropogenic factors which is industrial activity and shipping routes

Recent finding in this research showed that for the observation of environment

seasonally, it can easily found in Malaysia and large quantity. As for seafood safety monitoring, *Anadara granosa* able to act as a good indicator as it can easily found in parts of Malaysia all year and in addition to being the main food in Malaysia.

1.Further studies on the impact of taking seafood containing Po-210 can be

others trace elements and may be used as a good indicator of pollution.

3.Radionuclide monitoring studies need to be done in each species of marine organisms that act as the main seafood source for the local people.

carried out using the data from this research and based on the total daily intake of seafood by the locals. Through risk assessment, safety dose and the risk of

accumulated more Po-210 compared other species. Although, *Donax* sp

*Concentration of Po-210 in mollusks tissue results from studies around the world.*

*.* can be a good indicator because it

*.* including life cycles, contents of

*.* is present

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

**6. Conclusion**

**Table 4.**

along the coastal.

pollution specifically marine pollution *Donax* sp

**7. Suggestion for the future research**

disease can be determined.

2.More study should be done on *Donax* sp

*Average contents of Po-210 in various species of bivalve from different states in peninsular Malaysia.* *Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*


#### **Table 4.**

*Coastal Environments*

**52**

**State** *A.granosa*

98.09 124.77

72.78

41.05

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

97.38

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

24.21

187.63

—

—

—

71.66

—

—

91.42

Perlis Kedah

Perak Pulau Pinang

Selangor

Melaka

Johor Pahang

Terengganu

Kelantan

—

—

*Notice: (*−*) samples unavailable during sampling.*

**Table 3.** *Average contents of Po-210 in various species of bivalve from different states in peninsular Malaysia.*

—

284.39

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

22.35

—

—

—

—

—

181.61

—

—

—

—

—

93.53

70.44 16.48 105.64

—

—

25.50

—

—

—

—

—

—

107.16

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

23.90

163.31

—

40.49

311.78

52.31

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

134.53

—

—

*A.ovalis*

*M.meretrix*

*P.viridis*

*P.undulata*

*Donax* **sp***.*

*P.orientalis*

*G.virens*

*P.bengalensis*

*T.virgata*

**Species of bivalve (Bq/kg)**

*Concentration of Po-210 in mollusks tissue results from studies around the world.*

#### **6. Conclusion**

The study found that the concentration of Po-210 is varied in different species of bivalve. Biological, chemical and physical factors as well as seasonal and sampling location contribute to the different concentration of Po-210 in the bivalve tissues studied. The study found that the distribution range of the concentration of Po-210 in bivalves were between 2.61–517.46 Bq/kg. The lowest concentration of Po-210 in bivalve tissues recorded in *Anadara granosa* and the highest was recorded in *Donax* sp., Smaller size bivalve species contain high concentration of Po-210 compare to bivalve with larger size. In addition, high concentration of Po-210 in bivalve tissues from the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia were observed to have a relationship with the anthropogenic factors which is industrial activity and shipping routes along the coastal.

Recent finding in this research showed that for the observation of environment pollution specifically marine pollution *Donax* sp*.* can be a good indicator because it accumulated more Po-210 compared other species. Although, *Donax* sp*.* is present seasonally, it can easily found in Malaysia and large quantity. As for seafood safety monitoring, *Anadara granosa* able to act as a good indicator as it can easily found in parts of Malaysia all year and in addition to being the main food in Malaysia.

#### **7. Suggestion for the future research**


### **Acknowledgements**

The authors wish to thank all laboratory members of the Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for their help during this study. Thanks also to the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation for the financial support through grant code: 04-01-02-SF0801.

### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

### **Notes/thanks/other declarations**

Thanks.

### **Author details**

Nurhanisah Zakri and Che Abd Rahim Mohamed\* Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

\*Address all correspondence to: carmohd@ukm.edu.my

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**55**

2019; **9**(1): 1-16.

*Natural Polonium-210 in Bivalve Species in Peninsular Malaysia Waters as Recent Pollution…*

plankton form the Caribbean Limnology & Oceanography, 1976**; 21**: 294-299.

[9] Ritchie G.D., Shimmield G.B. The use of the Po-210/Pb-210 disequilibria in the study of the fate of marine particulate matter. 1991; In P.J. Kershaw

& D.S. Woodhead (eds.).

227-296.

161-172.

**95**: 371-377.

[10] Bacon M.P., Spencer D.W., Brewer P.G. Pb-210/Ra-226 & Po-210/ Pb-210 disequilibria in seawater & suspended particular matter. Earth & Planetary Science Letters, 1976; **32:**

[11] Dixit S.S., Witcomb D. Heavy metal burden in water, substrate, & macroinvertebrate body issue of a polluted river Irwell (England). Environment Pollution Series B, Chemical & Physical, 1983; **6**(3):

[12] Shaheed, K., Somasundaram, S.S.N., Shahul Hameed, P. and Iyengar, M.A.R. A study of polonium-210 distribution aspects in the riverine ecosystem of Kaveri, Tiruchirappalli, India, Environmental Pollution, 1997;

[13] Narayana Y., Rajashekara K.M. Study of Po-210 & Pb-210 in the riverine environment of coastal Karnataka. Journal of Environment Radioactivity, 2010; **101**(6): 468-471.

[14] Suriyanarayanan S., Brahman&han

Masilamani V., Hameed P.S. Studies on distribution of Po-210 & Pb-210 in the ecosystem of Point Calimere Coast (Palk Strait), India. Journal of Environment Radioactivity, 2008; **99**(4): 766-771.

G.M., Malathi J., Kumar S.R.,

[15] Stewart G.M., Fisher N.S. Experimental studies on the accumulation of polonium-210 by marine phytoplankton. Limnology & Oceanography, 2003; **48**(4): 1720-1720.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94968*

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[2] Johansson, L.Y. Determination of Pb-210 and Po-210 in aqueous environmental samples. Doctoral dissertation, Hannover: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover,

[3] Rhodes, R. The making of the atomic bomb. Simon & Schuster, London,

[4] Papastefanou, C. Radioactivity of tobacco leaves and radiation dose induced from smoking. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2009; **6**(2): 558-567.

[5] Aysun Uğur, Güngör Yener, Asiye Basarı. Trace metals and Po-210 (Pb-210) concentrations in mussels (*Mytilus galloprovincialis*) consumed at western Anatolia. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 2002; **57**(4), 565-571.

[6] Zaharescu, D.G., Burghelea, C.I., Dontsova, K., Presler, J.K., Hunt, E.A., Domanik, K.J., Amistadi, M.K., Sandhaus, S., Munoz, E.N., Gaddis, E.E. and Galey, M. Ecosystembedrock interaction changes nutrient compartmentalization during early oxidative weathering. Scientific reports,

[7] Hong G.H., Kim Y.I., Baskaran M., Kim S.H., Chung C.S. Distribution of Po-210 & export of organic carbon from the euphotic zone in the Southwestern East Sea (Sea of Japan). Journal of Oceanography, 2008; **64**: 277-292.

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**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

Thanks.

support through grant code: 04-01-02-SF0801.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

**Notes/thanks/other declarations**

**54**

**Author details**

Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Nurhanisah Zakri and Che Abd Rahim Mohamed\*

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: carmohd@ukm.edu.my

Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

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Leonard R.P., McKay K. An assessment of Pb-210 and Po-210 in terrestrial foodstuffs from regions of England and Wales. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 1999; **43** (1), 15-29.

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*galloprovincialis*, in Venice Lagoon, Italy. Marine Environment Research, 2000;

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[29] Cherry R.D., Heyraud M. Evidence of high natural radiation doses in certain mid-water oceanic organisms. Science,

[30] Yu K.N., Moa S.Y., Young E.C.M., Stokes M.J. A study of radioactivities in six types of fish consumed in Hong Kong. Applied Radiation & Isotopes,

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**222**(1-2): 55-61.

**50** (1-5): 417-423.

University of Texas.

1982; **218**: 54-56.

1997; **48**(4): 515-519.

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environment of the marine organisms. 1973; Proceedings of International Symposium on Radioactive Contamination of the Marine

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Cherry R.D., Heyraud M. Accumulation & cellular distribution of 241Am, Po-210 & Pb-210 in two marine algae. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 1983;

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Polonium-210 in euphausids: A detailed study. Marine Biology, 1976; **34**(2):

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**61**

Section 3

Coastal Sediments
