**3. Sports and self-determination theory of human motivation and behavior**

Similar to PERMA's five elements of well-being, Richard Ryan and Edward Deci's self-determination theory is not about achieving an overarching goal; rather ensuring three needs are met while pursuing a goal [13]. Self-determination theory is a process and an accomplishment. These three needs are:


People must feel in control of their life also known as self-agency, be competent in their craft, and connected or related to people and a purpose beyond themselves (**Figure 2**).

Mallia et al. [18] researched two groups of athletes to determine if the factors of self-determination theory can predict antisocial behavior in young athletes. The

**15**

*Sports as a Mechanism for Reaching Your Potential: The Relationship between Positive Psychology…*

researchers divided 651 athletes into two samples. Sample one consisted of young team sport athletes (N = 355) and sample two was composed of male futsal players (N = 296). Both samples completed a self-report of self-determination theory.

1.Self-reported number of yellow cards received during competition during

2.The number of yellow cards received from referees in the subsequent 2

The results found a relationship between psychological need satisfaction and self-determination motivation and athletes' moral attitudes in both samples. Sample two indicated attitude toward antisocial behavior predicted athletes' subsequent rule violations. Findings suggest that promoting factors of self-determination theory may foster attitudes toward prosocial behavior and minimize rule transgression in

Findings such as the ones in the above study support the notion that self-determination theory is a significant contributor to well-being. Furthermore, sport is an environment in which the factors of self-determination theory effect the attitude of an individual. It is for this reason that the researcher investigated the three factors

People need to be self-governing or in control of their lives in order to flourish. People do not feel safe enough to attempt at a goal and potentially develop as an individual if they do not feel they are in control of their life. When people feel the situation is under control, they feel less anxious and are more willing to act. People who feel in control of their situation experience more positive emotions and are

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91417*

Sample two completed two additional measures:

months from competition records

of self-determination theory as they relate to sport.

more likely to perform to their potential [19].

the last 6 months

*Self-determination theory image.*

young athletes.

**Figure 2.**

**3.1 Control and sport**

*Sports as a Mechanism for Reaching Your Potential: The Relationship between Positive Psychology… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91417*

**Figure 2.** *Self-determination theory image.*

*Sports Science and Human Health - Different Approaches*

goal physique is an achievement.

to that point.

**and behavior**

1.Control (autonomy)

3.Connection (relationships)

2.Competence

themselves (**Figure 2**).

accomplishment, whereas winning the championship is an achievement. Sticking to a resistance training program for a year is an accomplishment, whereas gaining your

Research shows that intrinsic motivation is generally more preferable than extrinsic motivation. Seligman's theory suggest that accomplishment is the result of our skill multiplied by our effort. In other words, it is not only how skilled we are, but how we apply those skills [1, 4]. Skill and effort according to Seligman are the byproduct of the speed at which we can think, i.e., we can make choices quickly, as well as the rate at which we can learn, providing us with more knowledge and thus

Sports are games in which participants are faced with problems, and in most sports, the goal is to outthink then outact your opponent in order to score a point. Your opponent is the problem or challenge, and you must apply your skills and effort by thinking quickly and having a vast knowledge base from which to draw upon in order to win. If you accomplish this more than your opponent, then you accomplish the goal of the sport. This process is an intrinsic skill you can apply to areas outside of sport. Accomplishment entails progress toward a goal. A goal is an individual's aim. The very word goal has been adopted by sports as its main objective. American football, soccer, basketball, field hockey, ice hockey, and lacrosse players among other athletes are all attempting to score a goal. They are aiming at something, and if they hit their mark, they are accomplished through the effort and skill that brought them

Sports by nature always entail a feedback system in the form of a score. Scoreboards and team rankings are indicators of a team's progress toward their goal. Individual sports such as track and field or swimming keep documentation of personal records also known as personal best as feedback of athletes' progress. People need feedback to ensure them they are making progress toward their goal. It is not the goal itself that grants an individual accomplishment, the goal is the achievement. Accomplishment is in the process of what it takes to develop as an individual or team in order to reach that goal. The accomplishment is the progress toward your potential. Sport is an area in which that progress may be developed.

**3. Sports and self-determination theory of human motivation** 

process and an accomplishment. These three needs are:

Similar to PERMA's five elements of well-being, Richard Ryan and Edward Deci's self-determination theory is not about achieving an overarching goal; rather ensuring three needs are met while pursuing a goal [13]. Self-determination theory is a

People must feel in control of their life also known as self-agency, be competent in their craft, and connected or related to people and a purpose beyond

Mallia et al. [18] researched two groups of athletes to determine if the factors of self-determination theory can predict antisocial behavior in young athletes. The

experiences from which to quickly develop solutions to problems [1].

**14**

researchers divided 651 athletes into two samples. Sample one consisted of young team sport athletes (N = 355) and sample two was composed of male futsal players (N = 296). Both samples completed a self-report of self-determination theory. Sample two completed two additional measures:


The results found a relationship between psychological need satisfaction and self-determination motivation and athletes' moral attitudes in both samples. Sample two indicated attitude toward antisocial behavior predicted athletes' subsequent rule violations. Findings suggest that promoting factors of self-determination theory may foster attitudes toward prosocial behavior and minimize rule transgression in young athletes.

Findings such as the ones in the above study support the notion that self-determination theory is a significant contributor to well-being. Furthermore, sport is an environment in which the factors of self-determination theory effect the attitude of an individual. It is for this reason that the researcher investigated the three factors of self-determination theory as they relate to sport.

## **3.1 Control and sport**

People need to be self-governing or in control of their lives in order to flourish. People do not feel safe enough to attempt at a goal and potentially develop as an individual if they do not feel they are in control of their life. When people feel the situation is under control, they feel less anxious and are more willing to act. People who feel in control of their situation experience more positive emotions and are more likely to perform to their potential [19].

When it comes to growth mindsets versus fixed mindsets, whereas people with a growth mindset believe they can increase the quality of their life through effort, people with a fixed mindset believe that they cannot improve their state and thus fear applying themselves out of concern that their abilities may be questioned [20]. Fixed mindset people live in fear that they cannot control the destiny of their life, which decreases their ability to flourish.

Sports are games and games need to be voluntary [21]. Thus, by choosing to participate in sport, the athlete has autonomy over their life. Enrolling children in a variety of sports during youth aids in their development and exposes them to options from which they can choose when they are older [14]. The ability for an individual to choose the sport that best fits them not only leads to greater long-term success, but it provides a sense of control to the athlete's life [22].

Sport is a voluntary controlled environment in which people can experiment and grow their mindset without repercussions beyond which they are willing to accept. By participating in sports that are the appropriate level of challenge for their ability, people can learn that when they apply themselves, they can control the outcome of a situation by mastering the skills of that situation.

#### **3.2 Competence and sport**

Competence is an individual's ability to accomplish a task. By learning the skills of a sport through trial and error as well as observing and mimicking peers, coaches, and elites, athletes grow more competent. This competence in turn feeds back into their control over the situation. People need to feel competent and effective for a healthier personality [23].

Research shows that strong athletic teams and strong individual athletes are predictors of flourishing [24]. By developing an athlete's competence, you are making them a stronger competitor. Stronger competitors are competent in their craft as a result of feedback from their accomplishments. This feedback system of growing more competent in the face of adversity strengthens an athlete's belief in themselves as well as their team (if their team is also competent). The success people experience in one area is the only reason to apply themselves in other areas.

#### **3.3 Connection and sport**

Connection as with relationships is a fundamental aspect of flourishing. All mammals are shaped by their environment, social bonds included. People need to feel connected to others and secure in their relationship while maintaining their autonomy for healthy well-being [25].

Being on an appropriate sports team and training with a coach who is a good fit for their competence and personality meets this need. The sport and team an athlete is part of is one aspect of their overall environment. Healthy connections in sport can proliferate into other areas of life. The social skills an athlete develops in sport do not have to end when the game ends; these social skills can be put to use in family, friend, and work settings.

People are social by nature; they need to feel connected and related to other individuals as well as a group [25]. The matrix of sport nourishes these relationships by providing a foundation or unified purpose by which teammates can connect. Athletes are not just connecting to each other but to the sport as a whole. By connecting to the sport as something beyond themselves, athletes are transcending, which is considered the pinnacle of self-actualization [26].

**17**

**Figure 3.**

*Core self-evaluations image.*

*Sports as a Mechanism for Reaching Your Potential: The Relationship between Positive Psychology…*

When it comes to satisfaction at work, four traits were found to contribute to higher levels of satisfaction. These four traits are self-worth, self-efficacy, locus of

Self-worth, locus of control, and neuroticism are the three most studied traits in psychology. Self-efficacy is not far behind in terms of being associated with wellbeing [27]. In a study by Lopez et al. [28], the researchers examined the relationship between the core self-evaluations and abusive leaders. Upon analyzing the results of 67 participants, the researchers determined that "higher levels of core-self evaluations buffer abusive leaders." With that said, they remind readers that abusive leaders are not a recommended method of increasing core self-evaluations. These results support the recommendation that the four traits associated with core selfevaluations make an individual more resilient. Furthermore, as with PERMA and self-determination theory, they are often associated with flourishing and well-being

Self-efficacy is a person's belief in their ability to produce a desired effect [29]. When athletes are challenged in sport and their competency meets the demands of their adversity, they are successful, and their self-efficacy increases in response to their success. This process in turn develops belief in themselves that they can successfully and efficiently accomplish future similar task. In simpler terms, if an athlete purposefully practices, they will improve and believe in their ability to perform well in the future. The notion of "I can do this," when confronted with a new challenge, is essential for a willingness to engage in novel task where potential resides. This believe in one's self is self-efficacy and is crucial to engaging in poten-

Sports provide ample opportunity for people to engage in activities where they are challenged at the appropriate intensity for their skill level. Thus giving athletes

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91417*

**4.1 Self-efficacy and sport**

tial developing situations.

**4. Sports and the core self-evaluations**

control, and neuroticism (emotional stability) [3] (**Figure 3**).

and for that reason will be examined under the lens of sport.

*Sports as a Mechanism for Reaching Your Potential: The Relationship between Positive Psychology… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91417*
