**4. Sports and the core self-evaluations**

*Sports Science and Human Health - Different Approaches*

which decreases their ability to flourish.

When it comes to growth mindsets versus fixed mindsets, whereas people with a growth mindset believe they can increase the quality of their life through effort, people with a fixed mindset believe that they cannot improve their state and thus fear applying themselves out of concern that their abilities may be questioned [20]. Fixed mindset people live in fear that they cannot control the destiny of their life,

Sports are games and games need to be voluntary [21]. Thus, by choosing to participate in sport, the athlete has autonomy over their life. Enrolling children in a variety of sports during youth aids in their development and exposes them to options from which they can choose when they are older [14]. The ability for an individual to choose the sport that best fits them not only leads to greater long-term

Sport is a voluntary controlled environment in which people can experiment and grow their mindset without repercussions beyond which they are willing to accept. By participating in sports that are the appropriate level of challenge for their ability, people can learn that when they apply themselves, they can control the outcome of

Competence is an individual's ability to accomplish a task. By learning the skills of a sport through trial and error as well as observing and mimicking peers, coaches, and elites, athletes grow more competent. This competence in turn feeds back into their control over the situation. People need to feel competent and effec-

Research shows that strong athletic teams and strong individual athletes are predictors of flourishing [24]. By developing an athlete's competence, you are making them a stronger competitor. Stronger competitors are competent in their craft as a result of feedback from their accomplishments. This feedback system of growing more competent in the face of adversity strengthens an athlete's belief in themselves as well as their team (if their team is also competent). The success people experience in one area is the only reason to apply themselves in

Connection as with relationships is a fundamental aspect of flourishing. All mammals are shaped by their environment, social bonds included. People need to feel connected to others and secure in their relationship while maintaining their

Being on an appropriate sports team and training with a coach who is a good fit for their competence and personality meets this need. The sport and team an athlete is part of is one aspect of their overall environment. Healthy connections in sport can proliferate into other areas of life. The social skills an athlete develops in sport do not have to end when the game ends; these social skills can be put to use

People are social by nature; they need to feel connected and related to other individuals as well as a group [25]. The matrix of sport nourishes these relationships by providing a foundation or unified purpose by which teammates can connect. Athletes are not just connecting to each other but to the sport as a whole. By connecting to the sport as something beyond themselves, athletes are transcending,

success, but it provides a sense of control to the athlete's life [22].

a situation by mastering the skills of that situation.

**3.2 Competence and sport**

other areas.

**3.3 Connection and sport**

autonomy for healthy well-being [25].

in family, friend, and work settings.

which is considered the pinnacle of self-actualization [26].

tive for a healthier personality [23].

**16**

When it comes to satisfaction at work, four traits were found to contribute to higher levels of satisfaction. These four traits are self-worth, self-efficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism (emotional stability) [3] (**Figure 3**).

Self-worth, locus of control, and neuroticism are the three most studied traits in psychology. Self-efficacy is not far behind in terms of being associated with wellbeing [27]. In a study by Lopez et al. [28], the researchers examined the relationship between the core self-evaluations and abusive leaders. Upon analyzing the results of 67 participants, the researchers determined that "higher levels of core-self evaluations buffer abusive leaders." With that said, they remind readers that abusive leaders are not a recommended method of increasing core self-evaluations. These results support the recommendation that the four traits associated with core selfevaluations make an individual more resilient. Furthermore, as with PERMA and self-determination theory, they are often associated with flourishing and well-being and for that reason will be examined under the lens of sport.

### **4.1 Self-efficacy and sport**

Self-efficacy is a person's belief in their ability to produce a desired effect [29]. When athletes are challenged in sport and their competency meets the demands of their adversity, they are successful, and their self-efficacy increases in response to their success. This process in turn develops belief in themselves that they can successfully and efficiently accomplish future similar task. In simpler terms, if an athlete purposefully practices, they will improve and believe in their ability to perform well in the future. The notion of "I can do this," when confronted with a new challenge, is essential for a willingness to engage in novel task where potential resides. This believe in one's self is self-efficacy and is crucial to engaging in potential developing situations.

Sports provide ample opportunity for people to engage in activities where they are challenged at the appropriate intensity for their skill level. Thus giving athletes

**Figure 3.** *Core self-evaluations image.*

opportunities to rise to challenges and overcome them. This act of facing adversity and overcoming it develops self-efficacy and moves athlete's one step closer to their potential. In the words of Michael Jordan, "obstacles don't have to stop you. If you run into a wall, don't turn around and give up. Figure out how to climb it, go through it, or work around it." Sports allow for skills to develop in a safe environment through trial and error. That is the essence of practice, to try, fail, adapt, and try again until successful. Every sport entails practice; it's an opportunity for growth. Once people understand that they can develop skills in one area, there is no reason to believe they cannot develop skills in another area outside of sport.

#### **4.2 Self-worth and sport**

People need to feel connected to something beyond themselves [25]. For some people, this connection to something beyond themselves may be the military, favorite charity, or their local church, and for others it may be their sport. According to Abraham Maslow, self-actualization involves transcendence or being part of something bigger than themselves [12]. Turn on a television or visit a news website and you are bound to see a sporting event or sports talk show. Sport is a means by which people transcend beyond themselves and achieve self-worth by associating with a group. In the United States of America, sports have reached an ideological level of worship by some fans and participants [30]. People constantly attend sporting events by the thousands dressed in face paint holding giant posters, screaming in support of their team in freezing weather. Fans sacrifice their time and comfort for their team, and if their team wins, they associate the victory with their contribution of support.

When people are provided with the opportunity to participate in an activity that challenges their current skills and demands that they adapt in order to be successful, you are providing them an opportunity to self-actualize. People's self-worth or self-esteem as it is sometimes referred is a self-evaluation of an individual's worth. People need to feel their efforts influence the world and that they make a difference. High self-worth is a predictor of success in many areas from school, happiness, marriage, relationships, and criminal behavior [31–33].

#### **4.3 Locus of control and sport**

Victor Frankel in his book *Man's Search for Meaning* suggested that it would be a good idea to have a Statue of Responsibility on the West Coast of the United States since there is a Statue of Liberty on the east coast [34].

*Freedom, however, is not the last word. Freedom is only part of the story and half of the truth. Freedom is but the negative aspect of the whole phenomenon whose positive aspect is responsibleness. In fact, freedom is in danger of degenerating into mere arbitrariness unless it is lived in terms of responsibleness. That is why I recommend that the Statue of Liberty on the East Coast be supplemented by a Statue of Responsibility on the West Coast.*

Frankel's point is that freedom and responsibility go hand in hand. If an individual does not take responsibility for their actions, soon all of the foundations which their freedoms are built will crumble. Furthermore, it is not freedom people should crave, rather the responsibleness that is the positive aspect of the balance of society. People should be proud to take on responsibilities and contribute to their society rather than prioritizing freedoms over responsibility.

An internal locus of control is the idea that the outcome of an individual's life is their responsibility. On the extreme end of sports, if a free diver is not responsible

**19**

their sport.

*Sports as a Mechanism for Reaching Your Potential: The Relationship between Positive Psychology…*

and invest in becoming a master of their craft, it could cost them their life. On the flip side, if the free diver invests in the years of skill development and effort,

On a smaller scale, if a soccer or basketball player invest in developing their skills, the athlete will successfully score more points than someone who does not take responsibility and practice their craft. If the athlete does not take responsibility for mastering their craft, they will not progress as rapidly, and their progress may diminish. Taking natural talent into account, people who deliberately practice their craft catch up to and surpass those who have natural talent at a young age yet do not

Either outcome is the athlete's choice. If an athlete desires to progress their career, they must take responsibility for developing their skills. As an athlete develops their skills, they will feel more competent in their sport and feel more in control of the outcome, which in turn also increases self-esteem. The result begins

As an athlete's ability and success rate increase, they are controlling their life by producing a desired outcome. The athlete is proving to themselves that when they take responsibility for their actions, they have greater control over their life's direction. When an athlete feels they are in control of their life, they can trust the process because based on previous experience, it should provide a predictable outcome. Trusting the process allows people to not have to worry about the unexpected, which allows them to be more present in the moment, also known as mindfulness, a

Neuroticism is an individual's emotional stability or moodiness. Neuroticism is negatively correlated with emotional stability. In other words, highly neurotic people have lower emotional stability. Research by Judge et al. look to find a common factor between self-efficacy, self-worth, locus of control, and neuroticism. The researchers conclude that neuroticism is the common denominator [27]. People who experience emotional stability also experience increased self-efficacy, self-worth,

As mentioned, sports are a mechanism that may increase self-efficacy, selfworth, and locus of control. Increases in these areas may decrease neuroticism. Research shows benefits of exercise, physical activity, and sport for well-being [36], as well as exercise being performed in nature having a positive effect on public health [16]. Furthermore, research shows that sports can encourage the development of psychological factors that could aid in emotional stability [37]. In other words, by improving your environment, it may improve your emotional stability. These findings are indicative of your environment influencing your well-being.

What happens when people do not reach their potential? Individuals can still be successful when they do not reach their potential. The difference between success and flourishing is fit. As mentioned earlier, fitness is more than an exercise physiology term. Fitness is how well an individual fit's their environment. It's their ability to meet the required demands of the situation. Fitness training during sport is doing just that, making an individual more fit or better equipped for

Sports are a microcosm in which those positive influences can develop.

concept shown to have a positive relationship with self-actualizers [35].

freedom to accomplish what few people can fathom is possible.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91417*

invest in developing that talent [22].

with taking responsibility of their life.

**4.4 Neuroticism and sport**

and locus of control.

**5. When potential is not reached**

#### *Sports as a Mechanism for Reaching Your Potential: The Relationship between Positive Psychology… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91417*

and invest in becoming a master of their craft, it could cost them their life. On the flip side, if the free diver invests in the years of skill development and effort, freedom to accomplish what few people can fathom is possible.

On a smaller scale, if a soccer or basketball player invest in developing their skills, the athlete will successfully score more points than someone who does not take responsibility and practice their craft. If the athlete does not take responsibility for mastering their craft, they will not progress as rapidly, and their progress may diminish. Taking natural talent into account, people who deliberately practice their craft catch up to and surpass those who have natural talent at a young age yet do not invest in developing that talent [22].

Either outcome is the athlete's choice. If an athlete desires to progress their career, they must take responsibility for developing their skills. As an athlete develops their skills, they will feel more competent in their sport and feel more in control of the outcome, which in turn also increases self-esteem. The result begins with taking responsibility of their life.

As an athlete's ability and success rate increase, they are controlling their life by producing a desired outcome. The athlete is proving to themselves that when they take responsibility for their actions, they have greater control over their life's direction. When an athlete feels they are in control of their life, they can trust the process because based on previous experience, it should provide a predictable outcome. Trusting the process allows people to not have to worry about the unexpected, which allows them to be more present in the moment, also known as mindfulness, a concept shown to have a positive relationship with self-actualizers [35].

#### **4.4 Neuroticism and sport**

*Sports Science and Human Health - Different Approaches*

marriage, relationships, and criminal behavior [31–33].

since there is a Statue of Liberty on the east coast [34].

rather than prioritizing freedoms over responsibility.

*Responsibility on the West Coast.*

**4.3 Locus of control and sport**

**4.2 Self-worth and sport**

opportunities to rise to challenges and overcome them. This act of facing adversity and overcoming it develops self-efficacy and moves athlete's one step closer to their potential. In the words of Michael Jordan, "obstacles don't have to stop you. If you run into a wall, don't turn around and give up. Figure out how to climb it, go through it, or work around it." Sports allow for skills to develop in a safe environment through trial and error. That is the essence of practice, to try, fail, adapt, and try again until successful. Every sport entails practice; it's an opportunity for growth. Once people understand that they can develop skills in one area, there is no

reason to believe they cannot develop skills in another area outside of sport.

People need to feel connected to something beyond themselves [25]. For some people, this connection to something beyond themselves may be the military, favorite charity, or their local church, and for others it may be their sport. According to Abraham Maslow, self-actualization involves transcendence or being part of something bigger than themselves [12]. Turn on a television or visit a news website and you are bound to see a sporting event or sports talk show. Sport is a means by which people transcend beyond themselves and achieve self-worth by associating with a group. In the United States of America, sports have reached an ideological level of worship by some fans and participants [30]. People constantly attend sporting events by the thousands dressed in face paint holding giant posters, screaming in support of their team in freezing weather. Fans sacrifice their time and comfort for their team, and if their team wins, they associate the victory with their contribution of support. When people are provided with the opportunity to participate in an activity that challenges their current skills and demands that they adapt in order to be successful, you are providing them an opportunity to self-actualize. People's self-worth or self-esteem as it is sometimes referred is a self-evaluation of an individual's worth. People need to feel their efforts influence the world and that they make a difference. High self-worth is a predictor of success in many areas from school, happiness,

Victor Frankel in his book *Man's Search for Meaning* suggested that it would be a good idea to have a Statue of Responsibility on the West Coast of the United States

*Freedom, however, is not the last word. Freedom is only part of the story and half of the truth. Freedom is but the negative aspect of the whole phenomenon whose positive aspect is responsibleness. In fact, freedom is in danger of degenerating into mere arbitrariness unless it is lived in terms of responsibleness. That is why I recommend that the Statue of Liberty on the East Coast be supplemented by a Statue of* 

Frankel's point is that freedom and responsibility go hand in hand. If an individual does not take responsibility for their actions, soon all of the foundations which their freedoms are built will crumble. Furthermore, it is not freedom people should crave, rather the responsibleness that is the positive aspect of the balance of society. People should be proud to take on responsibilities and contribute to their society

An internal locus of control is the idea that the outcome of an individual's life is their responsibility. On the extreme end of sports, if a free diver is not responsible

**18**

Neuroticism is an individual's emotional stability or moodiness. Neuroticism is negatively correlated with emotional stability. In other words, highly neurotic people have lower emotional stability. Research by Judge et al. look to find a common factor between self-efficacy, self-worth, locus of control, and neuroticism. The researchers conclude that neuroticism is the common denominator [27]. People who experience emotional stability also experience increased self-efficacy, self-worth, and locus of control.

As mentioned, sports are a mechanism that may increase self-efficacy, selfworth, and locus of control. Increases in these areas may decrease neuroticism. Research shows benefits of exercise, physical activity, and sport for well-being [36], as well as exercise being performed in nature having a positive effect on public health [16]. Furthermore, research shows that sports can encourage the development of psychological factors that could aid in emotional stability [37]. In other words, by improving your environment, it may improve your emotional stability. These findings are indicative of your environment influencing your well-being. Sports are a microcosm in which those positive influences can develop.

## **5. When potential is not reached**

What happens when people do not reach their potential? Individuals can still be successful when they do not reach their potential. The difference between success and flourishing is fit. As mentioned earlier, fitness is more than an exercise physiology term. Fitness is how well an individual fit's their environment. It's their ability to meet the required demands of the situation. Fitness training during sport is doing just that, making an individual more fit or better equipped for their sport.

Although training is part of success. The most successful athletes are the ones participating in sports that are physiologically fitted for them. For instance, the muscle physiology of a professional weightlifter and professional marathoner is on opposite ends of the spectrum. The former is primarily fast twitch muscle fibers, and the latter is primarily slow twitch muscle fibers. By participating in the sport that matches their physiology, they became professional (with effort, time, and resources), yet those equivalent results are less likely if the same two athletes switched sports. The athletes may see some success, but they would no longer be participating in the sport that is the best fit for their unique physiology and may not reach their potential.

In order for an individual to flourish, they should aim their efforts at a goal in which their uniqueness matches their environment. In other words, do what you love, what you are innately drawn to, not only what provides financial success and recognition. A Harvard Business Review article by Robert Kaplan [38] focuses on this problem of successful, ambitious, and talented individuals he has taught and coached in management and MBA programs at the Harvard Business School who express deep frustration with their careers. Kaplan mentions a similar problem in that many of these individuals are not doing what they really enjoy. They are successful, but they may be more successful and happier if they apply their efforts to something more meaningful to them.

These individuals Kaplan is referring to are successful. The question is, are they as successful or as happy as they could be? They may be successful, but are they flourishing? If they invested in finding their best fit, would they reach a higher potential? Sports, through trial and error, teach athletes how to test new experiences and see if they are the right fit for us. Sports provide an opportunity to teach us who we are. By participating in an array of sports, we learn how to identify what best fits our uniqueness as individuals. This skill set is applicable for all aspects of life from professional to personal.

#### **6. Discussion**

PERMA, self-determination theory, and the core self-evaluations are after closer examination, variations of similar concepts which when met have been shown to increase human flourishing. Each theory may be wording their concepts slightly differently, but they are all searching for a similar result. Flourishing occurs when people voluntarily engage in appropriate challenges and see those challenges as opportunities for growth and are supported during their endeavor.

After examination, the researcher suggests a similar model which he refers to as the sport potential model (SPM). SPM consists of two concepts of sport which may be applied to areas beyond sport. These two concepts result in a process by which all of the traits of PERMA, self-determination theory, and core self-evaluations may be experienced. The following is a deeper look into the two concepts:


**21**

**Figure 5.**

*Sport potential model image.*

**Figure 4.** *Flourishing image.*

*Sports as a Mechanism for Reaching Your Potential: The Relationship between Positive Psychology…*

If the two concepts of SPM are in harmony, the game is more likely to go as planned, and athletes will experience most of the traits listed in **Figure 4**. If this

A flourishing individual is more than one with many achievements; it is someone who is able to locate themselves as a node in a web of relationships. Sports are microcosms for testing and discovering our fitness or our relationship to the larger game. It is also worth mentioning that it is not a single game that matters, rather the series of games or overall tournament, i.e., life. To expand upon an old sports saying, "it's not whether you win or lose that matters, it's how you play the game," a single outcome does not matter; rather it is the interaction of all the outcomes combined that determine how well you are doing. In other words, it's in the process that

process repeats itself overtime, the athlete may reach their potential.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91417*

*Sports as a Mechanism for Reaching Your Potential: The Relationship between Positive Psychology… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91417*

If the two concepts of SPM are in harmony, the game is more likely to go as planned, and athletes will experience most of the traits listed in **Figure 4**. If this process repeats itself overtime, the athlete may reach their potential.

A flourishing individual is more than one with many achievements; it is someone who is able to locate themselves as a node in a web of relationships. Sports are microcosms for testing and discovering our fitness or our relationship to the larger game. It is also worth mentioning that it is not a single game that matters, rather the series of games or overall tournament, i.e., life. To expand upon an old sports saying, "it's not whether you win or lose that matters, it's how you play the game," a single outcome does not matter; rather it is the interaction of all the outcomes combined that determine how well you are doing. In other words, it's in the process that

**Figure 4.** *Flourishing image.*

*Sports Science and Human Health - Different Approaches*

professional to personal.

**6. Discussion**

Although training is part of success. The most successful athletes are the ones participating in sports that are physiologically fitted for them. For instance, the muscle physiology of a professional weightlifter and professional marathoner is on opposite ends of the spectrum. The former is primarily fast twitch muscle fibers, and the latter is primarily slow twitch muscle fibers. By participating in the sport that matches their physiology, they became professional (with effort, time, and resources), yet those equivalent results are less likely if the same two athletes switched sports. The athletes may see some success, but they would no longer be participating in the sport that is

In order for an individual to flourish, they should aim their efforts at a goal in which their uniqueness matches their environment. In other words, do what you love, what you are innately drawn to, not only what provides financial success and recognition. A Harvard Business Review article by Robert Kaplan [38] focuses on this problem of successful, ambitious, and talented individuals he has taught and coached in management and MBA programs at the Harvard Business School who express deep frustration with their careers. Kaplan mentions a similar problem in that many of these individuals are not doing what they really enjoy. They are successful, but they may be more successful

the best fit for their unique physiology and may not reach their potential.

and happier if they apply their efforts to something more meaningful to them.

These individuals Kaplan is referring to are successful. The question is, are they as successful or as happy as they could be? They may be successful, but are they flourishing? If they invested in finding their best fit, would they reach a higher potential? Sports, through trial and error, teach athletes how to test new experiences and see if they are the right fit for us. Sports provide an opportunity to teach us who we are. By participating in an array of sports, we learn how to identify what best fits our uniqueness as individuals. This skill set is applicable for all aspects of life from

PERMA, self-determination theory, and the core self-evaluations are after closer examination, variations of similar concepts which when met have been shown to increase human flourishing. Each theory may be wording their concepts slightly differently, but they are all searching for a similar result. Flourishing occurs when people voluntarily engage in appropriate challenges and see those challenges as

After examination, the researcher suggests a similar model which he refers to as the sport potential model (SPM). SPM consists of two concepts of sport which may be applied to areas beyond sport. These two concepts result in a process by which all of the traits of PERMA, self-determination theory, and core self-evaluations may be

1.Fitness: fitness is the degree to which individuals fit their environment. It's an athlete's ability to adapt to and meet the demands of the sport. Fitness can be thought of as internal resources. The better fit someone is to their environment, the more likely they are to be successful in that environment.

2.Play: a play entails two things, a plan and a player. When athletes perform a play, they are acting upon their ambitions. Players are aiming at a goal and striving for that goal under agreed upon rules with consequences. To play a game well, an individual must play their strengths to the situation while avoiding their weaknesses. The better fit a person is for the play, the higher their likelihood of success. The less fit an individual is for a play, the more

opportunities for growth and are supported during their endeavor.

experienced. The following is a deeper look into the two concepts:

resistance they will encounter.

**20**

**Figure 5.** *Sport potential model image.*

you reach your potential. Living by a poor process limits your ability to be invited back and play the game; living in accordance with the rules of the game will get you further in the long run (**Figure 5**).
