**2. Solid fuelwood combustion and health effects in rural Africa**

Several scientific publications have reported significant health effects of wood fuel combustion for cooking especially through open fire in rural areas [5, 6]. Childhood respiratory infections such as pneumonia and otitis media have been highly associated with fuel wood combustion [5]. Among women, there is a high association between fuelwood combustion and high risk of chronic bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, especially asthma and cataract. Indoor combustion of fuelwood has been called the 'kitchen killer' because about 1.6 million deaths have been registered as a result, accounting for 2.7% of global disease burden (WHO, 2007).

The combustion process generates smoke; this smoke contains a complex mixture of numerous particles and substances composed of varied organic and inorganic compounds [7, 8]. These compounds are toxic and dangerous to the health system of human beings; they contain carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen and sulphur oxide (NO2, CO2), aldehydes, particulate matter PM (PM10), volatile organic compounds, chlorinated dioxins, free radicals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [8]. The health effects on children less than 5 years and women are not homogenous. Respiratory infections such as pneumonia are common in young children less than 5 years, while chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (CORP) and lung cancer are common in women. Other health effects such as adverse pregnancy and eye diseases are equally common [9, 10].

To better appreciate the health effects of fuelwood combustion, a review of literature for over 17 papers was done. The objective was to capture the most prevalent health outcomes as a result of indoor and outdoor fuelwood combustion. The table below (**Table 1**) shows the results of the reviewed papers in a summary form [11].

The exposure to smoke due to cooking fuel accelerates respiratory-related illnesses such as dry cough and nose irritation; further analysis equally underscores high association with headache, dry cough and hypertension [25]. The review above shows significant health effects related to respiratory-related diseases, of the 17

**Author(s)**

**89**

Bruce et al.

Indoor biofuel air pollution and respiratory

[12]

health: the role of confounding

among women in highland Guatemala

Vinod et al. Biomass cooking fuels and prevalence of

tuberculosis

Neelam

Indoor air pollution from biomass

India

Qualitative analysis

with the use of peak

expiratory rate flow

> India

Qualitative analysis

 The use of fuelwood has an impact on health Acute lower respiratory infection, chronic

combustion

central India: an exposure response study

Rajiv [14] Disease burden of fuelwood combustion

pollutants in rural households of the

Himalayas

Zschauer

Households' energy supply and the use of

Kenya (case of

A qualitative analysis

 The use of fuelwood has a negative impact

on health

Taita Hills)

Indonesia

 A unique Indonesian

Individuals living in households that cook

with firewood have lower lung capacity than

those that cook with cleaner fuels; impact

being larger on women and children

household survey

fuelwood

[15]

Silwal and

The impact of cooking with firewood on

McKay

respiratory health

[16]

Agrawal

Effect of indoor air pollution from biomass

and

and solid fuel combustion

 on symptoms of

India

Logistic regression

 Women living in households using biomass

and solid fuels have two times higher

likelihood of reporting eclampsia symptoms than those living in

households using cleaner fuels

preeclampsia/

Preeclampsia/eclampsia

Yamamoto

preeclampsia/eclampsia

 in Indian women

[17]

Sharma

Types of cooking stove and risk of acute

Nepal

Cross-sectional

 survey

 The presence of acute lower respiratory

Lower respiratory infections

> infection among users of biomass fuels

> lower respiratory infection among under

five children: a cross sectional study in

Rasuwa, Nepal Zoë et al. Residential heating with wood and coal:

health impacts and policy options in Europe

Europe and

Qualitative analysis

 Evidence links emissions from wood and coal

Respiratory and

and morbidity

cardiovascular

 mortality

> heating to serious health effects

North America

> and North America

et al. [18]

 and its adverse health effects in

et al. [13]

 in India

 factors India

Logistic regression

 Substantial prevalence of active tuberculosis

in person living in households using biomass

cooking fuels (wood or dung) Exposure to biomass smoke causes health

Eye irritation, headache, bronchitis,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90603*

cataract and respiratory problems obstructive pulmonary disease and lung

cancer

Eye problem, respiratory problems (coughing irritation of the lungs and

sniffles), tuberculosis

*Public Health Effects of Wood Fuel in Africa: Bioenergy from Tree Commodities as a Sustainable…*

Lower lung capacity

related problems

 **Study carried out**

**Country/region**

Guatemala

Cross-sectional

 analysis The prevalence of reported cough and

phlegm was significantly

women using open fire

 high among

**Methodology**

 **Major findings**

**Discovered**

Cough and phlegm

Tuberculosis

 **health outcomes**


*Public Health Effects of Wood Fuel in Africa: Bioenergy from Tree Commodities as a Sustainable… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90603*

and 83%, respectively. In SSA, the access to electricity and modern energy remains a major constraint with 560 and 625 peopled deprived, respectively. Poor access to modern energy equally varies between urban and rural areas in Africa; in SSA, 66% of the population use solid fuels for heating and cooking, 13% use charcoal while

The global use of wood fuel for cooking and heating has devastating negative health effects with 2 million deaths annually from pneumonia, cancer and chronic lung diseases due to exposure to pollution from biomass combustion. Women and children are most affected by these diseases with about 44% of these deaths being children and 60% of adult death being women [3]. More than 50% of deaths from pneumonia, cancer and chronic lung diseases in LDCs and SSA is due to combustion of solid fuels, while only 38% for developing countries in general [3]. Household air pollution (HAP) is a major driver of global health emergencies with about 4.3 million premature deaths; non-communicable diseases (NCDs) account for 3.8 million deaths (WHO, 2016). HAP accounts for more than 33% deaths related to chronic obstructive pulmonary in both low- and middle-income countries, 17% of deaths related to cancer, 15% of ischaemic heart disease and 25% stroke-related deaths (WHO, 2016). This chapter seeks to review the different diseases caused by incomplete combustion of biomass for energy and how bioenergy from tree com-

kerosene, electricity and LPG follow with 7, 6, and 5%, respectively [4].

*Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities*

**2. Solid fuelwood combustion and health effects in rural Africa**

fuel combustion for cooking especially through open fire in rural areas [5, 6]. Childhood respiratory infections such as pneumonia and otitis media have been highly associated with fuel wood combustion [5]. Among women, there is a high association between fuelwood combustion and high risk of chronic bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, especially asthma and cataract. Indoor combustion of fuelwood has been called the 'kitchen killer' because about 1.6 million deaths have been registered as a result, accounting for 2.7% of global disease

Several scientific publications have reported significant health effects of wood

The combustion process generates smoke; this smoke contains a complex mixture of numerous particles and substances composed of varied organic and inorganic compounds [7, 8]. These compounds are toxic and dangerous to the health system of human beings; they contain carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen and sulphur oxide (NO2, CO2), aldehydes, particulate matter PM (PM10), volatile organic compounds, chlorinated dioxins, free radicals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [8]. The health effects on children less than 5 years and women are not homogenous. Respiratory infections such as pneumonia are common in young children less than 5 years, while chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (CORP) and lung cancer are common in women. Other health effects such as adverse pregnancy

To better appreciate the health effects of fuelwood combustion, a review of literature for over 17 papers was done. The objective was to capture the most prevalent health outcomes as a result of indoor and outdoor fuelwood combustion. The table below (**Table 1**) shows the results of the reviewed papers in a

The exposure to smoke due to cooking fuel accelerates respiratory-related illnesses such as dry cough and nose irritation; further analysis equally underscores high association with headache, dry cough and hypertension [25]. The review above shows significant health effects related to respiratory-related diseases, of the 17

modities can be a sustainable remedy.

and eye diseases are equally common [9, 10].

burden (WHO, 2007).

summary form [11].

**88**


*Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities*

**Table 1.**

*Review of health effects of fuelwood combustion on users.*

studies, 13 underscore respiratory tract infections as major outcome of fuelwood combustion. The most common forms of the respiratory tract infections are dry cough, breathing problems, neurologic problems, cardiopulmonary, cardiovascular

*Public Health Effects of Wood Fuel in Africa: Bioenergy from Tree Commodities as a Sustainable…*

Lower life expectancy has equally been reported by Badamassi et al. [24]; they underscore that combustion of particulate matter (PM2.5) has adverse effect on life expectancy in the long run, with a greater negative effect on female life expectancy. Their study equally shows higher life expectancy for exposed households in urban areas and countries with higher GDP per capita; this can be explained by the fact that these groups can have better access to health care. Cardiovascular diseases have equally been reported to be associated with fuelwood combustion [19]. Other diseases such as asthma, stroke and immune system impairment have equally been attributed to indoor and outdoor pollution as a

The precedent section underscores that about 700 million (82%) of Africans are at high risk of household air pollution due to the use of solid-fuel for cooking with an average 581,000 deaths annually [26]. Globally, the demand for solid-fuel for cooking has reduced considerably, average 50–40%; however, Africa stagnates at 80% over the decades. Escalating fuel cost, population growth and supply interruptions have accounted for reduced demand in modern fuel demand. Even when households use modern fuel for cooking, they often combine with solid-fuel cooking stoves [27, 28]. The production of energy from biological waste using modern production techniques has been promoted as a way out of this public health crisis. Significant efforts have been made through different cross-country projects aimed at producing clean and modern bioenergy such as liquid and gel biofuels. Efforts to promote more clean energy sources such as ethanol stoves and clean cooking stoves

have not met required objectives due to poor market penetration and high

subsidisation cost [26]. However, in West Africa, ethanol businesses have registered steady growth with over 200,000 stoves reported in different countries over 3 years. Biogas projects in East Africa played an important role in changing mindsets and providing a cleaner alternative for households. In Kenya, three biogas operating units have been constructed by the Taita Taveta Wildlife Forum (TTWF) as part of a pilot project aimed at improving access to clean energy. This is promoted because biogas produces clean energy, with less indoor and outdoor pollution, thus reduced chances of respiratory tract infections and heart infections. The biogas production process equally generates nitrogen and liquids rich in nutrients

The use of bioenergy as an alternative to solid-fuels is encouraged because through the different conversion techniques, energy is generated which enhances good combustion with limited emission of air pollutants. This form of energy is good both for indoor and outdoor use at urban and rural areas. The promotion of this form of energy is equally backed by the constant availability of biomass for bioenergy conversion, with by-products that are equally good for crop cultivation.

Tree commodities commonly referred to as 'money trees' are trees grown prin-

cipally for cash by many African countries. These trees are often the principal

**4. Bioenergy from tree commodities as a sustainable remedy**

diseases, asthma and lung cancer [20, 23, 25].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90603*

result of fuelwood combustion [19].

that can serve as fertilizers.

**91**

**3. Bioenergy as a sustainable and health energy source**

*Public Health Effects of Wood Fuel in Africa: Bioenergy from Tree Commodities as a Sustainable… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90603*

studies, 13 underscore respiratory tract infections as major outcome of fuelwood combustion. The most common forms of the respiratory tract infections are dry cough, breathing problems, neurologic problems, cardiopulmonary, cardiovascular diseases, asthma and lung cancer [20, 23, 25].

Lower life expectancy has equally been reported by Badamassi et al. [24]; they underscore that combustion of particulate matter (PM2.5) has adverse effect on life expectancy in the long run, with a greater negative effect on female life expectancy. Their study equally shows higher life expectancy for exposed households in urban areas and countries with higher GDP per capita; this can be explained by the fact that these groups can have better access to health care. Cardiovascular diseases have equally been reported to be associated with fuelwood combustion [19]. Other diseases such as asthma, stroke and immune system impairment have equally been attributed to indoor and outdoor pollution as a result of fuelwood combustion [19].

#### **3. Bioenergy as a sustainable and health energy source**

The precedent section underscores that about 700 million (82%) of Africans are at high risk of household air pollution due to the use of solid-fuel for cooking with an average 581,000 deaths annually [26]. Globally, the demand for solid-fuel for cooking has reduced considerably, average 50–40%; however, Africa stagnates at 80% over the decades. Escalating fuel cost, population growth and supply interruptions have accounted for reduced demand in modern fuel demand. Even when households use modern fuel for cooking, they often combine with solid-fuel cooking stoves [27, 28]. The production of energy from biological waste using modern production techniques has been promoted as a way out of this public health crisis. Significant efforts have been made through different cross-country projects aimed at producing clean and modern bioenergy such as liquid and gel biofuels. Efforts to promote more clean energy sources such as ethanol stoves and clean cooking stoves have not met required objectives due to poor market penetration and high subsidisation cost [26]. However, in West Africa, ethanol businesses have registered steady growth with over 200,000 stoves reported in different countries over 3 years.

Biogas projects in East Africa played an important role in changing mindsets and providing a cleaner alternative for households. In Kenya, three biogas operating units have been constructed by the Taita Taveta Wildlife Forum (TTWF) as part of a pilot project aimed at improving access to clean energy. This is promoted because biogas produces clean energy, with less indoor and outdoor pollution, thus reduced chances of respiratory tract infections and heart infections. The biogas production process equally generates nitrogen and liquids rich in nutrients that can serve as fertilizers.

The use of bioenergy as an alternative to solid-fuels is encouraged because through the different conversion techniques, energy is generated which enhances good combustion with limited emission of air pollutants. This form of energy is good both for indoor and outdoor use at urban and rural areas. The promotion of this form of energy is equally backed by the constant availability of biomass for bioenergy conversion, with by-products that are equally good for crop cultivation.

#### **4. Bioenergy from tree commodities as a sustainable remedy**

Tree commodities commonly referred to as 'money trees' are trees grown principally for cash by many African countries. These trees are often the principal

**Author(s)**

**90**

Tao et al.

Residential solid fuel combustion

 and

Mainland China

 A qualitative analysis

[19]

Zidago &

Charcoal and fuelwood

consumption

 and its

Cote d'Ivoire

A qualitative analysis through the households

(Case Study of

Yopougon Area)

Malawi

Cross-sectional

analysis

 sample

The use of firewood and charcoal for cooking

cardiopulmonary,

eye health and burns

Eye problem, respiratory problem and

*Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities*

heart diseases

 respiratory,

 neurologic,

> is associated with five categories of health

outcomes.

was used

Wang [20]

Das et al.

Biomass cooking fuels (firewood, Charcoal)

[21]

Kadafa

The health impact of fuelwood Utilisation

Nigeria (case

A qualitative analysis

 It was discovered that fuelwood has health

implications

 on its users

study of Yelwa

Village)

Ibadan, Nigeria

 Qualitative analysis

 Majority of the respondents

health-related

cooking with cough, breathing problems,

skin and eyes irritation being the most

common

Household particulate matter (PM2.5) is

Lower life expectancy

significantly

higher life expectancy in the long run

especially with females

 and negatively associated with

 issues during and after

 complained

 of

Cough, breathing problems, skin and eyes

irritation

et al. [22]

Mbanya

PM10 emissions from cooking fuels in

and

Nigerian households and their impact on

Sridhar

women and children

[23]

Badamassi

The effects of particulate matter (PM2.5)

> et al. [24]

from household combustion

expectancy in SSA

Mohapatra

Health impact on women using solid

Cuttack District,

Cross-sectional

 study

Exposure to smoke from cooking fuel is

Headache, dry cough and

hypertension

significantly

symptoms of headache, dry cough and

hypertension

 associated with the prevalence

Odisha

with the use of Chi-

square test

et al. [25]

**Table 1.** *Review of health effects of fuelwood combustion*

 *on users.*

cooking fuels in rural area of Cuttack

District, Odisha

 on life

43 SSA countries

 GMM and panel

cointegration

 model

on users

and health outcomes for women in Malawi

impacts on

environment

impacts on air quality and human health

 **Study carried out**

**Country/region**

**Methodology**

 **Major findings**

 Evidence showed that household air

pollution in china causes a range of health

outcomes

The production and

have a negative impact on the health of its

producers and consumers

consumption

 of charcoal

Burns, chronic cough

**Discovered**

Respiratory diseases; asthma, lung cancer,

cardiovascular

stroke and immune system impairment

 diseases; heart diseases,

 **health outcomes** source of income for most farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Africa, cocoa, coffee, oil palm, industrial round wood, cashew, almonds and walnuts are the principal tree commodities. These tree commodities are a source of income to millions of Africans and accounts for tons of agricultural biomass produced annually. Agricultural biomass after extraction of the fruit of these products is often left to rot in the farms while farmers suffer from energy shortages. Residue from tree commodities such as husk of cocoa and coffee, empty fruit bunch of oil palm, forest thinning from timber exploitation and shell of almonds are potential sustainable feedstock for bioenergy generation.

With the appropriate technology and adoption by community members, tree commodities can serve as a pathway for sustainable bioenergy generation without changing land use and without extra efforts from the farmer to find feedstock. The potential of using bioenergy for reducing health effects of traditional biomass for combustion is backed by the fact that tree commodities are often found in rural areas, with serious energy deficiencies, high prevalence of respiratory tract infections as a result of solid wood fuel combustion.

The potential of using bioenergy from tree commodities as a clean energy source is evaporated in this chapter by looking at two aspects: (1) by evaluating the potential in terms of quantity of bioenergy that can be generated by tree commodities and (2) operational framework for bioenergy from tree commodities to effectively serve rural population as a renewable and healthy energy source.

### **4.1 Evaluating the potential quantity of bioenergy from tree commodities in Africa**

To evaluate the potential of bioenergy from tree commodities, seven tree commodities were chosen for analysis based on the number of farmers or population affected by the different tree commodities. The chosen tree commodities are coffee (*Coffea arabica* and *Coffea canephora*), cocoa (*Theobroma cacao*), oil palm (Arecaceae), walnuts (*Juglans)*, cashew (*Anacardium occidentale*), almonds (*Prunus dulcis*) and industrial round wood*.* When evaluating bionenergy potential from tree commodities, provisions are taken for the use of residue for other uses, such as soil nutrient. The extraction equally considers other aspects such as weather, soil types, crop yields, harvesting technique and wind patterns [29, 30]. Researchers have evaluated different soil systems and uses of residue from biomass and conclude that 44–64% of biomass residue can sustainably be used for biomass generation [29–31]. Using a more conservative approach, this chapter uses a 20% extraction rate to estimate bioenergy production from tree commodities. Data from the FAO (2018) database serve as a basis for estimation in this chapter. Sustainable extraction rates were gotten from literature review from a variety of sources; residue to product ratio and moisture content was extracted from OECD/IEA [32]. Moisture content for coffee and cocoa was obtained from NREL [33], oil palm from Husain et al. [34], walnuts from Uzan and Yaman [35], cashew from Mohod et al. [36], industrial round wood from FAO [37] and almonds from [38]. **Table 2** below shows the results of bioenergy potential from tree commodities for bioelectricity, biochemical ethanol and diesel.

Bioenergy generation from tree commodities in Africa can potentially generate between 4.26E+06 and 1.14E+07 MW of bioelectricity from the seven-tree commodities while 6.26E+08 and 1.71E+09 L of bioethanol can potentially be generated from tree commodities. Tree commodities equally can equally serve as an important potential source for diesel, estimates from tree commodities show that 4.27E+08– 1.14E+09 L can be generated from tree commodities.

**Tree**

**93**

**Average**

 **Type of**

**Residue**

**Moisture**

**Lower**

**Residue**

**Residue**

**Residue. 30%**

**Energy**

**bioelectricity**

**Biochemical**

**Thermochemical**

**syngas to Ficher**

**Tropsch diesel**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90603*

**ethanol**

**potential**

**residue**

**to**

**content**

**heating**

**(wet**

**(Bone**

**Sustainable**

**Extraction**

**(bone dry**

**value**

**tons)**

**dry**

**tons)**

**(bone dry**

**x MK/kg)**

**tons)**

**GJ**

**15%**

**40%**

**(low)**

**(high)**

**Low**

**High**

**efficiency**

**efficiency**

**litres**

**litres**

**(litres)**

**(litres)**

**MW h**

**MW h**

**(low)**

**(high)**

**product**

**ratio**

**commodity**

Coffee

cocoa

oil palm

 19,402,457

 empty

0.25

 0.60

 15.51

 4.85E+06

 1.94E+06

 5.82E+05

 9.03E+06

 3.79E+05

 1.01E+06

 6.40E+07

 1.75E+08

 4.37E+07

 1.16E+08

*Public Health Effects of Wood Fuel in Africa: Bioenergy from Tree Commodities as a Sustainable…*

fruit bunch

(EFB)

Walnuts,

37,471

 shell

 2.00

 0.15

 16.70

 7.49E+04

 6.37E+04

 1.91E+04

 3.19E+05

 1.34E+04

 3.57E+04

 2.10E+06

 5.73E+06

 1.43E+06

 3.82E+06

> with shell

Cashew

Industrial

28,764,846

 forest

0.5

 0.4

 18.3

 1.44E+07

 8.63E+06

 2.59E+06

 4.74E+07

 1.99E+06

 5.31E+06

 2.85E+08

 7.77E+08

 1.94E+08

 5.18E+08

thinning

round

wood

Almonds,

281,549

 shell

 2

 0.15

 18.86

 5.63E+05

 4.79E+05

 1.44E+05

 2.71E+06 **1.02E+08**

 **4.26E+06**

 **1.14E+07**

 **6.26E+08**

 **1.71E+09**

 **4.27E+08**

 **1.14E+09**

 1.14E+05

 3.03E+05

 1.58E+07

 4.31E+07

 1.08E+07

 2.87E+07

> with Shell

**Total**

**Table 2.** *Tree commodities*

 *as a source of bioenergy,* 

*bioelectricity,*

 *biochemical*

 *ethanol and diesel.*

 1,713,285

 Shell

 2

 0.15

 23.98

 3.43E+06

 2.91E+06

 8.74E+05

 2.10E+07

 8.80E+05

 2.35E+06

 9.61E+07

 2.62E+08

 6.55E+07

 1.75E+08

 3,398,572

 Pods, Husk 1.00

 1,149,511

 Husk

 2.10

 0.15

 0.15

 15.48

 3.40E+06

 2.89E+06

 8.67E+05

 1.34E+07

 5.63E+05

 1.50E+06

 9.53E+07

 2.60E+08

 6.50E+07

 1.73E+08

 12.56

 2.41E+06

 2.05E+06

 6.16E+05

 7.73E+06

 3.25E+05

 8.66E+05

 6.77E+07

 1.85E+08

 4.62E+07

 1.23E+08


*Public Health Effects of Wood Fuel in Africa: Bioenergy from Tree Commodities as a Sustainable… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90603*

> **Table 2.**

*Tree commodities as a source of bioenergy, bioelectricity, biochemical ethanol and*

 *diesel.*

source of income for most farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Africa, cocoa, coffee, oil palm, industrial round wood, cashew, almonds and walnuts are the principal tree commodities. These tree commodities are a source of income to millions of Africans and accounts for tons of agricultural biomass produced annually. Agricultural biomass after extraction of the fruit of these products is often left to rot in the farms while farmers suffer from energy shortages. Residue from tree commodities such as husk of cocoa and coffee, empty fruit bunch of oil palm, forest thinning from timber exploitation and shell of almonds are potential sustainable feedstock for

*Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities*

With the appropriate technology and adoption by community members, tree commodities can serve as a pathway for sustainable bioenergy generation without changing land use and without extra efforts from the farmer to find feedstock. The potential of using bioenergy for reducing health effects of traditional biomass for combustion is backed by the fact that tree commodities are often found in rural areas, with serious energy deficiencies, high prevalence of respiratory tract infec-

The potential of using bioenergy from tree commodities as a clean energy source

is evaporated in this chapter by looking at two aspects: (1) by evaluating the potential in terms of quantity of bioenergy that can be generated by tree commodities and (2) operational framework for bioenergy from tree commodities to effec-

**4.1 Evaluating the potential quantity of bioenergy from tree commodities in**

To evaluate the potential of bioenergy from tree commodities, seven tree commodities were chosen for analysis based on the number of farmers or population affected by the different tree commodities. The chosen tree commodities are coffee

(Arecaceae), walnuts (*Juglans)*, cashew (*Anacardium occidentale*), almonds (*Prunus dulcis*) and industrial round wood*.* When evaluating bionenergy potential from tree commodities, provisions are taken for the use of residue for other uses, such as soil nutrient. The extraction equally considers other aspects such as weather, soil types, crop yields, harvesting technique and wind patterns [29, 30]. Researchers have evaluated different soil systems and uses of residue from biomass and conclude that 44–64% of biomass residue can sustainably be used for biomass generation [29–31]. Using a more conservative approach, this chapter uses a 20% extraction rate to estimate bioenergy production from tree commodities. Data from the FAO (2018) database serve as a basis for estimation in this chapter. Sustainable extraction rates were gotten from literature review from a variety of sources; residue to product ratio and moisture content was extracted from OECD/IEA [32]. Moisture content for coffee and cocoa was obtained from NREL [33], oil palm from Husain et al. [34], walnuts from Uzan and Yaman [35], cashew from Mohod et al. [36], industrial round wood from FAO [37] and almonds from [38]. **Table 2** below shows the results of bioenergy potential from tree commodities for bioelectricity, biochemical

Bioenergy generation from tree commodities in Africa can potentially generate between 4.26E+06 and 1.14E+07 MW of bioelectricity from the seven-tree commodities while 6.26E+08 and 1.71E+09 L of bioethanol can potentially be generated from tree commodities. Tree commodities equally can equally serve as an important potential source for diesel, estimates from tree commodities show that 4.27E+08–

1.14E+09 L can be generated from tree commodities.

tively serve rural population as a renewable and healthy energy source.

(*Coffea arabica* and *Coffea canephora*), cocoa (*Theobroma cacao*), oil palm

bioenergy generation.

**Africa**

ethanol and diesel.

**92**

tions as a result of solid wood fuel combustion.

systems coupled with sustainable management practices is key to pushing a

policy reform agenda for modern bioenergy generation in Africa.

*Public Health Effects of Wood Fuel in Africa: Bioenergy from Tree Commodities as a Sustainable…*

ii. **Significant financial investment:** Developing modern bioenergy generation systems for tree commodities requires significant financial investment. Multi-lateral development agencies aimed at reducing carbon emissions and promoting healthy living of populations can shift their funding streams to bioenergy generation. For this to happen, they must understand that modern bioenergy does not only reduce carbon emission, deforestation but can equally save the lives of millions of people potentially

at high risk of respiratory tract infections as a result of solid-fuel

**4.3 Sensitization and training on modern bioenergy generation from tree**

The acceptance and adoption of new bioenergy as an improved energy source required that users understand the key advantages. Thus, sensitisation at different levels with a clear distinction of advantages over traditional solid-fuel combustion should be made. Adoption can equally be facilitated by developing simple modern bioenergy generation systems that are adapted to rural context with minimal investment. This will enhance adoption especially when the cost of generation is

i. **Public-private partnerships and cooperation**: The developments of

sustainable modern bioenergy systems stakeholder buy-in a different levels and scales. Thus, a public-private partnership scheme is very important. The private sector with similar objectives can collaborate with government agencies in developing the bioenergy agenda as financial partners, technical support agents, or for policy advocacy. International cooperation is equally important for broad-based decision-making with local impacts coupled with strategic deployment frameworks adapted to different contexts. Understanding different stakeholders from different countries is

for adoption to be faster.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90603*

relatively low and accrued advantages and multi-scaled.

paramount to advancing bioenergy generation.

**commodities**

**95**

combustion. This financing should go along way in investing not only in infrastructure for bioenergy development but equally in community adapted distribution mechanisms that will enhance adoption of new form of energy. These new energy sources should be cheaper and more efficient

#### **Figure 1.**

The figure above (**Figure 1**) shows that bioenergy generation from industrial round wood is the highest averaging 46% for the bioelectricity (47%), bioethanol (46%) and Fischer-Tropsch diesel (46%). Cashew shell can equally contribute significantly bioenergy production accounting for 15% of diesel and bioethanol and 21% of electricity. Cocoa comes third as the highest contributor, accounting for 13% of bioelectricity and 15% of bioethanol and diesel. Coffee follows representing 7% of bioelectricity production and 11% of bioethanol and diesel. Oil palm equally contributes significantly to this potential, with 9% of total potential of bioelectricity and 10% of bioethanol and diesel potential production. These percentages underscore the significant potential contribution of tree commodities in generation clean, modern bioenergy than can potentially reduce public health diseases associated with the combustion of solid-fuel biomass. However, for this to be a reality, a lot of policy and operational tools must be put in place and readily available at local level.

### **4.2 Operational framework for bioenergy from tree commodities to effectively serve rural population as a renewable and healthy energy source**

For modern bioenergy to serve as a potential clean energy source for rural African communities and millions of Africans at risk of respiratory tract infections and cardio-vascular diseases, several important pre-requisites are required.

i. **Government support**: For modern bioenergy to be a mainstay in rural Africa and reduce incidences of deaths through solid-fuel combustion, government authorities must support the development of modern bioenergy infrastructure. This requires significant shift in policy and investment from the government and different multi-lateral partners. The understanding of policy makers of the health advantages of developing modern bioenergy

systems coupled with sustainable management practices is key to pushing a policy reform agenda for modern bioenergy generation in Africa.

ii. **Significant financial investment:** Developing modern bioenergy generation systems for tree commodities requires significant financial investment. Multi-lateral development agencies aimed at reducing carbon emissions and promoting healthy living of populations can shift their funding streams to bioenergy generation. For this to happen, they must understand that modern bioenergy does not only reduce carbon emission, deforestation but can equally save the lives of millions of people potentially at high risk of respiratory tract infections as a result of solid-fuel combustion. This financing should go along way in investing not only in infrastructure for bioenergy development but equally in community adapted distribution mechanisms that will enhance adoption of new form of energy. These new energy sources should be cheaper and more efficient for adoption to be faster.
