**4. The Wodaabe's wife stealing night dance**

This is a cultural practice found among the Wodaabe tribe, a sub-group of the Fulani ethnic communities of the northern parts of Nigeria, northeastern Cameroon, the western region of Central African Republic and southwestern Chad [3]. The tribe holds a cultural dancing festival at night. While dancing, a man is allowed to steal and carry home any woman he likes whether the woman is married or not. The health implication of this cultural practice is obvious. Sexually transmitted infections including HIV as well as unwanted pregnancies may result, with attendant consequences.

### **5. The Chawe cultural corpse washing ritual**

Among the Chawe community, a Bantu tribe mostly found in Malawi, when a member of the tribe dies, the throat of the corpse is sliced open and water is run

**103**

*Cultural Practices and Health Consequences: Health or Habits, the Choice Is Ours*

corpse is collected and used to prepare a meal for the entire community.

through then squeezed out until it comes out looking clear [3]. This water from the

In many tribes of Africa, older females play advisory roles as matrons to newly wedded couples [3]. They usually advise on how the woman especially, should relate to her husband so that they can avoid marital frictions. Some of these advice include how the woman is expected to behave in bed with her husband so that he does not stray out for sexual satisfaction. However, the Banyankole tribe of Uganda take this innocuous and possibly helpful cultural practice to another dimension. The older female who plays the role of the matron to the couple is required to test the sexual potency of the intending husband by having sexual intercourse with him. In addition, she has to test the "purity" of the intending wife by examining for her hymen before they are allowed to marry. Here again, this cultural practice may promote sexually transmitted infections,

female genital tract infection as well as lower the self-esteem of the vulnerable young couple, who may be ridiculed if declared to have fall short by the more

Young boys in some communities in Ethiopia are required to prove their manliness by stripping naked, running and jumping on the back of a bull [3]. This is followed by running on the backs of a line of several bulls held by their horns and tails by the adults. This cultural practice is called Hamar. Female friends of the young boy are then required to prove their loyalty to him by smearing their bodies with ochre mixed with fat and dancing while being given several lashes on their bare backs. This cultural practice may result in trauma, fractures or even loss of life. Infections like tetanus may result from contamination of the injuries and abrasions

Among the Fulani tribe of Benin, an intending husband may be required to endure severe beating to prove his worthiness of the wife [3]. If the husband is

Many intending husbands have died from the flogging ritual and consequently, it is no longer a compulsory requirement for marriage. Apart from a fatal consequence, the Sharo beating cultural practice portends physical and psychological

The nomadic tribes of Ovahimba and Ovazimba communities of Kunene and Omusati regions in northern Namibia, express their appreciation of their friend or

The health implication of this cultural practice is the spread of infectious diseases, which may have led to the death of the deceased tribal member in the first instance. Gastrointestinal diseases like gastroenteritis, food poisoning, hepatitis, enteric fever or cholera among others, may result from this cultural practice.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89778*

**6. The Banyankole tribe's potency test**

experienced matron.

caused by the lashes.

**7. Bull jumping ritual in Ethiopia**

**8. Sharo beating ritual of Benin**

trauma to the intending husband.

unable to endure the flogging, the marriage is called off.

**9. The wife exchanging culture of northern Namibia**

#### *Cultural Practices and Health Consequences: Health or Habits, the Choice Is Ours DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89778*

through then squeezed out until it comes out looking clear [3]. This water from the corpse is collected and used to prepare a meal for the entire community.

The health implication of this cultural practice is the spread of infectious diseases, which may have led to the death of the deceased tribal member in the first instance. Gastrointestinal diseases like gastroenteritis, food poisoning, hepatitis, enteric fever or cholera among others, may result from this cultural practice.

### **6. The Banyankole tribe's potency test**

*Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities*

2. "health risks," "cultural practices," and "culture";

3.how cultural practices affect health; and

**3. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)**

**4. The Wodaabe's wife stealing night dance**

**5. The Chawe cultural corpse washing ritual**

4. "health implications" and "cultural practice."

the information extracted and was systematically reviewed.

The searches were conducted on Google Scholar and PubMed using the following mesh terms: cultural practices; culture; health impact; and health consequences:

1.health consequences and cultural practices/"health consequences," "cultural

A review of the abstracts of many of the articles got from the search did not provide the information desired for this chapter. However, a few articles provided

This is a cultural practice that has attracted worldwide concern due to its profound deleterious consequences on the health, reproductive ability and psychological wellbeing of women [2]. It is a cultural practice common in parts of Africa, Asia and Middle East. Part of, or the entire external female genital is cut off as a cultural practice believed to reduce libido and enhance the chastity of women. More than 200 million girls and women mostly from the above mentioned areas have experienced FGM. The procedure is usually done by traditional attendants using unsterile devices on girls from the ages of infancy to about 15 years of age. Apart from the risk of infections from the unhygienic way the procedure is carried out and the unsterile equipment used, there can be severe bleeding, injuries to the urinary tract as well as subsequent increased risk of complicated childbirth and death of the newborn [1]. The paradox of the practice is that rather than promote sexual chastity as believed by the practitioners, FGM actually causes painful sexual intercourse and difficulties achieving sexual satisfaction. It has absolutely no health benefit for the women and it has been associated with depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder and low self-esteem [1].

This is a cultural practice found among the Wodaabe tribe, a sub-group of the Fulani ethnic communities of the northern parts of Nigeria, northeastern Cameroon, the western region of Central African Republic and southwestern Chad [3]. The tribe holds a cultural dancing festival at night. While dancing, a man is allowed to steal and carry home any woman he likes whether the woman is married or not. The health implication of this cultural practice is obvious. Sexually transmitted infections including HIV as well as unwanted pregnancies may result, with attendant consequences.

Among the Chawe community, a Bantu tribe mostly found in Malawi, when a member of the tribe dies, the throat of the corpse is sliced open and water is run

**2. Search strategy**

practices";

**102**

In many tribes of Africa, older females play advisory roles as matrons to newly wedded couples [3]. They usually advise on how the woman especially, should relate to her husband so that they can avoid marital frictions. Some of these advice include how the woman is expected to behave in bed with her husband so that he does not stray out for sexual satisfaction. However, the Banyankole tribe of Uganda take this innocuous and possibly helpful cultural practice to another dimension. The older female who plays the role of the matron to the couple is required to test the sexual potency of the intending husband by having sexual intercourse with him. In addition, she has to test the "purity" of the intending wife by examining for her hymen before they are allowed to marry.

Here again, this cultural practice may promote sexually transmitted infections, female genital tract infection as well as lower the self-esteem of the vulnerable young couple, who may be ridiculed if declared to have fall short by the more experienced matron.

## **7. Bull jumping ritual in Ethiopia**

Young boys in some communities in Ethiopia are required to prove their manliness by stripping naked, running and jumping on the back of a bull [3]. This is followed by running on the backs of a line of several bulls held by their horns and tails by the adults. This cultural practice is called Hamar. Female friends of the young boy are then required to prove their loyalty to him by smearing their bodies with ochre mixed with fat and dancing while being given several lashes on their bare backs.

This cultural practice may result in trauma, fractures or even loss of life. Infections like tetanus may result from contamination of the injuries and abrasions caused by the lashes.

### **8. Sharo beating ritual of Benin**

Among the Fulani tribe of Benin, an intending husband may be required to endure severe beating to prove his worthiness of the wife [3]. If the husband is unable to endure the flogging, the marriage is called off.

Many intending husbands have died from the flogging ritual and consequently, it is no longer a compulsory requirement for marriage. Apart from a fatal consequence, the Sharo beating cultural practice portends physical and psychological trauma to the intending husband.

#### **9. The wife exchanging culture of northern Namibia**

The nomadic tribes of Ovahimba and Ovazimba communities of Kunene and Omusati regions in northern Namibia, express their appreciation of their friend or visitor by giving the friend or visitor their wife to have sexual intercourse with for the night [4]. This cultural practice is called okujepisa omukazendu. This practice is deeply rooted in the communities, they believe that it deepens their friendship and prevents promiscuity.

In a country with one of the highest prevalence of HIV infection, a cultural practice like this may be contributing to the spread of the disease. It will be interesting to find out if the wives given as sexual gifts to friends and visitors have a say in the decision and, if they appreciate the cultural practice.

The cultural practices described above are examples of the obvious ones with possibly deleterious health consequences. Some others are not as obvious but nevertheless may have significant adverse heath impact. An example is the cultural upbringing of male children to assume dominant and aggressive roles in relationship with the more docile brought up female partner. This cultural practice is common in many parts of Africa and has been associated with tolerance in the communities for violence by husbands on their wives and, intimate partner violence [5–7].
