Self-Efficacy and Self-Esteem

**57**

**Chapter 5**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

works.

How Adversity Shapes Character

The role in which adversity plays in shaping ones character, resilience and endurance is one that society shuns and often neglects. It has been a norm with the increase of motivational talks, inspirational quotes of digital media and life coaching of the new age to suppress the feeling in pursuit of joy and happiness. This has seen an increase in depression and suicides across the globe. The embracing of adverse situations continues to be an interpretation of weakness and an embrace of negativity. This chapter will explore how the avoidance of adversity prevents humanity the pleasures of gaining rich roots of character and the gaining of virtues that encompass courage, grace and resilience. The chapter will conclude by emphasising that the absence of adversity or the suppression of it thereof minimises

Adversity can be defined as an unfavourable fortune, incident or fate; a condition marked by misfortune, calamity or distress. It is inevitable that in our lifetime, we will undergo adverse situations and circumstances, and learning to embrace these situations with grace and dignity can be beneficial for our personal journeys. Rich roots of character can be developed when learning to embrace adverse situations life throws, when one learns to ask which lessons can be derived from their misfortunes and every adversity has a distinct and unique lesson that can only be learned when the adversity is embraced. It is also important to be patient with oneself as they learn to familiarise themselves with the adverse situation, while learning to embrace the situation. The first step is to always accept what the status quo is, refrain from denying the situation for what it is and denial is the biggest delayer in healing. Once one's mind, heart and body have fully accepted the adverse situation, healing comes and a new and fresh perspective is developed. New and fresh perspective brings wisdom, each time you face another challenging time, you can draw from the pool of wisdom gained from previous adverse situations. Author and blogger, Bridges [1] suggests four positive attributes on embracing adversity.

1.One develops a deeper understanding about themselves and how the world

2.One hones their creativity; Bridges suggests when faced with adverse situations, one is aware that sitting and crying about it will not bring much solutions, the seeking of a remedy to the situations is how one becomes creative, he suggests that the absence of adversity would not challenge one's creative flair.

*Ntsika Majiba and Nolonwabo Happiness Majiba*

spiritual, emotional and psychological growth.

**Keywords:** adversity, courage, resilience, character, grace

### **Chapter 5**

## How Adversity Shapes Character

*Ntsika Majiba and Nolonwabo Happiness Majiba*

### **Abstract**

The role in which adversity plays in shaping ones character, resilience and endurance is one that society shuns and often neglects. It has been a norm with the increase of motivational talks, inspirational quotes of digital media and life coaching of the new age to suppress the feeling in pursuit of joy and happiness. This has seen an increase in depression and suicides across the globe. The embracing of adverse situations continues to be an interpretation of weakness and an embrace of negativity. This chapter will explore how the avoidance of adversity prevents humanity the pleasures of gaining rich roots of character and the gaining of virtues that encompass courage, grace and resilience. The chapter will conclude by emphasising that the absence of adversity or the suppression of it thereof minimises spiritual, emotional and psychological growth.

**Keywords:** adversity, courage, resilience, character, grace

#### **1. Introduction**

Adversity can be defined as an unfavourable fortune, incident or fate; a condition marked by misfortune, calamity or distress. It is inevitable that in our lifetime, we will undergo adverse situations and circumstances, and learning to embrace these situations with grace and dignity can be beneficial for our personal journeys. Rich roots of character can be developed when learning to embrace adverse situations life throws, when one learns to ask which lessons can be derived from their misfortunes and every adversity has a distinct and unique lesson that can only be learned when the adversity is embraced. It is also important to be patient with oneself as they learn to familiarise themselves with the adverse situation, while learning to embrace the situation. The first step is to always accept what the status quo is, refrain from denying the situation for what it is and denial is the biggest delayer in healing. Once one's mind, heart and body have fully accepted the adverse situation, healing comes and a new and fresh perspective is developed. New and fresh perspective brings wisdom, each time you face another challenging time, you can draw from the pool of wisdom gained from previous adverse situations. Author and blogger, Bridges [1] suggests four positive attributes on embracing adversity.


#### **2. Adversity virtues**

Although the chapter deals with embracing adverse situations, drawing strength from them and finding positive traits and values is to build character. Let us not run away from the reality that adverse situations are painful, stressful and give anxiety; it would be bogus to ignore the fact that adverse situations can often be uncomfortable. This may lead one into depression and despair, finding courage in such situations does come across as farfetched and impossible, but it is very possible to turn lemons into lemonade. Turning lemons into lemonade, adverse situations into positive lessons takes courage. Courage is not easy, courage takes emotional strength and a deep sense of emotional intelligence, and it is a decision, a deliberate choice that takes immense character. When we choose courage, we understand that it either may be very beneficial or may backfire. If for example one was involved in a motorcycle accident, which may have been fatal, it takes immense courage to go back onto a motor cycle again, and it is crucial to know that the courage taken may be either successful or unsuccessful. However, if one persists in seeking the successful output, success is what you will get in the end; it takes time.

Another example is a break up. Building a relationship after a traumatic breakup may seem like trauma and can be very daunting, taking bold courageous steps at finding love again can be either successful or unsuccessful, and if the latter is the outcome, time and persistent courage will bring successful results. In the introduction, I stated that the surrounding of people who you love and trust makes the adverse situation bearable as they aid you with comfort and advice. Those very people are instrumental in birthing out the courageous virtue within us when feeling weak and in doubt, their encouragement and never wavering support is vital in awakening the courage that is needed to overcome adverse situations. Courage brings about confidence and resilience, depriving ourselves of these attributes is an injustice to our healing and closure. It takes courage to have courage itself, the ability to make a stern decision to be courageous when everything screams the opposite, is courage in its very nature.

Although a strong support of people is important in facing adverse situations, it does take you to make that decision. One can have all the advice and support in the world, but if it is not your decision, you will never find courage. The Greek philosopher Aristotle believes courage to be the most important human virtue. "Courage is the first of human virtues because it makes all others possible." When we are courageous, we take the first bold step at facing our unfavourable situations and circumstances, and without courage, there can be no healing or overcoming adverse situations; it cannot be skipped or ran away from. Having courage enables us to face fear head on and helps us to face the unknown until it is known. Fear itself can

**59**

oneself.

build resilience.

*How Adversity Shapes Character*

not come.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91302*

adverse situations cannot be overcome.

be the most crippling emotion that prevents us from moving forward and finding healing. According to Australian academic press, courage enables us to develop a psychological muscle. This muscle assists us when in need of resilience and strength to overcome or avoid adversity. The more we make use of this muscle, the more empowered we become to confront problems head on and be courageous in challenging times that fill us with immense pain and despair. Courage is not a virtue that we are born with, it is not instant and automatic, it is a virtue one learns, and with consistency and practice, it becomes stronger. There is no individual who has automated courage in their bloodline or DNA; all of us are on a human journey and experience, and learn to be courageous through adverse and unfortunate circumstances. Courage is a demanding virtue because it requires persistence, it requires one to want it and if one does not persist stubbornly at attaining it, it simply will

Australian academic press [2] emphasises that courage is not an instinctive response, like breathing or swallowing. If that was how courage worked, our reactions would be consistent and our feelings predictable. This would mean our responses and reactions would be meaningless. Courage is reactive and differs with each unique situation. There cannot be courage without fear, and for courage to show up, fear must be present. Courage exists because fear exists. Courage cannot be forced, courage is a personal decision that must be taken wilfully, and without it,

Overcoming adverse situations requires a high level of grace from a higher power

beyond yourself and a certain level from within yourself. Prayer and meditation may channel adverse circumstances into a positive light and may be able to shed a deep and meaningful perspective of your situation. Many have attested to the power of prayer, and the role a spiritual connection has played in healing and finding closure in an adverse situation. Others have attested that meditation has assisted them in channelling their emotions, and consolidating what it is they feel. Grace that comes from above is a grace that cannot be attained from any human, it is a divine and sustaining grace that gives you strength in helpless and adverse times, and through this level of grace, one is able to attain a level of grace within themselves to go on and when everything around them is falling apart. A willing heart, a heart

One has got to reach out for it, it does not simply come. When one reaches out to a higher power, the higher power is able to extend its grace upon them. Although the first step is courage, the absence of grace can make the experience bitter and very painful. A support system both in the physical sense and in a spiritual sense is very important. Granted, not all of us believe in a higher power, but the reality is we did not create ourselves, there has to be a force higher and greater than ourselves and often we can find healing and deep comfort in adverse situations. In our pursuit of grace from above to handle adverse situations, we gain clarity and understanding, adversity has a way of stripping away level headed thinking and often leaves one bitter and negative in how they think or approach the situation at hand. Grace leaves one better not bitter, and when you feel rejuvenated, one is able to make level headed decisions that lead to a positive outcome, it gives you a better understanding of the situation at hand, and it gives one peace. Ultimately, ones greatest strength, deep courage, grace and resilience will come effectively when one find purpose in the adversity, often purpose stems from a power that is higher and greater than

Death, a break up, a job loss or even a fatal car accident are some adverse examples, these and many others are able to birth resilience characteristics within. The American psychological association suggests 10 ways in which adverse situations

that has the courage and tenacity to overcome, can only attain grace.

#### *How Adversity Shapes Character DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91302*

*Counseling and Therapy*

friends be revealed.

**2. Adversity virtues**

it takes time.

is courage in its very nature.

3.One is able to see people's true colours-real friend's surface. Bridges suggests that although adverse situations can be painful and daunting, they can be viewed and deemed as blessings in disguise, no matter how independent one is, you'll need people and its often in the most adverse of times will one's true

4.One finds more courage to stand-alone. Bridges suggests that, although adverse times will need you to surround yourself with friends and loved ones, the decision to get up and dust yourself up is your decision, and the decision to stand firmly will only come from you. In this instance, one truly learns the art of a

strong will and self-control; both these traits build character.

Although the chapter deals with embracing adverse situations, drawing strength from them and finding positive traits and values is to build character. Let us not run away from the reality that adverse situations are painful, stressful and give anxiety; it would be bogus to ignore the fact that adverse situations can often be uncomfortable. This may lead one into depression and despair, finding courage in such situations does come across as farfetched and impossible, but it is very possible to turn lemons into lemonade. Turning lemons into lemonade, adverse situations into positive lessons takes courage. Courage is not easy, courage takes emotional strength and a deep sense of emotional intelligence, and it is a decision, a deliberate choice that takes immense character. When we choose courage, we understand that it either may be very beneficial or may backfire. If for example one was involved in a motorcycle accident, which may have been fatal, it takes immense courage to go back onto a motor cycle again, and it is crucial to know that the courage taken may be either successful or unsuccessful. However, if one persists in seeking the successful output, success is what you will get in the end;

Another example is a break up. Building a relationship after a traumatic breakup may seem like trauma and can be very daunting, taking bold courageous steps at finding love again can be either successful or unsuccessful, and if the latter is the outcome, time and persistent courage will bring successful results. In the introduction, I stated that the surrounding of people who you love and trust makes the adverse situation bearable as they aid you with comfort and advice. Those very people are instrumental in birthing out the courageous virtue within us when feeling weak and in doubt, their encouragement and never wavering support is vital in awakening the courage that is needed to overcome adverse situations. Courage brings about confidence and resilience, depriving ourselves of these attributes is an injustice to our healing and closure. It takes courage to have courage itself, the ability to make a stern decision to be courageous when everything screams the opposite,

Although a strong support of people is important in facing adverse situations, it does take you to make that decision. One can have all the advice and support in the world, but if it is not your decision, you will never find courage. The Greek philosopher Aristotle believes courage to be the most important human virtue. "Courage is the first of human virtues because it makes all others possible." When we are courageous, we take the first bold step at facing our unfavourable situations and circumstances, and without courage, there can be no healing or overcoming adverse situations; it cannot be skipped or ran away from. Having courage enables us to face fear head on and helps us to face the unknown until it is known. Fear itself can

**58**

be the most crippling emotion that prevents us from moving forward and finding healing. According to Australian academic press, courage enables us to develop a psychological muscle. This muscle assists us when in need of resilience and strength to overcome or avoid adversity. The more we make use of this muscle, the more empowered we become to confront problems head on and be courageous in challenging times that fill us with immense pain and despair. Courage is not a virtue that we are born with, it is not instant and automatic, it is a virtue one learns, and with consistency and practice, it becomes stronger. There is no individual who has automated courage in their bloodline or DNA; all of us are on a human journey and experience, and learn to be courageous through adverse and unfortunate circumstances. Courage is a demanding virtue because it requires persistence, it requires one to want it and if one does not persist stubbornly at attaining it, it simply will not come.

Australian academic press [2] emphasises that courage is not an instinctive response, like breathing or swallowing. If that was how courage worked, our reactions would be consistent and our feelings predictable. This would mean our responses and reactions would be meaningless. Courage is reactive and differs with each unique situation. There cannot be courage without fear, and for courage to show up, fear must be present. Courage exists because fear exists. Courage cannot be forced, courage is a personal decision that must be taken wilfully, and without it, adverse situations cannot be overcome.

Overcoming adverse situations requires a high level of grace from a higher power beyond yourself and a certain level from within yourself. Prayer and meditation may channel adverse circumstances into a positive light and may be able to shed a deep and meaningful perspective of your situation. Many have attested to the power of prayer, and the role a spiritual connection has played in healing and finding closure in an adverse situation. Others have attested that meditation has assisted them in channelling their emotions, and consolidating what it is they feel. Grace that comes from above is a grace that cannot be attained from any human, it is a divine and sustaining grace that gives you strength in helpless and adverse times, and through this level of grace, one is able to attain a level of grace within themselves to go on and when everything around them is falling apart. A willing heart, a heart that has the courage and tenacity to overcome, can only attain grace.

One has got to reach out for it, it does not simply come. When one reaches out to a higher power, the higher power is able to extend its grace upon them. Although the first step is courage, the absence of grace can make the experience bitter and very painful. A support system both in the physical sense and in a spiritual sense is very important. Granted, not all of us believe in a higher power, but the reality is we did not create ourselves, there has to be a force higher and greater than ourselves and often we can find healing and deep comfort in adverse situations. In our pursuit of grace from above to handle adverse situations, we gain clarity and understanding, adversity has a way of stripping away level headed thinking and often leaves one bitter and negative in how they think or approach the situation at hand. Grace leaves one better not bitter, and when you feel rejuvenated, one is able to make level headed decisions that lead to a positive outcome, it gives you a better understanding of the situation at hand, and it gives one peace. Ultimately, ones greatest strength, deep courage, grace and resilience will come effectively when one find purpose in the adversity, often purpose stems from a power that is higher and greater than oneself.

Death, a break up, a job loss or even a fatal car accident are some adverse examples, these and many others are able to birth resilience characteristics within. The American psychological association suggests 10 ways in which adverse situations build resilience.


The aim is to thrive and not to break at adversity. Resilience is far less than being strong and more about how one thinks says Razzetti [3] and further suggests that building resilience requires more than grit. William Ward is quoted in saying; "Adversity causes some men to break; others to break records" (Ward). This is proven beyond reasonable doubt to be true. How many stories do we know of iconic human beings who went through adverse situations and came out victorious and living hero's today? Nelson Mandela is an icon that instantly comes to mind, and he was detained and imprisoned for over two decades, separated from his family and his iconic wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela and their children. He was denied

**61**

*How Adversity Shapes Character*

meaning and lessons.

most adverse of times.

helps you reframe your thoughts.

motivation.

adverse period.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91302*

permission to bury his beloved mother and first born son, he was tormented mentally and emotionally and yet he was able to reconcile all races and the entire country, although he receives backlash for this even after his death, he is still revered and lauded throughout the world. Not many people would endure the immense adversity and pain Nelson Mandela endured but, his resilient spirit, his graceful spirit and courage led him to forgive. Psychiatrist Wolin [4] defines resiliency as the capacity to rise above adversity. We have to be able to tell ourselves when things go

Psychologist Emmy Werner [5] spent over 40 years studying children from disadvantaged, unstable and chaotic families. Despite their adverse circumstances, 30% of the children grew up to become successful students and adults, astonishingly many surpassed peers from more privileged backgrounds. Resilience is a choice. Much as the other previously mentioned traits such as courage and grace, resilience too require one to make a purposeful and intentional decision to adapt. The study by Werner had the following outputs; most of the children succeeded because of self-control, they made a decision that they would not allow their backgrounds and environment to define them. Studies have shown that spiritual support, cultural rituals prepare individuals for some of the most adverse conditions and situations. Resilience requires discipline, like courage; it is not a trait you are born with, it is one that you have to work on daily. This does not mean that one will never have a breaking point, even the most resilient of people break at some point. Razzetti emphasises that resilience is critical to recover from everyday adverse events, not just from traumatic ones. Positively restructuring our relationship with reality moves us through grief. Denial and acceptance are necessary steps in final clasping resilience by the foot. Resilience is far less than the actual adverse event but rather how you adapt to it. Zoli [6] states that resilience is a dynamic combination of optimism, creativity and confidence, and we can turn adverse situations into something meaningful by focusing on learning, not on the experience itself. Kobasa [7] detailed three critical components required in resilience; challenge, commitment and self-control.

1.Challenge. Resilient people turn a difficult situation into a challenge, instead of fighting reality and being in denial about it. They focus more on finding

2.Commitment. The drive and zeal of having to fight for something is what fuels resilient people. Having a mission greater than your adverse situation gives you

3.Self-control. It is ludicrous to believe one can control every single event under the sun, but one can control their emotions and decisions. Resilient individuals have mastered this trait and thus, find meaning and purpose even during the

Razzetti suggests five ways to build a mind-set of an individual undergoing an

1.Reframe your thoughts. He suggests that controlling situations in your life are impossible but controlling your emotions and responses is something you have control of. He suggests cognitive restructuring as a practical way to think about adverse situations. He states that calming oneself to identify the real situation and assess one's emotions and thoughts. He also states that identifying evidence that supports how you feel and also those who contradict your feelings,

wrong that the situation cannot take over our lives, this too shall pass.

#### *How Adversity Shapes Character DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91302*

*Counseling and Therapy*

resilience.

1.Adverse situations help in making good connections. The association suggests that a healthy relationship with friends, family and colleagues can build a resilience character within one. It also suggests that joining faith-based organisa-

2.Avoid seeing your crisis as insurmountable problems. The association suggests that one cannot avoid adverse situations, but one has to learn to see beyond them and draw strength from these situations, this they suggest builds resilience.

3.Accept that change is part of living. This the association suggests as the first step at dealing with adverse situations to find healing and assist in gaining

4.Move toward your goals. Building a resilient character will require you to make necessary steps in doing so. Finding a hobby or something healthy to occupy your mind during an adverse situation is what will bring about a positive

5.Take decisive actions. Do not detach yourself from the situations, feel it and go

6.Look for opportunities for self-discovery. Many people who have gone through trying times and experienced the most adverse situations have a better knowledge of self and are living fulfilled lives. Many of them have a heightened spiritual insight and are emotionally and mentally strong as they have chosen

7.Nurture a positive view of self. Developing confidence in your ability to solve

8.Maintain a hopeful outlook. Try visualising what you want the end goal to be and not what you are currently going through. Adverse situations often cloud you into believing that it is over, but when you focus on what you want to feel and not what you are currently feeling, you'll find peace and adapt a resilient nature.

9.Take care of yourself. There is a phase where one is allowed to be selfish. Do what makes you happy, exercise and keep your mind occupied with positive activities and engagements, and this will keep you level headed and resilient.

10.Keep things in perspective. It is very easy during adverse situations to blow things out of proportion. Keep things into perspective and always keep a levelheaded demeanour. Writing things down helps track your emotions and keeps

The aim is to thrive and not to break at adversity. Resilience is far less than being strong and more about how one thinks says Razzetti [3] and further suggests that building resilience requires more than grit. William Ward is quoted in saying; "Adversity causes some men to break; others to break records" (Ward). This is proven beyond reasonable doubt to be true. How many stories do we know of iconic human beings who went through adverse situations and came out victorious and living hero's today? Nelson Mandela is an icon that instantly comes to mind, and he was detained and imprisoned for over two decades, separated from his family and his iconic wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela and their children. He was denied

tions can assist in strengthening character and resilience.

through it. Take decisive actions that work toward healing.

problems and trusting your instincts helps build resilience.

things in perspective for a resilient and better you.

mind-set, ultimately birthing resilience.

to be proactive in finding resilience.

**60**

permission to bury his beloved mother and first born son, he was tormented mentally and emotionally and yet he was able to reconcile all races and the entire country, although he receives backlash for this even after his death, he is still revered and lauded throughout the world. Not many people would endure the immense adversity and pain Nelson Mandela endured but, his resilient spirit, his graceful spirit and courage led him to forgive. Psychiatrist Wolin [4] defines resiliency as the capacity to rise above adversity. We have to be able to tell ourselves when things go wrong that the situation cannot take over our lives, this too shall pass.

Psychologist Emmy Werner [5] spent over 40 years studying children from disadvantaged, unstable and chaotic families. Despite their adverse circumstances, 30% of the children grew up to become successful students and adults, astonishingly many surpassed peers from more privileged backgrounds. Resilience is a choice. Much as the other previously mentioned traits such as courage and grace, resilience too require one to make a purposeful and intentional decision to adapt. The study by Werner had the following outputs; most of the children succeeded because of self-control, they made a decision that they would not allow their backgrounds and environment to define them. Studies have shown that spiritual support, cultural rituals prepare individuals for some of the most adverse conditions and situations. Resilience requires discipline, like courage; it is not a trait you are born with, it is one that you have to work on daily. This does not mean that one will never have a breaking point, even the most resilient of people break at some point. Razzetti emphasises that resilience is critical to recover from everyday adverse events, not just from traumatic ones. Positively restructuring our relationship with reality moves us through grief. Denial and acceptance are necessary steps in final clasping resilience by the foot. Resilience is far less than the actual adverse event but rather how you adapt to it. Zoli [6] states that resilience is a dynamic combination of optimism, creativity and confidence, and we can turn adverse situations into something meaningful by focusing on learning, not on the experience itself. Kobasa [7] detailed three critical components required in resilience; challenge, commitment and self-control.


Razzetti suggests five ways to build a mind-set of an individual undergoing an adverse period.

1.Reframe your thoughts. He suggests that controlling situations in your life are impossible but controlling your emotions and responses is something you have control of. He suggests cognitive restructuring as a practical way to think about adverse situations. He states that calming oneself to identify the real situation and assess one's emotions and thoughts. He also states that identifying evidence that supports how you feel and also those who contradict your feelings, helps you reframe your thoughts.


### **3. Suppression of adverse situations, deprives healing**

Suppressing emotions and experiences often seems like the most comfortable thing to do at times, nobody enjoys feeling pain, it does not matter how strong you are as an individual. However, when dealing with adverse situations, it is rather wise to go through the experience and face it head on. Some of our most valuable lessons are often gained at the most adverse of times and running away from the situation will only deprive you of your own healing and the gaining of rich lessons that will build your character.

As previously mentioned that adverse situations are often healed by a spiritual experience but spirituality does not only bring healing, it also brings lessons. We learn lessons about our maker, a higher power other than ourselves and ourselves. Deffner [8] points out five sources of spiritual adversities, when engaging with our spirituality, we will often look at our adverse situations spiritually and not physically. Deffner points out the following:


**63**

*How Adversity Shapes Character*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91302*

as these that spirituality offers.

such instances and often compels us to forgive those who inflict us with pain, so that we may free ourselves from offence and deep rooted pain. Forgiveness is a very difficult thing to do, often we feel that unforgiveness is our power, if we forgive we feel weak and feel that the individual(s) who offended us will think we are on good terms with them or like what they did to us if we forgive. However, spirituality makes us know that forgiveness is liberating and the more we hold onto offence and a grudge, our sins will not be forgiven too.

3.Circumstances. Spirituality and religion is very clear that circumstances and life will happen, but offers solutions and help for our adverse situations. The joy that spirituality gives is the assurance that there is a higher power that will render aid in our most afflicting times and often advises that we pray for one another in adverse times. When we suppress our adversity, we lack lessons such

4.God/a higher power. Deffner argues that our power to deal with adversity comes from position and not a location. The closer we are to God, the better suited we will be to handle adversity in our life, when we are not close to our maker, we may find ourselves working against him. She states that, when God is our adversary, we find ourselves in the worst position to be in. When we are not close to God or our maker, he pours out his judgement. Another argument Deffner makes is that we meet adversity from God or our maker when he tries

5.Soft Heart vs. Hard Heart. Deffner argues that spirituality offers us a solution to deal with individuals who inflict us with pain, contributing to our adversity. Often the solution is a less hardened heart, a heart that loves and a heart that is meek. Spirituality compels us to love those who hurt us, to pray for them and reach out to them when they go through situations they put us through too.

"Success is not our greatest achievement, but, rather our greatest achievement is facing a difficult life challenge with dignity and integrity"-Viktor Frankl. Adversity is inevitable in the human experience and we will experience tough times but it is how we deal with these tough times that matter. Some may choose to be negative and have a hardened heart because of adverse situations; some may walk out of the situation positively, having an enhanced personal growth. Ultimately, it is a choice, a choice only we can make for ourselves. Adversity can make us stronger emotionally if we choose to look at the experience positively; if one shuns the lessons brought by adverse situations, one may be depriving themselves of an experience of a lifetime that will strengthen their emotional endurance. They say what does not kill us makes us stronger, and psychologists have discovered a term called "posttraumatic growth" (PTG) which is a scientific construct that aims to capture positive transformations in beliefs and behaviour. PTG takes on five forms; improved relations with others, identification of new possibilities for one's life, increased personal strength, spiritual change and enhanced appreciation of life. These qualities are derived after an adverse period in one's life and if feelings are suppressed, one deprives themselves of the positive attributes gained through embracing the hardship and finding meaning. These attributes build character and encompass growth that produces diligence, generosity, love, purpose and humility. We ought to not deprive ourselves of the full healing that will bring us rich emotional strength

Psychologically the mind can benefit too if suppression of adverse circumstances

are not enforced. Stephen Joseph [9] from University of Nottingham states that

to work in an area of our life that makes us uncomfortable.

and insight after we have experienced an adverse period.

*Counseling and Therapy*

reduces tensions.

build your character.

cally. Deffner points out the following:

tual journey and awakening.

2.Prepare for the worst. He suggests that you cannot prepare your heart and mind to deal with every possible situation, but one can prepare their mind to adapt when adverse situations arise. He states that one should not be afraid to

3.Create alternative paths. Creativity as previously mentioned plays a major role when overcoming adversity. Learning to navigate yourself out of unfavourable situations, creativity also stretches your brain, instead of seeing adverse situations as hurdles; your mind turns them into positive challenges. Razzetti also suggests humour as an important role in finding positive solutions. Laughing

4.Leverage the power of relationships. Strong and solid relationships are once again encouraged during adverse times; no one no matter how in denial we are can succeed alone. Collaboration and association is vital in the healing process. Relationships according to Razzetti foster resilience, resilient people do the actual give-and take work necessary to get emotional gratification from others.

5.Mind your spirit. Razzetti also agrees that religious and spiritual support brings us comfort during adversity. Medication too he suggests as a positive tool in challenging ones emotions. Religious and spiritual activities provide strength that comes from being part of a community. Razzetti is resolute that resilience is not a fixed trait-one can learn and develop through time. Bouncing back and returning to your feet depends solely on you. Learning to control your emotions and thoughts helps to train your mind to face everyday hard-

Suppressing emotions and experiences often seems like the most comfortable thing to do at times, nobody enjoys feeling pain, it does not matter how strong you are as an individual. However, when dealing with adverse situations, it is rather wise to go through the experience and face it head on. Some of our most valuable lessons are often gained at the most adverse of times and running away from the situation will only deprive you of your own healing and the gaining of rich lessons that will

As previously mentioned that adverse situations are often healed by a spiritual experience but spirituality does not only bring healing, it also brings lessons. We learn lessons about our maker, a higher power other than ourselves and ourselves. Deffner [8] points out five sources of spiritual adversities, when engaging with our spirituality, we will often look at our adverse situations spiritually and not physi-

1.The Devil. If there is a higher power that brings light, surely there must be a force that brings darkness and whatever religion one may ascribe to, the devil or a dark force is often referred a lot in bringing evil and adversity. Spirituality emphasises that when we seek light or begin to follow a higher power, evil principalities often come into play and begin to be in opposition of your spiri-

2.Other people. Spirituality no matter which faith, speaks about how people can persecute us, bring us pain and harm. Spirituality also tell us how to deal with

ships. Only your mind can heal what your mind created.

**3. Suppression of adverse situations, deprives healing**

expose themselves to rejections as it prepares you for trying times.

**62**

such instances and often compels us to forgive those who inflict us with pain, so that we may free ourselves from offence and deep rooted pain. Forgiveness is a very difficult thing to do, often we feel that unforgiveness is our power, if we forgive we feel weak and feel that the individual(s) who offended us will think we are on good terms with them or like what they did to us if we forgive. However, spirituality makes us know that forgiveness is liberating and the more we hold onto offence and a grudge, our sins will not be forgiven too.


"Success is not our greatest achievement, but, rather our greatest achievement is facing a difficult life challenge with dignity and integrity"-Viktor Frankl. Adversity is inevitable in the human experience and we will experience tough times but it is how we deal with these tough times that matter. Some may choose to be negative and have a hardened heart because of adverse situations; some may walk out of the situation positively, having an enhanced personal growth. Ultimately, it is a choice, a choice only we can make for ourselves. Adversity can make us stronger emotionally if we choose to look at the experience positively; if one shuns the lessons brought by adverse situations, one may be depriving themselves of an experience of a lifetime that will strengthen their emotional endurance. They say what does not kill us makes us stronger, and psychologists have discovered a term called "posttraumatic growth" (PTG) which is a scientific construct that aims to capture positive transformations in beliefs and behaviour. PTG takes on five forms; improved relations with others, identification of new possibilities for one's life, increased personal strength, spiritual change and enhanced appreciation of life. These qualities are derived after an adverse period in one's life and if feelings are suppressed, one deprives themselves of the positive attributes gained through embracing the hardship and finding meaning. These attributes build character and encompass growth that produces diligence, generosity, love, purpose and humility. We ought to not deprive ourselves of the full healing that will bring us rich emotional strength and insight after we have experienced an adverse period.

Psychologically the mind can benefit too if suppression of adverse circumstances are not enforced. Stephen Joseph [9] from University of Nottingham states that

positive gain can come from suffering and shares that when individuals choose to look at the positive perspective of their adverse situation, and he states that adverse situations have 10 components and stages of growth following an adverse or tragic event. These stages are: assumptive world, trigger event, posttraumatic processing, confirmation of existing assumptions/disconfirmation of existing assumptions, accommodation/assimilation, positive/negative and new assumptive world. These stages are all experienced only when the adverse situation is not avoided and suppressed, when and if avoided, one deprives themselves of healing. Adverse situations must be fully embraced and fully experienced to avoid an emotional relapse and regression of progress. Johnson [10], a cognitive behaviour therapist, states that psychological growth after an adverse situation occurs not through the suffering itself, but through the individual's struggle and reconstruction of shattered assumptions. She alludes too many who may have experienced adversity, making dramatic life changes and positive shifts from adverse situations such as: a mother who may have lost a daughter in a drunk and driving accident, founds a mothers association against drunk and driving association. Another example is a rape survivor becoming a rape activist, both these are just examples of how individuals who went through very adverse and traumatic experiences made lemonade out of their lemons. The embracing of pain and adverse circumstances is not a negative trait to possess but rather a very power decision to make as it can benefit you in ways unimaginable.

#### **4. Conclusion**

With depression being at its peak, more and more suicides are being committed, the statistics worsen by each year. It is because new age media and social media has preached the wrong narrative, that immersing yourself in pain is toxic and that it is a sign of weakness, this sees many misinformed individuals running from their adverse circumstances, seeking comfort in alcohol and drugs, just to name a few. The narrative has got to change, and authors must preach the importance of immersing ourselves in our pains and adversities. Through this chapter, it has been revealed that adversity births courage, courage that makes us stronger, more confident and positive and, it is only adverse situations that allow courage. Through adversity one is able to extend their hands to a higher power for grace and sustenance and through this act of surrender can find grace within themselves to carry their adversities. Adversity also allows us the very important character trait of resilience; through resilience, one is able to be bolder and more level headed, one's character is strengthened and one is able to move on from very painful circumstances.

Adversity additionally gives us lessons of spirituality, when one goes to a power greater than themselves, they learn that some battles are not physical but rather spiritual. One gains insight on how to handle painful and unbearable circumstances, learn profound lessons of forgiveness and are able to carry burdens with grace. One also learns emotional strength, and one is able to endure circumstances with a level headed mind-set. When one suppresses adverse situations and merely runs away from them, they delay healing and deprive themselves of these rich and profound lessons that may have never be learned unless one went through adversity. One is also able to learn positive lessons that enhance their psychological makeup, lessons that add to the pools of their wisdom, that whenever one goes through situations, they can go draw from their pools. Maya Angelou [11] always says, "When you know better, you do better" and with adverse situations, we gain rich wisdom and are able to handle other more severe situations with a little more insight than the

**65**

**Author details**

nolonwabomajiba@gmail.com

provided the original work is properly cited.

Ntsika Majiba\* and Nolonwabo Happiness Majiba\*

Faculty of Education, University of Fort Hare, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: ntsika.majiba@gmail.com and

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*How Adversity Shapes Character*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91302*

ones we may have previously experienced [12]. One cannot control life happening to them, but can control how they react to these unfavourable situations. Adversity is not a curse, adversity is life's classroom, in which one learns, make mistakes and heal. There is always a light at the end of the tunnel but for that light to come one must make efforts to come out of the tunnel and that is why it is important to fully embrace adversity so as to not deprive ourselves of the lessons learned at the end.

#### *How Adversity Shapes Character DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91302*

*Counseling and Therapy*

unimaginable.

**4. Conclusion**

circumstances.

positive gain can come from suffering and shares that when individuals choose to look at the positive perspective of their adverse situation, and he states that adverse situations have 10 components and stages of growth following an adverse or tragic event. These stages are: assumptive world, trigger event, posttraumatic processing, confirmation of existing assumptions/disconfirmation of existing assumptions, accommodation/assimilation, positive/negative and new assumptive world. These stages are all experienced only when the adverse situation is not avoided and suppressed, when and if avoided, one deprives themselves of healing. Adverse situations must be fully embraced and fully experienced to avoid an emotional relapse and regression of progress. Johnson [10], a cognitive behaviour therapist, states that psychological growth after an adverse situation occurs not through the suffering itself, but through the individual's struggle and reconstruction of shattered assumptions. She alludes too many who may have experienced adversity, making dramatic life changes and positive shifts from adverse situations such as: a mother who may have lost a daughter in a drunk and driving accident, founds a mothers association against drunk and driving association. Another example is a rape survivor becoming a rape activist, both these are just examples of how individuals who went through very adverse and traumatic experiences made lemonade out of their lemons. The embracing of pain and adverse circumstances is not a negative trait to possess but rather a very power decision to make as it can benefit you in ways

With depression being at its peak, more and more suicides are being committed, the statistics worsen by each year. It is because new age media and social media has preached the wrong narrative, that immersing yourself in pain is toxic and that it is a sign of weakness, this sees many misinformed individuals running from their adverse circumstances, seeking comfort in alcohol and drugs, just to name a few. The narrative has got to change, and authors must preach the importance of immersing ourselves in our pains and adversities. Through this chapter, it has been revealed that adversity births courage, courage that makes us stronger, more confident and positive and, it is only adverse situations that allow courage. Through adversity one is able to extend their hands to a higher power for grace and sustenance and through this act of surrender can find grace within themselves to carry their adversities. Adversity also allows us the very important character trait of resilience; through resilience, one is able to be bolder and more level headed, one's character is strengthened and one is able to move on from very painful

Adversity additionally gives us lessons of spirituality, when one goes to a power greater than themselves, they learn that some battles are not physical but rather spiritual. One gains insight on how to handle painful and unbearable circumstances, learn profound lessons of forgiveness and are able to carry burdens with grace. One also learns emotional strength, and one is able to endure circumstances with a level headed mind-set. When one suppresses adverse situations and merely runs away from them, they delay healing and deprive themselves of these rich and profound lessons that may have never be learned unless one went through adversity. One is also able to learn positive lessons that enhance their psychological makeup, lessons that add to the pools of their wisdom, that whenever one goes through situations, they can go draw from their pools. Maya Angelou [11] always says, "When you know better, you do better" and with adverse situations, we gain rich wisdom and are able to handle other more severe situations with a little more insight than the

**64**

ones we may have previously experienced [12]. One cannot control life happening to them, but can control how they react to these unfavourable situations. Adversity is not a curse, adversity is life's classroom, in which one learns, make mistakes and heal. There is always a light at the end of the tunnel but for that light to come one must make efforts to come out of the tunnel and that is why it is important to fully embrace adversity so as to not deprive ourselves of the lessons learned at the end.

### **Author details**

Ntsika Majiba\* and Nolonwabo Happiness Majiba\* Faculty of Education, University of Fort Hare, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: ntsika.majiba@gmail.com and nolonwabomajiba@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Bridges E. 4 reasons to embrace adversity with a happy heart. 2015. Available from: https://www. dumblittleman.com/4-reasonsembrace-adversity-happy-heart

[2] Lenson E. Australian Academic press blog. Courage in adversity. 2018. Available from: https://www. australianacademicprss.com/au/ aap\_blog/post/courage-in-adversity/

[3] Razzetti G. Resilience: How to rescue yourself from adversity. 2019. Available from: https://liberationist. org/resilience-how-to-rescue-yourselffrom-adversity/

[4] Wolin S. The resilient self: How survivors of troubled families survive adversity; 2010

[5] Werner EE. Overcoming the Odds: High-Risk Children from Birth to Adulthood. Ithaca, New York: Coronell University; 1992

[6] Zoli A. Resilience: Why things bounce back; 2012. pp. 22-40

[7] Kobasa S. Incorporating the three C's of resilience into life: Chantel Breytanbach. 1979. Available from: https://thriveglobal.com/stories/ how-to-incorporate-the-three-c-s-ofresilience-into-your-life/

[8] Deffner J. The role of adversity in your spiritual growth. 2015. Available from: https://theapc.org/the-role-ofadversity-in -your-spiritual-growth/

[9] Joseph S. Growth following adversity. Positive psychological perspectives on posttraumatic stress. 2009. Available from: htps://researchgate. net/publication/Groth\_Following\_ Adversity\_Positive\_Psychological\_ Perspectives\_on-\_Posttraumatic\_Stress

[10] Johnson L. Beyond resilience: Growth after adversity. 2009. Available from: https://positivepsychologynews. com/news/laura-lc-johnson/

[11] Angelou M. Personal Interview with Oprah Winfrey; 1998

[12] The American Psychological Association. The road to resilience. 2018. Available from: https://www.apa. org/helpcenter/road-resilience

**67**

**Chapter 6**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Enhancing Students'

Counselling Educators

*Joyce Mathwasa and Lwazi Sibanda*

Self-Efficacy: Implication for

As students enter high school, they face a myriad risk of adverse outcomes such as pressure to perform or drop out; peer influence to conform or be an outcast; drug and substance abuse; delinquency, poverty and possibly abuse and neglect. It is also at this stage where most teenage students experience identity crisis. As a result, students' self-efficacy is then impaired, and their resilience diminished with every stress and trauma they experience. Thus far, there has been scanty research in utilising classroom guidance in understanding what factors impact or not, and how school counsellors choose to engage in classroom guidance. While much guidance and counselling in schools has focused on career choices, sexual and physical harassment, and perhaps, bereavement, abuse and neglect, very little is known on how detrimental lack of self-efficacy and resilience is to the high school student. Even though educators aim to cover the academic syllabus, it is also essential that operative guidance and counselling should also pay equal attention to the social syllabus. This chapter aims to explore the factors that are detrimental to students' self-efficacy, resilience and coping mechanism; how classroom guidance and

counselling can reduce the risk of the adverse outcomes in the society.

**Keywords:** counselling, resilience, self-concept, self-esteem, withdrawn behaviour

*'What people think, believe, and feel affects how they behave' [1].*

High school students encounter a myriad of learning hindrances that may negatively affect their education by distracting them from studying or may enhance performance by inspiring students to resolve the challenges as they arise. Intellectual deficiencies, difficulties understanding the taught concepts, poverty, abuse and neglect are some of the hindrances that may negatively affect students' ability to execute their studies to expected levels. The works of Solberg et al. [2] and McKechnie [3] found that numerous stressors such as higher crime rates, unemployment strain of parents, financial privation, teen pregnancy, violence, and drug and alcohol abuse cause personal psychological distress to students affecting

High School Guidance and

#### **Chapter 6**

## Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling Educators

*Joyce Mathwasa and Lwazi Sibanda*

### **Abstract**

As students enter high school, they face a myriad risk of adverse outcomes such as pressure to perform or drop out; peer influence to conform or be an outcast; drug and substance abuse; delinquency, poverty and possibly abuse and neglect. It is also at this stage where most teenage students experience identity crisis. As a result, students' self-efficacy is then impaired, and their resilience diminished with every stress and trauma they experience. Thus far, there has been scanty research in utilising classroom guidance in understanding what factors impact or not, and how school counsellors choose to engage in classroom guidance. While much guidance and counselling in schools has focused on career choices, sexual and physical harassment, and perhaps, bereavement, abuse and neglect, very little is known on how detrimental lack of self-efficacy and resilience is to the high school student. Even though educators aim to cover the academic syllabus, it is also essential that operative guidance and counselling should also pay equal attention to the social syllabus. This chapter aims to explore the factors that are detrimental to students' self-efficacy, resilience and coping mechanism; how classroom guidance and counselling can reduce the risk of the adverse outcomes in the society.

**Keywords:** counselling, resilience, self-concept, self-esteem, withdrawn behaviour

#### **1. Introduction**

*'What people think, believe, and feel affects how they behave' [1].*

High school students encounter a myriad of learning hindrances that may negatively affect their education by distracting them from studying or may enhance performance by inspiring students to resolve the challenges as they arise. Intellectual deficiencies, difficulties understanding the taught concepts, poverty, abuse and neglect are some of the hindrances that may negatively affect students' ability to execute their studies to expected levels. The works of Solberg et al. [2] and McKechnie [3] found that numerous stressors such as higher crime rates, unemployment strain of parents, financial privation, teen pregnancy, violence, and drug and alcohol abuse cause personal psychological distress to students affecting

**66**

*Counseling and Therapy*

**References**

[1] Bridges E. 4 reasons to embrace adversity with a happy heart. 2015. Available from: https://www. dumblittleman.com/4-reasonsembrace-adversity-happy-heart

[10] Johnson L. Beyond resilience: Growth after adversity. 2009. Available from: https://positivepsychologynews.

[11] Angelou M. Personal Interview with

com/news/laura-lc-johnson/

[12] The American Psychological Association. The road to resilience. 2018. Available from: https://www.apa.

org/helpcenter/road-resilience

Oprah Winfrey; 1998

[2] Lenson E. Australian Academic press blog. Courage in adversity. 2018. Available from: https://www. australianacademicprss.com/au/ aap\_blog/post/courage-in-adversity/

[3] Razzetti G. Resilience: How to rescue yourself from adversity. 2019. Available from: https://liberationist. org/resilience-how-to-rescue-yourself-

[4] Wolin S. The resilient self: How survivors of troubled families survive

[5] Werner EE. Overcoming the Odds: High-Risk Children from Birth to Adulthood. Ithaca, New York: Coronell

[6] Zoli A. Resilience: Why things bounce back; 2012. pp. 22-40

[7] Kobasa S. Incorporating the three C's of resilience into life: Chantel Breytanbach. 1979. Available from: https://thriveglobal.com/stories/ how-to-incorporate-the-three-c-s-of-

[8] Deffner J. The role of adversity in your spiritual growth. 2015. Available from: https://theapc.org/the-role-ofadversity-in -your-spiritual-growth/

[9] Joseph S. Growth following adversity. Positive psychological perspectives on posttraumatic stress. 2009. Available from: htps://researchgate. net/publication/Groth\_Following\_ Adversity\_Positive\_Psychological\_ Perspectives\_on-\_Posttraumatic\_Stress

resilience-into-your-life/

from-adversity/

adversity; 2010

University; 1992

all areas of their life. Usually, when students find themselves in difficult situations, they tend to be engrossed in their personal insufficiencies and on the obstacles, they encounter instead of concentrating on their learning so that they successfully perform. Some of them easily give up when they face challenges and may not recuperate their sense of efficacy following failure. They quickly lose faith in their competences and succumb to stress, depression and dropout [4]. In this chapter, types of abuse and neglect, intellectual deficiencies and poverty are explored showing how they affect students' self-efficacy causing their learning hindrances. Furthermore, the chapter endeavours to outline the stratagems for developing or promoting self-efficacy that defies the power of these hindrances in future. The association between school counsellors' self-efficacy beliefs concerning performance or skills related to giving classroom guidance and the agreed outcome about the frequency school counsellors implement classroom guidance is explored. It is therefore imperative that the concept of self-efficacy is clarified, and the role that school counsellors play is explained.

#### **2. The concept of self-efficacy**

Self-efficacy is a concept that is more like academic confidence and is entrenched in Badura's social cognitive theory which he describes as the degree to which a student feels proficient to effectively achieve in school-related tasks [1]. Reiterating on his earlier sentiments, Bandura [5] explains self-efficacy as the belief in one's ability to influence events that effect one's life and control over the way these events are experienced. In his later edition, Bandura [6] defines self-efficacy as 'beliefs in one's capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments'. Similarly, Nasiriyan et al. [7] refer to self-efficacy as student's beliefs in their capability to learn new skills and tasks, frequently in a precise academic area. Consequently, apparent self-efficacy is a concept in which people believe that they can produce given attainments [8]. Explaining self-efficacy in the theoretical framework of social cognitive theory by [1, 9, 10] detailed that people's achievement hinges on the interactions between an individual's behaviours, personal issues and ecological circumstances. Self-efficacy can be perceived as negatively or positively influencing students' achievement. Therefore, self-efficacy is the judgement one places on their capability, and not their anticipated performance or achievement.

Self-efficacy is comparable to terms such as self-concept, self-esteem and selfappraisal. Self-concept is the cognitive or intellectual facet of self usually referring to the entirety of a complex, organised, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person embraces as the truth about his or her personal existence [11]. Just as self-efficacy, the concept of self-concept is believing in one's ability to achieve in set assignments. Self-esteem is the affective emotional aspect of self and mostly referring to how one feels about or how one values themselves. It is how one views their self-worth. A student may feel they are worthy of performing or may feel they are not capable of achievement. Self-appraisal is self-assessment that is a descriptive and evaluative decision that the student makes concerning his or her own work and academic aptitudes.

Academic self-efficacy is the self-assurance revealed by the persons in their expertise to complete academic tasks at the desired outcome [12]. The scholars above advocate that when students have higher academic self-efficacy, their effort shows greater determination in doing academic tasks. Intrinsic motivation also drives them to overcome any challenging situations during learning sessions. An individual's self-efficacy influences on how they reason, feel and perform. The works of Bandura [9, 13] have shown that when a person possesses a strong sense

**69**

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling…*

of self-efficacy, they usually set higher goals for themselves, are highly motivated, and have the desired resiliency to complete their set goals. While self-efficacy does not straight forwardly measure the skilfulness of an individual, it influences how they decide on engaging on the task, the amount of effort they will put forth, their performance and how they deal with failure [9]. To them, Bandura [6] assert that their beliefs about their skill level is more important and is the driving force to their achievement. For this reason, Van Dinther et al. [14] encourage educational psychologists to investigate the role of self-efficacy in learning. The focus of psychologists should be on adolescents because they are vulnerable to unstable emotions and augmented risk-taking tendencies. For this reason, Kia-Keating et al. [15] postulate that during adolescence, the instructional role is essential in developing effective habits and competencies that impact on young people's well-being and resilience

Extensive studies reveal that students who believe they can accomplish an academic task are far more likely to persevere and overcome obstacles to successfully achieve the assignment. Conversely, in the absence of self-confidence to perform a task or overcome a challenge, students are more likely to surrender and may even accept defeat by circumventing the assignment [6, 16]. Self-efficacy effectively predicts the imminent academic performance of students, and comparable research confirms that this hypothesis has sturdier predictive influence than other non-cognitive skills [17]. However, students may have high self-efficacy but due to challenges such as poverty, financial deprivation and teen pregnancy, they may postpone their studies to a later stage. On the other hand, these adversities may also motivate the student to work extra hard to liberate themselves from these hardships. Authors in Ref. [18] are of the opinion that the success of the students, predominantly depends on their responsiveness regarding their capabilities and the

**3. Factors that promote self-efficacy among high school students**

area since the student generalises his or her self-efficacy to other areas.

Modelling/vicarious experiences is the second source of self-efficacy where an individual sees the other person achieving in a specific task and envisages how he or she might perform in the equivalent or comparable situation [1, 22]. Observation is another factor that inspires self-efficacy especially when one

In his works, Bandura [6, 19] proposes breaking down the concept self-efficacy into four empirical sources which have evolved over the years, but finally documented as (1) master/performance accomplishments, (2) modelling/vicarious experiences, (3) social/verbal persuasion and (4) affective/emotional arousal [19]. Furthermore, Bandura [1, 6] advocates that mastery/performance achievements have a greater impact on self-efficacy because the student is directly involved in completing specified tasks. In any given task, success enhances self-efficacy while failing to accomplish the work reduces self-efficacy. More scholars have concurred with Bandura's [6] social cognitive theory proposing that self-efficacy is a domainprecise confidence in an individual's capacity to fruitfully achieve in a given task, which positively impacts on action and success in completing the task [20–22]. Clearly, success or mastery is a factor that promotes self-efficacy and once it is firmly established in an individual, any other sporadic failures have little impact on self-efficacy [1, 6]. When someone is successful, self-efficacy increases; but, failure to complete the job lowers self-efficacy. Nevertheless, after self-efficacy is established through direct success in a specific field, intermittent failure has a limited effect. In addition, mastery in one area usually increases self-efficacy in the other

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

throughout their lives.

motivation to apply learning strategies.

#### *Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

of self-efficacy, they usually set higher goals for themselves, are highly motivated, and have the desired resiliency to complete their set goals. While self-efficacy does not straight forwardly measure the skilfulness of an individual, it influences how they decide on engaging on the task, the amount of effort they will put forth, their performance and how they deal with failure [9]. To them, Bandura [6] assert that their beliefs about their skill level is more important and is the driving force to their achievement. For this reason, Van Dinther et al. [14] encourage educational psychologists to investigate the role of self-efficacy in learning. The focus of psychologists should be on adolescents because they are vulnerable to unstable emotions and augmented risk-taking tendencies. For this reason, Kia-Keating et al. [15] postulate that during adolescence, the instructional role is essential in developing effective habits and competencies that impact on young people's well-being and resilience throughout their lives.

Extensive studies reveal that students who believe they can accomplish an academic task are far more likely to persevere and overcome obstacles to successfully achieve the assignment. Conversely, in the absence of self-confidence to perform a task or overcome a challenge, students are more likely to surrender and may even accept defeat by circumventing the assignment [6, 16]. Self-efficacy effectively predicts the imminent academic performance of students, and comparable research confirms that this hypothesis has sturdier predictive influence than other non-cognitive skills [17]. However, students may have high self-efficacy but due to challenges such as poverty, financial deprivation and teen pregnancy, they may postpone their studies to a later stage. On the other hand, these adversities may also motivate the student to work extra hard to liberate themselves from these hardships. Authors in Ref. [18] are of the opinion that the success of the students, predominantly depends on their responsiveness regarding their capabilities and the motivation to apply learning strategies.

#### **3. Factors that promote self-efficacy among high school students**

In his works, Bandura [6, 19] proposes breaking down the concept self-efficacy into four empirical sources which have evolved over the years, but finally documented as (1) master/performance accomplishments, (2) modelling/vicarious experiences, (3) social/verbal persuasion and (4) affective/emotional arousal [19]. Furthermore, Bandura [1, 6] advocates that mastery/performance achievements have a greater impact on self-efficacy because the student is directly involved in completing specified tasks. In any given task, success enhances self-efficacy while failing to accomplish the work reduces self-efficacy. More scholars have concurred with Bandura's [6] social cognitive theory proposing that self-efficacy is a domainprecise confidence in an individual's capacity to fruitfully achieve in a given task, which positively impacts on action and success in completing the task [20–22].

Clearly, success or mastery is a factor that promotes self-efficacy and once it is firmly established in an individual, any other sporadic failures have little impact on self-efficacy [1, 6]. When someone is successful, self-efficacy increases; but, failure to complete the job lowers self-efficacy. Nevertheless, after self-efficacy is established through direct success in a specific field, intermittent failure has a limited effect. In addition, mastery in one area usually increases self-efficacy in the other area since the student generalises his or her self-efficacy to other areas.

Modelling/vicarious experiences is the second source of self-efficacy where an individual sees the other person achieving in a specific task and envisages how he or she might perform in the equivalent or comparable situation [1, 22]. Observation is another factor that inspires self-efficacy especially when one

*Counseling and Therapy*

school counsellors play is explained.

**2. The concept of self-efficacy**

or her own work and academic aptitudes.

all areas of their life. Usually, when students find themselves in difficult situations, they tend to be engrossed in their personal insufficiencies and on the obstacles, they encounter instead of concentrating on their learning so that they successfully perform. Some of them easily give up when they face challenges and may not recuperate their sense of efficacy following failure. They quickly lose faith in their competences and succumb to stress, depression and dropout [4]. In this chapter, types of abuse and neglect, intellectual deficiencies and poverty are explored showing how they affect students' self-efficacy causing their learning hindrances. Furthermore, the chapter endeavours to outline the stratagems for developing or promoting self-efficacy that defies the power of these hindrances in future. The association between school counsellors' self-efficacy beliefs concerning performance or skills related to giving classroom guidance and the agreed outcome about the frequency school counsellors implement classroom guidance is explored. It is therefore imperative that the concept of self-efficacy is clarified, and the role that

Self-efficacy is a concept that is more like academic confidence and is entrenched in Badura's social cognitive theory which he describes as the degree to which a student feels proficient to effectively achieve in school-related tasks [1]. Reiterating on his earlier sentiments, Bandura [5] explains self-efficacy as the belief in one's ability to influence events that effect one's life and control over the way these events are experienced. In his later edition, Bandura [6] defines self-efficacy as 'beliefs in one's capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments'. Similarly, Nasiriyan et al. [7] refer to self-efficacy as student's beliefs in their capability to learn new skills and tasks, frequently in a precise academic area. Consequently, apparent self-efficacy is a concept in which people believe that they can produce given attainments [8]. Explaining self-efficacy in the theoretical framework of social cognitive theory by [1, 9, 10] detailed that people's achievement hinges on the interactions between an individual's behaviours, personal issues and ecological circumstances. Self-efficacy can be perceived as negatively or positively influencing students' achievement. Therefore, self-efficacy is the judgement one places on their capability, and not their anticipated performance or achievement. Self-efficacy is comparable to terms such as self-concept, self-esteem and selfappraisal. Self-concept is the cognitive or intellectual facet of self usually referring to the entirety of a complex, organised, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person embraces as the truth about his or her personal existence [11]. Just as self-efficacy, the concept of self-concept is believing in one's ability to achieve in set assignments. Self-esteem is the affective emotional aspect of self and mostly referring to how one feels about or how one values themselves. It is how one views their self-worth. A student may feel they are worthy of performing or may feel they are not capable of achievement. Self-appraisal is self-assessment that is a descriptive and evaluative decision that the student makes concerning his

Academic self-efficacy is the self-assurance revealed by the persons in their expertise to complete academic tasks at the desired outcome [12]. The scholars above advocate that when students have higher academic self-efficacy, their effort shows greater determination in doing academic tasks. Intrinsic motivation also drives them to overcome any challenging situations during learning sessions. An individual's self-efficacy influences on how they reason, feel and perform. The works of Bandura [9, 13] have shown that when a person possesses a strong sense

**68**

watches a classmate perform excellently in a task. Students usually admire highfliers in class and desire to associate with them; hence, they equally work harder to earn friendship. Observing peers succeed in given tasks elevates the observers' beliefs that they too can equally succeed in similar activities. Modelling influences provide a social standard against which the observer judges their own abilities. The observer gains skills and strategies to manage performance tasks by emulating people who possess the competencies to which they aspire. Although vicarious experiences impact self-efficacy, Bandura [1] asserts that they are not as influential as effectively participating in the activity itself.

Social/verbal persuasion is the third source of self-efficacy in which individuals permit themselves to be convinced that they too can successfully deal with a difficult situation that they previously perceived to be beyond their capacities [1]. When one is verbally convinced that they can equally do the task, they are more likely to activate greater determination and succeed. On the other hand, harbouring self-doubts and dwelling on personal deficiencies when problems arise diminishes self-efficacy. Persuasion is putting pressure on someone leading them to give their best shot to succeed thereby promoting development of skills and boosting their self-efficacy. However, peer pressure in schools makes students conform to fit in the group. Affective/emotional arousal is proposed as the last source of self-efficacy [6]. The state of emotional stimulation of a person can influence their self-efficacy. Bandura [1] envisages that a high level of anxiety in a student due to a specific task or situation such as public speaking, may lower the sense of self-efficacy. However, continuous success in a task can lower the student's anxiety level thereby increasing their self-efficacy.

#### **3.1 Appraisal of self-efficacy**

Self-efficacy is developed through the way a student interprets their performance. Brown [23] defines appraisal as self-assessment which is 'an evaluative and descriptive task done by the student regarding his or her own work and academic capabilities'. Correspondingly, Panadero et al. [24] describe it as a 'various techniques and mechanisms which enable students to describe (i.e. assess) and conceivably allocate merit or worth to (i.e. evaluate) the potentials of their own educational processes and achievements'. According to Corkett et al. [25], this self-assessment ensures students of a positive correlation between self-efficacy and achievement. In this vein, appraisal of self-efficacy is the way a student assesses their performance and achievement in the learning environment. Studies have found that there is a correlation between students' self-efficacy and their academic performance [26, 27].

Students appraise their self-efficacy from four primary sources outlined by Bandura [6] as: (a). Enactive mastery experiences that serve as indicators of competence. Success enhances self-efficacy while failures depress it; (b) vicarious experiences that alter beliefs through communication of proficiencies in comparison with others' achievements; (c) verbal encouragement by peers that they have certain abilities; and (d) physiological and affective states from which they conclude their ableness. Consequently, the most influential source of efficacy beliefs is enactive experiences because they prediction is based on personal experience outcomes, while vicarious influences depend on an observer's self-comparison with as well as outcomes attained by a model. Verbal persuasion has less impact on students' self-efficacy as the conclusions are described, not directly experienced, and thus depends on the integrity of the narrating person [28]. According to Corkett et al. [25], the four main constructs are not hierarchical and all of them can possibly influence a student's self-efficacy simultaneously.

**71**

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling…*

self-appraisal and change all negatively inclined system of self-appraisal.

Faulty self-appraisal severely handicaps students especially when they perceive incredulity in their efficacy. Students who continually underperform fear taking up new challenges because of their idealistically low self-efficacy while those with quixotically high self-efficacy perform on faulty efficacy decisions preventing them from proper learning. Hoy and Spero [29] ascertain that when self-efficacy is created, it can be resistant to change; hence, they urge educators to put emphasis on young students' self-efficacy. It becomes essential that students develop accurate

Besides faulty self-appraisal, Ünal [30] found that parent–child relationships in family environments can negatively affect children's mental health, personality development and self-efficacy. Even though the household environment is expected to be a safe haven for children, some children have experienced numerous adversities such as abuse and exploitation, thus negatively affecting their physical, mental and social development, with many parents intentionally or unintentionally hurting their offspring [31]. Child neglect is usually described as the failure of an individual to fulfil his/her responsibility of caring for a child physically or mentally, take no notice of the child's protection, nutrition, clothing, medical care, education and

Many studies reveal that exposure to a variety of life stressors, such as childhood

abuse and neglect, can negatively affect social-psychological resources like selfefficacy [33] and increase vulnerability to risks health and life-threatening status. Prominently, an array of hardships and negative outcomes linked with stress affect self-efficacy which in turn influences the relationship between child abuse and negative outcomes [34, 35]. Contrasting neglect and abuse, Petersen et al. [36] assert that abuse is active while neglect is a passive occurrence. Self-efficacy is anchored on the attachment theory which underscores the prominence of a child's relationship with their primary caregiver [37] and that the quality of this attachment provides the 'secure-base' where the child benefits mastery experience [38–40]. Research indicates that violating the attachment theory through childhood abuse has a negative influence on the individual's self-cognitions [41]. Students who have secure attachments early in life can satisfy their needs through their own efforts while those with those with insecure attachments due to abuse and neglect tend to lack personal control affecting their self-efficacy. Abuse manifests in various forms such as emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological and social problems and neglect which collectively cause trauma and depression, substance dependency,

problems in interpersonal relations leading to lowered self-esteem [42, 43].

**5. The impact of self-efficacy on quality education in high schools**

Self-efficacy has been meta-analysed for more than two decades revealing that efficacy beliefs contribute significantly to students' level of motivation and learning [6], socio-cognitive functioning, emotional well-being and performance accomplishments [26, 44]. Thus, these are considered critical for educating young people [28, 45]. Self-efficacy influences cognitive and meta-cognitive functioning concepts such as analytical strategy use, decision-making, self-evaluation, problem-solving, time management and self-regulating stratagems, all which impact on academic achievement [6, 45]. Efficacy beliefs play an indispensable role in all stages of selfregulation and achievement [44]. Efficacy makes students to be highly motivated and have a sense of agency in their learning by setting themselves high goal which they monitor and evaluate regularly. Through this strategy they are able to judge

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

general well-being [3, 32].

**4. Hindrances to student self-efficacy**

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

#### **4. Hindrances to student self-efficacy**

*Counseling and Therapy*

their self-efficacy.

performance [26, 27].

influence a student's self-efficacy simultaneously.

**3.1 Appraisal of self-efficacy**

as effectively participating in the activity itself.

watches a classmate perform excellently in a task. Students usually admire highfliers in class and desire to associate with them; hence, they equally work harder to earn friendship. Observing peers succeed in given tasks elevates the observers' beliefs that they too can equally succeed in similar activities. Modelling influences provide a social standard against which the observer judges their own abilities. The observer gains skills and strategies to manage performance tasks by emulating people who possess the competencies to which they aspire. Although vicarious experiences impact self-efficacy, Bandura [1] asserts that they are not as influential

Social/verbal persuasion is the third source of self-efficacy in which individuals permit themselves to be convinced that they too can successfully deal with a difficult situation that they previously perceived to be beyond their capacities [1]. When one is verbally convinced that they can equally do the task, they are more likely to activate greater determination and succeed. On the other hand, harbouring self-doubts and dwelling on personal deficiencies when problems arise diminishes self-efficacy. Persuasion is putting pressure on someone leading them to give their best shot to succeed thereby promoting development of skills and boosting their self-efficacy. However, peer pressure in schools makes students conform to fit in the group. Affective/emotional arousal is proposed as the last source of self-efficacy [6]. The state of emotional stimulation of a person can influence their self-efficacy. Bandura [1] envisages that a high level of anxiety in a student due to a specific task or situation such as public speaking, may lower the sense of self-efficacy. However, continuous success in a task can lower the student's anxiety level thereby increasing

Self-efficacy is developed through the way a student interprets their performance. Brown [23] defines appraisal as self-assessment which is 'an evaluative and descriptive task done by the student regarding his or her own work and academic capabilities'. Correspondingly, Panadero et al. [24] describe it as a 'various techniques and mechanisms which enable students to describe (i.e. assess) and conceivably allocate merit or worth to (i.e. evaluate) the potentials of their own educational processes and achievements'. According to Corkett et al. [25], this self-assessment ensures students of a positive correlation between self-efficacy and achievement. In this vein, appraisal of self-efficacy is the way a student assesses their performance and achievement in the learning environment. Studies have found that there is a correlation between students' self-efficacy and their academic

Students appraise their self-efficacy from four primary sources outlined by Bandura [6] as: (a). Enactive mastery experiences that serve as indicators of competence. Success enhances self-efficacy while failures depress it; (b) vicarious experiences that alter beliefs through communication of proficiencies in comparison with others' achievements; (c) verbal encouragement by peers that they have certain abilities; and (d) physiological and affective states from which they conclude their ableness. Consequently, the most influential source of efficacy beliefs is enactive experiences because they prediction is based on personal experience outcomes, while vicarious influences depend on an observer's self-comparison with as well as outcomes attained by a model. Verbal persuasion has less impact on students' self-efficacy as the conclusions are described, not directly experienced, and thus depends on the integrity of the narrating person [28]. According to Corkett et al. [25], the four main constructs are not hierarchical and all of them can possibly

**70**

Faulty self-appraisal severely handicaps students especially when they perceive incredulity in their efficacy. Students who continually underperform fear taking up new challenges because of their idealistically low self-efficacy while those with quixotically high self-efficacy perform on faulty efficacy decisions preventing them from proper learning. Hoy and Spero [29] ascertain that when self-efficacy is created, it can be resistant to change; hence, they urge educators to put emphasis on young students' self-efficacy. It becomes essential that students develop accurate self-appraisal and change all negatively inclined system of self-appraisal.

Besides faulty self-appraisal, Ünal [30] found that parent–child relationships in family environments can negatively affect children's mental health, personality development and self-efficacy. Even though the household environment is expected to be a safe haven for children, some children have experienced numerous adversities such as abuse and exploitation, thus negatively affecting their physical, mental and social development, with many parents intentionally or unintentionally hurting their offspring [31]. Child neglect is usually described as the failure of an individual to fulfil his/her responsibility of caring for a child physically or mentally, take no notice of the child's protection, nutrition, clothing, medical care, education and general well-being [3, 32].

Many studies reveal that exposure to a variety of life stressors, such as childhood abuse and neglect, can negatively affect social-psychological resources like selfefficacy [33] and increase vulnerability to risks health and life-threatening status. Prominently, an array of hardships and negative outcomes linked with stress affect self-efficacy which in turn influences the relationship between child abuse and negative outcomes [34, 35]. Contrasting neglect and abuse, Petersen et al. [36] assert that abuse is active while neglect is a passive occurrence. Self-efficacy is anchored on the attachment theory which underscores the prominence of a child's relationship with their primary caregiver [37] and that the quality of this attachment provides the 'secure-base' where the child benefits mastery experience [38–40]. Research indicates that violating the attachment theory through childhood abuse has a negative influence on the individual's self-cognitions [41]. Students who have secure attachments early in life can satisfy their needs through their own efforts while those with those with insecure attachments due to abuse and neglect tend to lack personal control affecting their self-efficacy. Abuse manifests in various forms such as emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological and social problems and neglect which collectively cause trauma and depression, substance dependency, problems in interpersonal relations leading to lowered self-esteem [42, 43].

#### **5. The impact of self-efficacy on quality education in high schools**

Self-efficacy has been meta-analysed for more than two decades revealing that efficacy beliefs contribute significantly to students' level of motivation and learning [6], socio-cognitive functioning, emotional well-being and performance accomplishments [26, 44]. Thus, these are considered critical for educating young people [28, 45]. Self-efficacy influences cognitive and meta-cognitive functioning concepts such as analytical strategy use, decision-making, self-evaluation, problem-solving, time management and self-regulating stratagems, all which impact on academic achievement [6, 45]. Efficacy beliefs play an indispensable role in all stages of selfregulation and achievement [44]. Efficacy makes students to be highly motivated and have a sense of agency in their learning by setting themselves high goal which they monitor and evaluate regularly. Through this strategy they are able to judge

their performance and setting more challenging goals for themselves and achieving them. This strategy contributes to quality education as students strive to produce good work [28].

#### **6. The role of guidance and counselling in enhancing self-efficacy and resilience to high school students**

Guidance and counselling programmes have been in existence in educational institutions over the years. However, the traditional approaches that have been used are no longer relevant to meet the needs of the students in the current environment. At present, learning effectiveness and efficiency are being stressed to realise the goal of educating responsible and productive citizens who have a global consciousness. In line with United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 4, where emphasis is on developing twenty-first century skills and competences among students, there is need for comprehensive guidance and counselling programmes which are critical to help prepare students to meet the challenges of the future [46, 47].

The terms guidance and counselling have engendered debate among scholars in the field concerning whether the two concepts reflect similar process activities or both terms should remain independent because there exist some differences between the two [48]. Scholars like Shertzer and Stone, cited in [48], maintain that differences between guidance and counselling often tend to be artificial, forced or contrived and theoretical rather than qualitative and practical in nature, hence, the terms should be used interchangeably. Yet, other authorities, such as Rao cited in [48], argue that even though the two terms are almost similar and appear to be two sides of the same coin, subtle differences exist between them. Hence, there is a need to clarify the two concepts, so that they are explicitly understood.

#### **6.1 The concept of guidance**

According to [49], guidance is a developmental process whereby an individual is helped to appreciate, accept and practise his/her abilities, skills and interests and attitudinal patterns relating to his/her aspirations. In educational settings, guidance comprises of those experiences that help each student to understand and accept him/herself, and effectually live in his/her society. This is over and above what the student experiences in the work places. In agreement, is the National Council of Educational Research and Training [50], which views guidance as what competent counsellors do to an individual or a group of students in the form of assistance that directs the progression in life, develop a point of view, decision-making and be better adjusted. Ideally, guidance is not giving directions, or imposing one's point of view on another person. The person offering guidance does not take the responsibility of making decisions on behalf of the client. In reality, guidance is not giving ready-made solutions, but rather assisting people to navigate through their problems to come up with solutions.

UNESCO Guidance [49] views guidance as a needs-based programme or services to students facing various challenges in education or life in general. Through guidance, a student is assisted in setting realistic goals for themselves, so that they can adapt to the environment and improve in their education. Guidance, therefore, contains a succession of actions that are progressive towards goal achievement. Thus, from the given definitions, the subsequent salient points emerge:

**73**

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling…*

• It is a planned educational programme provided for students by guidance

Basically, four major guidance services can be singled out as educational, vocational, academic, personal and social guidance. These are discussed in the

• Guidance is intended to assist the individual students to understand and accept themselves and the world around them, thereby becoming responsible and

Educational guidance can be differentiated from any other form of guidance as its focus is on assisting students make choices in and adjusting to the school curriculum, career pursuit and life in general. Educational guidance is an essential counselling service for students to pursue the right type of education while ensuring that they choose appropriate career meeting the national human resource needs. It is a process through which students take up suitable educational programmes such as choice of subjects, courses, type of schools or colleges and progress in them. For example, female students should be encouraged to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, mathematics and need to be guided away from those educational myths which contribute to the reluctance of females to pursue male dominated careers [49]. Educational guidance is important in higher and tertiary institutions in the

• It assists students to pursue the right type of education which motivates them

• It assists individuals to make informed decisions between subjects, curricula,

• It enables the smooth changeover for students from home to school, from elementary to high school, from high school to tertiary institutions and to the world of work or entrepreneurship, where the labour force is important and

• It enables students to handle examination anxiety, as most of them are afraid of failure, and the desire for the higher grades is the key source of pressure

• It assists students to develop effective study habits, as that improves their

• It affords students the chance to relate the curriculum to occupational groups,

Examination preparation includes study skills, time-tabling, note-taking and

capability in reading, note-taking and academic attainment.

so that they gain meaningful educational experiences [49].

sitting for examinations. These are explained below.

schools or colleges for their education to be meaningful to society.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

productive citizens.

succeeding sections.

following ways:

to effectively contribute to the society.

yet challenging for students.

among students.

**6.2 Educational guidance**

• Guidance is a purposeful helping relationship.

specialists and educators on continuous basis.

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*


Basically, four major guidance services can be singled out as educational, vocational, academic, personal and social guidance. These are discussed in the succeeding sections.

#### **6.2 Educational guidance**

*Counseling and Therapy*

good work [28].

the future [46, 47].

explicitly understood.

**6.1 The concept of guidance**

problems to come up with solutions.

their performance and setting more challenging goals for themselves and achieving them. This strategy contributes to quality education as students strive to produce

Guidance and counselling programmes have been in existence in educational institutions over the years. However, the traditional approaches that have been used are no longer relevant to meet the needs of the students in the current environment. At present, learning effectiveness and efficiency are being stressed to realise the goal of educating responsible and productive citizens who have a global consciousness. In line with United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 4, where emphasis is on developing twenty-first century skills and competences among students, there is need for comprehensive guidance and counselling programmes which are critical to help prepare students to meet the challenges of

The terms guidance and counselling have engendered debate among scholars in the field concerning whether the two concepts reflect similar process activities or both terms should remain independent because there exist some differences between the two [48]. Scholars like Shertzer and Stone, cited in [48], maintain that differences between guidance and counselling often tend to be artificial, forced or contrived and theoretical rather than qualitative and practical in nature, hence, the terms should be used interchangeably. Yet, other authorities, such as Rao cited in [48], argue that even though the two terms are almost similar and appear to be two sides of the same coin, subtle differences exist between them. Hence, there is a need to clarify the two concepts, so that they are

According to [49], guidance is a developmental process whereby an individual is helped to appreciate, accept and practise his/her abilities, skills and interests and attitudinal patterns relating to his/her aspirations. In educational settings, guidance comprises of those experiences that help each student to understand and accept him/herself, and effectually live in his/her society. This is over and above what the student experiences in the work places. In agreement, is the National Council of Educational Research and Training [50], which views guidance as what competent counsellors do to an individual or a group of students in the form of assistance that directs the progression in life, develop a point of view, decision-making and be better adjusted. Ideally, guidance is not giving directions, or imposing one's point of view on another person. The person offering guidance does not take the responsibility of making decisions on behalf of the client. In reality, guidance is not giving ready-made solutions, but rather assisting people to navigate through their

UNESCO Guidance [49] views guidance as a needs-based programme or services to students facing various challenges in education or life in general. Through guidance, a student is assisted in setting realistic goals for themselves, so that they can adapt to the environment and improve in their education. Guidance, therefore, contains a succession of actions that are progressive towards goal achievement.

Thus, from the given definitions, the subsequent salient points emerge:

**6. The role of guidance and counselling in enhancing self-efficacy** 

**and resilience to high school students**

**72**

Educational guidance can be differentiated from any other form of guidance as its focus is on assisting students make choices in and adjusting to the school curriculum, career pursuit and life in general. Educational guidance is an essential counselling service for students to pursue the right type of education while ensuring that they choose appropriate career meeting the national human resource needs. It is a process through which students take up suitable educational programmes such as choice of subjects, courses, type of schools or colleges and progress in them. For example, female students should be encouraged to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, mathematics and need to be guided away from those educational myths which contribute to the reluctance of females to pursue male dominated careers [49].

Educational guidance is important in higher and tertiary institutions in the following ways:


Examination preparation includes study skills, time-tabling, note-taking and sitting for examinations. These are explained below.

#### *6.2.1 Study skills*

Lack of effective study habits and skills leads to failure, hence students should be encouraged to spend a substantial amount of time on meaningful school activities and effectively studying to be productive and spend less time on leisure [49].

#### *6.2.2 Time-tabling*

Students need to be encouraged to develop a formal time schedule and a personal study time-table, regulate their movements and avoid the tendency of procrastination in their work causing them to work under pressure. Effectively, time-tabling enables students to prioritise study times as considerate obligations while respecting times for home chores and recreation as they are equally essential [49].

#### *6.2.3 Note-taking*

Students are expected to take notes during class sessions, yet most of them find the task difficult. Due to lack note-taking skills, some teachers resort to prepare notes and distribute them to their students or write notes on the chalkboard for students on copy. Even though this strategy might prepare students for their examinations, it also deprives them of a chance to learn how to select major points from a lesson or lecture. Students tend to be truant for lessons relying on handouts which does not adequately prepare them for examinations [48, 49].

#### *6.2.4 Sitting for examinations*

Examinations are valuable tools for assessing the effectiveness of educational programmes and appraising students' progress but they are often misused and abused, particularly when accepting or eliminating students from some programmes. All the same, students face numerous limitations of examinations in measuring other skills that students might possibly have assimilated during their course of the year. Dealing with examinations related anxiety and stress becomes essential for every student to learn though proper guidance [49].

#### **7. Academic counselling**

Academic counselling is a crucial facet of educational guidance which should be offered to students at various levels in their educational development. Students that are gifted and talented may require counselling that is different from the low achievers, the handicapped and delinquents, hence the need for an appraisal of the educational needs for every student [49]. This stance calls for professional guidance counselling to prepare a cumulative record so as to adequately assist all types of students in their dilemmas [48]. The school guidance counsellor must give students information such as:

**75**

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling…*

Choosing and preparing for a career can be a daunting experience for students in which vocational guidance becomes a necessary process for assisting students choose an occupation, be adequately prepared for it, be engage in it and advance themselves in it. Fundamentally, a student's interests, aptitudes, personality and suitability for the type of work should be considered when giving vocational guidance [49].

Individual and societal guidance is a process that assists an individual or groups of people to relate considerably towards other people. Mostly, individual and societal guidance is beneficial for students with self-awareness, learn interpersonal skills, learn demeanours and etiquette, wisely pursue leisure time activities, develop family relationships and understand their roles and responsibilities in the society [49].

Counselling can be defined as a learning-oriented process, that develops an interactive relationship, whose main objective is to develop self-awareness so that one becomes more relevant as an effective member of society. Counselling is described as a process undertaken by a helper who expresses care and concern towards an individual with a problem in order to enable that individual's personal growth which brings about transformation through self-awareness [14]. Concurring National Council of Educational Research and Training [50] refers to counselling as a therapeutic and interactive learning process through which the counsellor assists the counselee to identify the origin(s) of problems and guides them in categorising issues and making wise decisions. Although counselling is all-inclusive, addressing cultural, economic, emotional and social issues, it can be required at any time in life as people need change or face a crisis. Below are the aims of counselling as outlined by Van Dinther et al. [14]:

1.To assist students in understanding the origins and development of emotional hitches so that they develop the capacity to rationally control their feelings

3.To help students to realise their potential and amalgamate conflicting elements

4.To afford students with self-awareness skills and knowledge that enables them

Self-esteem or self-efficacy is an important aspect in the growth and development of students. It results from viewing oneself positively within the context of one's surroundings. How well one gets along with peers and how they judge themselves in comparison with others, shapes their self-efficacy. Literature has identified self-efficacy as the area of interpersonal relationships. However, with

**9. How guidance and counselling can enhance self-efficacy among** 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

**7.2 Individual and societal guidance**

**8. The concept of counselling**

and actions.

within themselves.

**high school students**

2.To modify maladjusted conduct.

to confront social inadequacy.

**7.1 Vocational guidance**


*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

#### **7.1 Vocational guidance**

*Counseling and Therapy*

Lack of effective study habits and skills leads to failure, hence students should be encouraged to spend a substantial amount of time on meaningful school activities and effectively studying to be productive and spend less time on leisure [49].

Students need to be encouraged to develop a formal time schedule and a personal study time-table, regulate their movements and avoid the tendency of procrastination in their work causing them to work under pressure. Effectively, time-tabling enables students to prioritise study times as considerate obligations while respecting

Students are expected to take notes during class sessions, yet most of them find the task difficult. Due to lack note-taking skills, some teachers resort to prepare notes and distribute them to their students or write notes on the chalkboard for students on copy. Even though this strategy might prepare students for their examinations, it also deprives them of a chance to learn how to select major points from a lesson or lecture. Students tend to be truant for lessons relying on handouts which

Examinations are valuable tools for assessing the effectiveness of educational programmes and appraising students' progress but they are often misused and abused, particularly when accepting or eliminating students from some pro-

grammes. All the same, students face numerous limitations of examinations in measuring other skills that students might possibly have assimilated during their course of the year. Dealing with examinations related anxiety and stress becomes essential

Academic counselling is a crucial facet of educational guidance which should be offered to students at various levels in their educational development. Students that are gifted and talented may require counselling that is different from the low achievers, the handicapped and delinquents, hence the need for an appraisal of the educational needs for every student [49]. This stance calls for professional guidance counselling to prepare a cumulative record so as to adequately assist all types of students in their dilemmas [48]. The school guidance counsellor must give students

times for home chores and recreation as they are equally essential [49].

does not adequately prepare them for examinations [48, 49].

for every student to learn though proper guidance [49].

*6.2.1 Study skills*

*6.2.2 Time-tabling*

*6.2.3 Note-taking*

*6.2.4 Sitting for examinations*

**7. Academic counselling**

information such as:

• What to study;

• Where to study;

• How to study.

• When to study; and

• How to effectively use of the library;

**74**

Choosing and preparing for a career can be a daunting experience for students in which vocational guidance becomes a necessary process for assisting students choose an occupation, be adequately prepared for it, be engage in it and advance themselves in it. Fundamentally, a student's interests, aptitudes, personality and suitability for the type of work should be considered when giving vocational guidance [49].

#### **7.2 Individual and societal guidance**

Individual and societal guidance is a process that assists an individual or groups of people to relate considerably towards other people. Mostly, individual and societal guidance is beneficial for students with self-awareness, learn interpersonal skills, learn demeanours and etiquette, wisely pursue leisure time activities, develop family relationships and understand their roles and responsibilities in the society [49].

#### **8. The concept of counselling**

Counselling can be defined as a learning-oriented process, that develops an interactive relationship, whose main objective is to develop self-awareness so that one becomes more relevant as an effective member of society. Counselling is described as a process undertaken by a helper who expresses care and concern towards an individual with a problem in order to enable that individual's personal growth which brings about transformation through self-awareness [14]. Concurring National Council of Educational Research and Training [50] refers to counselling as a therapeutic and interactive learning process through which the counsellor assists the counselee to identify the origin(s) of problems and guides them in categorising issues and making wise decisions. Although counselling is all-inclusive, addressing cultural, economic, emotional and social issues, it can be required at any time in life as people need change or face a crisis. Below are the aims of counselling as outlined by Van Dinther et al. [14]:


#### **9. How guidance and counselling can enhance self-efficacy among high school students**

Self-esteem or self-efficacy is an important aspect in the growth and development of students. It results from viewing oneself positively within the context of one's surroundings. How well one gets along with peers and how they judge themselves in comparison with others, shapes their self-efficacy. Literature has identified self-efficacy as the area of interpersonal relationships. However, with

proper guidance and counselling support, individuals with experiencing difficulties in learning can build the self-esteem they need to succeed in their life [51]. Owuor et al. [51] further explain that the main goal of guidance and counselling in the mainstream schools is to enhance the self-esteem or self-efficacy of students with emotional and behavioural problems. Guidance and counselling assist students in fulfilling their basic psychological needs, understanding themselves and acceptance of others, developing associations with peers, balancing between permissiveness and controls in the educational setting, realising successful achievement and providing opportunities to gain independence.

Florida Department of Education Division of Workforce Development [47] propounds that the student's needs which manifest as the gap between the expected progress and the actual progress in the student's personal, social, academic and career development are addressed in guidance and counselling programmes. The student's learning and achievement are facilitated through competency in these developmental areas. A firm base of motivation, aspirations, positive attitudes, self-acceptance and knowledge of alternatives are essential elements for growth and development which should be acquired by students at an early age. It is, therefore, crucial for students to continuously build on these lifelong elements. The major competencies which should form the content of the student development programmes include decision-making, study skills, communication skills, test-taking skills, educational and career planning skills, conflict resolution, career awareness and exploration, problem-solving skills, community involvement, self-esteem and interpersonal and social skills among others. The stated competencies empower the student to be an active participant in using the available school and community learning opportunities. As such, all programmes' learning achievements, long-term outcomes and accomplishment of the school mission goals are facilitated by these competencies. Accordingly, schools which expose their students to guidance and counselling programmes promote self-efficacy in their students. Thus, students are prepared for the future as well as acquiring suitable attitudes and values which empower them to productively and actively participate in the communities, they live in.

Of paramount importance is that, through guidance and counselling programmes, students are assisted in establishing a set of beliefs and a value system that will direct their behaviour and actions which results in developing a positive self-image and a sense of identity. These programmes should involve students in activities and dialogues that allow them to realise their rights and responsibilities within the family, school and other societal institutions. Such activities expose students to discover reality through participation in various fora as they share power with adults in decision-making [49].

Additionally, guidance and counselling programmes promote students' self-efficacy since the programmes emphasise on providing students with a chance to learn more about themselves and others before they encounter glitches resulting from self-concept matters. The programmes concentrate on academic accomplishment, prevention and intervention activities, advocacy and social/personal/emotional and career development. Students acquire interpersonal skills before they experience interpersonal crisis. When faced with crisis, students can solve the problem by using the learnt skills. To achieve optimum benefits from the educational programmes, every student needs sound emotional and social skills. The four key areas of the programmes, which are academic, personal/social, career and community involvement, are fundamental to the individual uniqueness and maximum development of the student [47].

According to Nkechi et al. [52], some of the contributions of school guidance and counselling programmes in promoting students' self-efficacy involve:

**77**

to learn; and

implemented:

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling…*

• Preparing students through academic, career, and personal/social development

• Encouraging facilitative, co-operative peer interactions;

• Assuring equitable access to educational opportunities;

• Assisting in developing effective interpersonal relationship skills;

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

for the twenty-first century challenges;

• Enhancing personal development;

• Providing advocacy for students;

• Fostering resiliency factors for students;

• Relating educational programmes to future success;

• Assisting in acquiring knowledge of self and others; and

• Developing decision-making and problem-solving skills.

make informed decisions and have clear occupational goals [52].

getting employment and succeeding in it;

Likewise, most secondary school students are in the adolescent stage when they experience alienation, which is a syndrome comprising of distrust, anxiety, pessimism, egocentrism, meaninglessness, normlessness and powerlessness. At this stage, guidance and counselling programmes are, therefore, desirable to assist students understand their developmental stage and adjust to school life accordingly. Guidance and counselling programmes also help students choose and pursue achievable and sustainable careers. The complexity and dynamic nature of the world makes it difficult for students to decide on career choices. The changes in time, people and technological advancements challenge individuals to transform to new ways of living and working. Therefore, guidance and counselling programmes are necessary to enlighten students about several existing job opportunities required the qualifications, responsibilities involved and the nature of work so that they can

Furthermore, UNESCO Guidance [49] identifies the following functions of vocational guidance which can enhance self-efficacy among students if effectively

• Assists students to realise their talents and make appropriate career choices;

• Encourages students to maximise use of all educational opportunities, which will benefit them in life. Through vocational guidance, students recognise the relationship that exists between curricular and extracurricular activities;

• Informs students about job prospects and the actual procedures required for

• Encourages students to make informed decisions on the type of life they would like to lead depending on their interests, values, abilities, skills and motivation

• Facilitating career exploration and development;

• Broadening knowledge of the changing world;

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*


*Counseling and Therapy*

providing opportunities to gain independence.

proper guidance and counselling support, individuals with experiencing difficulties in learning can build the self-esteem they need to succeed in their life [51]. Owuor et al. [51] further explain that the main goal of guidance and counselling in the mainstream schools is to enhance the self-esteem or self-efficacy of students with emotional and behavioural problems. Guidance and counselling assist students in fulfilling their basic psychological needs, understanding themselves and acceptance of others, developing associations with peers, balancing between permissiveness and controls in the educational setting, realising successful achievement and

Florida Department of Education Division of Workforce Development [47] propounds that the student's needs which manifest as the gap between the expected progress and the actual progress in the student's personal, social, academic and career development are addressed in guidance and counselling programmes. The student's learning and achievement are facilitated through competency in these developmental areas. A firm base of motivation, aspirations, positive attitudes, self-acceptance and knowledge of alternatives are essential elements for growth and development which should be acquired by students at an early age. It is, therefore, crucial for students to continuously build on these lifelong elements. The major competencies which should form the content of the student development programmes include decision-making, study skills, communication skills, test-taking skills, educational and career planning skills, conflict resolution, career awareness and exploration, problem-solving skills, community involvement, self-esteem and interpersonal and social skills among others. The stated competencies empower the student to be an active participant in using the available school and community learning opportunities. As such, all programmes' learning achievements, long-term outcomes and accomplishment of the school mission goals are facilitated by these competencies. Accordingly, schools which expose their students to guidance and counselling programmes promote self-efficacy in their students. Thus, students are prepared for the future as well as acquiring suitable attitudes and values which empower them to productively and actively participate in the communities, they

Of paramount importance is that, through guidance and counselling programmes, students are assisted in establishing a set of beliefs and a value system that will direct their behaviour and actions which results in developing a positive self-image and a sense of identity. These programmes should involve students in activities and dialogues that allow them to realise their rights and responsibilities within the family, school and other societal institutions. Such activities expose students to discover reality through participation in various fora as they share power

Additionally, guidance and counselling programmes promote students' self-efficacy since the programmes emphasise on providing students with a chance to learn more about themselves and others before they encounter glitches resulting from self-concept matters. The programmes concentrate on academic accomplishment, prevention and intervention activities, advocacy and social/personal/emotional and career development. Students acquire interpersonal skills before they experience interpersonal crisis. When faced with crisis, students can solve the problem by using the learnt skills. To achieve optimum benefits from the educational programmes, every student needs sound emotional and social skills. The four key areas of the programmes, which are academic, personal/social, career and community involvement, are fundamental to the individual uniqueness and maximum develop-

According to Nkechi et al. [52], some of the contributions of school guidance

and counselling programmes in promoting students' self-efficacy involve:

**76**

live in.

with adults in decision-making [49].

ment of the student [47].


Likewise, most secondary school students are in the adolescent stage when they experience alienation, which is a syndrome comprising of distrust, anxiety, pessimism, egocentrism, meaninglessness, normlessness and powerlessness. At this stage, guidance and counselling programmes are, therefore, desirable to assist students understand their developmental stage and adjust to school life accordingly. Guidance and counselling programmes also help students choose and pursue achievable and sustainable careers. The complexity and dynamic nature of the world makes it difficult for students to decide on career choices. The changes in time, people and technological advancements challenge individuals to transform to new ways of living and working. Therefore, guidance and counselling programmes are necessary to enlighten students about several existing job opportunities required the qualifications, responsibilities involved and the nature of work so that they can make informed decisions and have clear occupational goals [52].

Furthermore, UNESCO Guidance [49] identifies the following functions of vocational guidance which can enhance self-efficacy among students if effectively implemented:


• Helps students to adapt to change as they tackle various problems which emanate from the ever-changing society. For instance, currently in the world of work, the focus is on self-employment and entrepreneurship than in the past years.

More so, Nkechi et al. [52] are of the view that guidance has a responsibility for developing and maintaining a co-operative relationship between students and the school. Teachers and counsellors should be mindful of students' needs, whereas students are expected to adjust to the school environment. The students' main obligation to the school is to use the school's resources appropriately and work towards attainment of set standards. The provision of suggestions to improve the programmes through carrying out educational research, conducting counselling sessions to assist students, and encouraging positive school-home environment facilitates the mutual adjustment of students and the school. As a result, such mutual cooperation between the students and the school builds self-efficacy in students. The main focal point of guidance and counselling programmes will be to develop a balanced individual intellectually, spiritually, morally and socially. Thus, guidance and counselling programmes assist students to harmonise their abilities, interests and values, thereby enabling them to develop their potential fully. Such exposure to guidance and counselling programmes helps students to formulate realistic life goals and plans. Despite the valuable contribution of guidance and counselling programmes in promoting self-efficacy among students in high schools, a study conducted in Ghana by Owusu et al. [53] revealed that the staff acknowledged that guidance services are available in the schools while students who are the main beneficiaries of guidance and counselling programmes disputed the claim by the staff. The students indicated that they did not have any access to guidance services in the schools.

In Kenya, Ruttoh [54] conducted a study which revealed that 57.2% of the students had not attended counselling sessions with the counsellors. The reasons for non-attendance were that:


**79**

and effectiveness.

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling…*

**10. The role of school counsellor in enhancing self-efficacy among** 

School counsellors serve a vital role in enhancing students' self-efficacy and maximising student achievement. As professionals, school counsellors implement a comprehensive school counselling programme that promotes and enhances student achievement. By incorporating leadership, advocacy and collaboration, professional school counsellors promote equity and access to opportunities and rigorous educa-

Accordingly, guidance counsellors need to be equipped with skills required to design comprehensive guidance programmes, provide counselling service, and use assessment procedures with a gender perspective [49]. On the same note, Yusof et al. [56] add that in developing students' character, the school counsellors' personal attributes and professional competencies are necessary characteristics. To make sure that services rendered by school counsellors meet the goal of assisting students develop and grow, the counsellors are expected to have a high level of confidence and professional competencies. Examples of personal attributes include compassionate, empathetic, patience, research-oriented, good listener, and self-awareness, discrete, authentic and non-judgmental are fundamental in executing their role as counsellors. While, the professional competencies are critical in the provision of effective counselling services entail knowledge, abilities, skills and attitude related to school counselling programme as well as the foundations, management, delivery and counsellors' accountability. It is important that the stated qualities be combined with precise skills demanded by the profession. These skills involve listening, analytical and good observation. Apart from being professionally qualified, it is essential for the counsellors to have temperament as well as empathy towards students because the counsellors deal with students who encounter diverse problems in their lives. Hence, the counsellor should possess the skill of working with individuals as well as groups. Nonetheless, for counsellors to be recognised as professional counsellors, they should undergo special training to acquire the necessary skills in addition to qualities they possess [50]. In promoting self-efficacy among students, Nkechi et al. [52] affirm that the school counsellor is seen as a role model and highly respected by students. Through training, counsellors can create a friendly atmosphere with students by listening to the students' complaints, short comings and offering relevant guidance in a quest of moulding the student in the right pursuit of life. The same authors further express that counsellors can provide data that serves as a basis for curriculum development and can help curriculum developers shape courses of study that more accurately reflect the needs of students. However, it has been observed that counsellors are not

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

tional experiences for all students [55].

included in curriculum development efforts.

In order to effectively assist students in developing self-efficacy, the school counsellors should develop self-efficacy in executing their work. The concept of self-efficacy is based upon the assumption that awareness of self-efficacy will be a connection between a person's knowledge about a task and the reality of doing the task. Devoted counselling efficacy will result in a continuous therapeutic and effective counselling process due to the positive influence of a confident counsellor on a client/student. This further proves that competent self-efficacy is important in managing the behaviour of students and improving the school climate [56]. However, Woods [57] argues that society's diverse perspectives of the role and identity of the school counsellor would naturally lead the counsellor to question his/her role and weaken self-efficacy beliefs. In this respect, self-efficacy is an important component in the explanation of the school counsellors' performance

**high school students**

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

#### **10. The role of school counsellor in enhancing self-efficacy among high school students**

School counsellors serve a vital role in enhancing students' self-efficacy and maximising student achievement. As professionals, school counsellors implement a comprehensive school counselling programme that promotes and enhances student achievement. By incorporating leadership, advocacy and collaboration, professional school counsellors promote equity and access to opportunities and rigorous educational experiences for all students [55].

Accordingly, guidance counsellors need to be equipped with skills required to design comprehensive guidance programmes, provide counselling service, and use assessment procedures with a gender perspective [49]. On the same note, Yusof et al. [56] add that in developing students' character, the school counsellors' personal attributes and professional competencies are necessary characteristics. To make sure that services rendered by school counsellors meet the goal of assisting students develop and grow, the counsellors are expected to have a high level of confidence and professional competencies. Examples of personal attributes include compassionate, empathetic, patience, research-oriented, good listener, and self-awareness, discrete, authentic and non-judgmental are fundamental in executing their role as counsellors. While, the professional competencies are critical in the provision of effective counselling services entail knowledge, abilities, skills and attitude related to school counselling programme as well as the foundations, management, delivery and counsellors' accountability.

It is important that the stated qualities be combined with precise skills demanded by the profession. These skills involve listening, analytical and good observation. Apart from being professionally qualified, it is essential for the counsellors to have temperament as well as empathy towards students because the counsellors deal with students who encounter diverse problems in their lives. Hence, the counsellor should possess the skill of working with individuals as well as groups. Nonetheless, for counsellors to be recognised as professional counsellors, they should undergo special training to acquire the necessary skills in addition to qualities they possess [50].

In promoting self-efficacy among students, Nkechi et al. [52] affirm that the school counsellor is seen as a role model and highly respected by students. Through training, counsellors can create a friendly atmosphere with students by listening to the students' complaints, short comings and offering relevant guidance in a quest of moulding the student in the right pursuit of life. The same authors further express that counsellors can provide data that serves as a basis for curriculum development and can help curriculum developers shape courses of study that more accurately reflect the needs of students. However, it has been observed that counsellors are not included in curriculum development efforts.

In order to effectively assist students in developing self-efficacy, the school counsellors should develop self-efficacy in executing their work. The concept of self-efficacy is based upon the assumption that awareness of self-efficacy will be a connection between a person's knowledge about a task and the reality of doing the task. Devoted counselling efficacy will result in a continuous therapeutic and effective counselling process due to the positive influence of a confident counsellor on a client/student. This further proves that competent self-efficacy is important in managing the behaviour of students and improving the school climate [56]. However, Woods [57] argues that society's diverse perspectives of the role and identity of the school counsellor would naturally lead the counsellor to question his/her role and weaken self-efficacy beliefs. In this respect, self-efficacy is an important component in the explanation of the school counsellors' performance and effectiveness.

*Counseling and Therapy*

non-attendance were that:

• Helps students to adapt to change as they tackle various problems which emanate from the ever-changing society. For instance, currently in the world of work, the

focus is on self-employment and entrepreneurship than in the past years.

that they did not have any access to guidance services in the schools.

i.The school did not have the counselling programme.

and there was poor quality of counselling services.

peer counselling instead of teacher counselling.

opportunity to attend even if they wished to do so.

not have time to attend counselling session.

ling sessions as they felt intimidated.

In Kenya, Ruttoh [54] conducted a study which revealed that 57.2% of the students had not attended counselling sessions with the counsellors. The reasons for

ii.The students therefore felt that they were not welcome. Some teacher counsellors did not adhere to counselling ethics. For example, some counsellors showed rudeness, lack of confidentiality, and negative attitude towards the students. Hence, the students felt that the atmosphere was not welcoming

iii.Some students favoured to be counselled by parents, whilst others preferred

iv.Since the counselling service was seldom offered, some students lacked the

v.Other students indicated that they preferred doing activities like games which were offered simultaneously with counselling session; hence, they did

vi.Due to lack of a counselling office and in cases where it was available, some students were shy and feared going for counselling because they were worried about lack of privacy in such offices. The location of guidance and counselling offices within the administration block and near the school heads' and deputy heads' offices hindered students from attending counsel-

More so, Nkechi et al. [52] are of the view that guidance has a responsibility for developing and maintaining a co-operative relationship between students and the school. Teachers and counsellors should be mindful of students' needs, whereas students are expected to adjust to the school environment. The students' main obligation to the school is to use the school's resources appropriately and work towards attainment of set standards. The provision of suggestions to improve the programmes through carrying out educational research, conducting counselling sessions to assist students, and encouraging positive school-home environment facilitates the mutual adjustment of students and the school. As a result, such mutual cooperation between the students and the school builds self-efficacy in students. The main focal point of guidance and counselling programmes will be to develop a balanced individual intellectually, spiritually, morally and socially. Thus, guidance and counselling programmes assist students to harmonise their abilities, interests and values, thereby enabling them to develop their potential fully. Such exposure to guidance and counselling programmes helps students to formulate realistic life goals and plans. Despite the valuable contribution of guidance and counselling programmes in promoting self-efficacy among students in high schools, a study conducted in Ghana by Owusu et al. [53] revealed that the staff acknowledged that guidance services are available in the schools while students who are the main beneficiaries of guidance and counselling programmes disputed the claim by the staff. The students indicated

**78**

It is imperative for the counsellors to consider ethics as they execute their duties. Thus, effective counselling deals with ethical understanding, legal responsibilities and moral realities. UNESCO Counselling [58] expounds that counselling does not take place in a fantasy world, but in a world of reality where people are required to make ethical choices and decisions. Adherence to professional ethical standards protects both the public and the counsellor. Concurring National Council of Educational Research and Training [50] complements that counselling is a process involving responsibility and confidentiality; hence, guidance and counselling experts should follow certain ethical principles. These encompass consideration of students' diverse individual and cultural differences, desisting from taking steps which are harmful to the student, practising within the scope of their competence and referring students to experts if they are unable to deal with the cases.

In spite of the above, UNESCO Counselling [58] warns of unethical practices by some counsellors. These ill practices involve incompetence, which is a result of lack of prerequisite knowledge and skills essential for professional behaviour, lack of integrity and moral commitment, violation of confidences, imposing values on students and creating dependence on the part of the student to meet the counsellor's own needs, for example, sexual relations and social interactions [59–64].

#### **11. Solutions and recommendations**


#### **Acknowledgements**

As authors of this chapter, we acknowledge our colleagues, Dr. M. Mpofu and Dr. J. Shumba for being supportive and providing valuable contribution in compiling this chapter. Much appreciation is extended to Dr. P. Makati for editing and proofreading. The authors declare that they have no funding for the publication of the book chapter.

#### **Terminology**

**Counselling** is the process in which one person gives advice to the other to help them navigate through a challenging situation. There is however, a difference between one giving advice as a friend and one doing it professional because they are trained to deal with different situations.

**81**

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling…*

**Classroom guidance** is when school counsellors move into the role of a teacher to engage students in a classroom setting for the purpose of providing training or

**Classroom guidance curriculum** is the structured developmental lessons designed to assist students in achieving the competencies and is presented system-

**Coping** is a way of adopting stratagems that individuals use when faced with stress or trauma as a way of managing the painful or difficult situations. Coping mechanisms can assist students to regulate to stressful trials while serving them

**Denial** is a defence mechanism that one adopts in an attempt to reject a situation

**Distraction** is something that prevents one from achieving or attaining what

**Resilience** is the ability an individual has that makes them to cope, manage and

**Relaxation** is a process that reduces the impact of stress on your mind and body. Relaxation techniques can help people cope with everyday stress related to various

**Self-efficacy** is the belief that one has about their own ability to do something and succeed in it. It is intertwined with motivation although they are different; however, someone with high self-efficacy is highly motivated in what they do.

**Self-concept** is the cognitive or thinking aspect related to one's self-image and generally refers to 'the totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or

**Self-esteem** is the affective on emotional aspect of self and generally refers to how we feel about or how we value ourselves (one's self-worth). Self-concept can also refer to the general idea we have of ourselves, and self-esteem can refer to specific measures about components of self-concept. Some authors even use the two

**Withdrawn behaviour** is evading or lack of desire for social contact. Students who withdraw may vigorously avoid spending time with other people. They may at all cost circumvent social interactions. Some withdrawn people may be in the company of other people but do not feel particularly determined to reach out others. While some may want to socialise but have difficulty connecting to people and

**Distancing** can be emotional, physical, cognitive or social. It is when one withdraws or separates themselves from involvement with other people or from any

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

atically through classroom and group activities.

recover from a stressful or traumatic situation.

health, social and intellectual problems.

her personal existence' [11].

terms interchangeably.

others actively hate being with others.

sustain their emotive well-being

that is too painful for one to consider.

information.

they desire to do.

situation.

*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

**Classroom guidance** is when school counsellors move into the role of a teacher to engage students in a classroom setting for the purpose of providing training or information.

**Classroom guidance curriculum** is the structured developmental lessons designed to assist students in achieving the competencies and is presented systematically through classroom and group activities.

**Coping** is a way of adopting stratagems that individuals use when faced with stress or trauma as a way of managing the painful or difficult situations. Coping mechanisms can assist students to regulate to stressful trials while serving them sustain their emotive well-being

**Denial** is a defence mechanism that one adopts in an attempt to reject a situation that is too painful for one to consider.

**Distraction** is something that prevents one from achieving or attaining what they desire to do.

**Distancing** can be emotional, physical, cognitive or social. It is when one withdraws or separates themselves from involvement with other people or from any situation.

**Resilience** is the ability an individual has that makes them to cope, manage and recover from a stressful or traumatic situation.

**Relaxation** is a process that reduces the impact of stress on your mind and body. Relaxation techniques can help people cope with everyday stress related to various health, social and intellectual problems.

**Self-efficacy** is the belief that one has about their own ability to do something and succeed in it. It is intertwined with motivation although they are different; however, someone with high self-efficacy is highly motivated in what they do.

**Self-concept** is the cognitive or thinking aspect related to one's self-image and generally refers to 'the totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence' [11].

**Self-esteem** is the affective on emotional aspect of self and generally refers to how we feel about or how we value ourselves (one's self-worth). Self-concept can also refer to the general idea we have of ourselves, and self-esteem can refer to specific measures about components of self-concept. Some authors even use the two terms interchangeably.

**Withdrawn behaviour** is evading or lack of desire for social contact. Students who withdraw may vigorously avoid spending time with other people. They may at all cost circumvent social interactions. Some withdrawn people may be in the company of other people but do not feel particularly determined to reach out others. While some may want to socialise but have difficulty connecting to people and others actively hate being with others.

*Counseling and Therapy*

to deal with the cases.

**Acknowledgements**

the book chapter.

**Terminology**

trained to deal with different situations.

**11. Solutions and recommendations**

position to assist students accordingly.

schools so that counselling ethics are observed.

It is imperative for the counsellors to consider ethics as they execute their duties. Thus, effective counselling deals with ethical understanding, legal responsibilities and moral realities. UNESCO Counselling [58] expounds that counselling does not take place in a fantasy world, but in a world of reality where people are required to make ethical choices and decisions. Adherence to professional ethical standards protects both the public and the counsellor. Concurring National Council of Educational Research and Training [50] complements that counselling is a process involving responsibility and confidentiality; hence, guidance and counselling experts should follow certain ethical principles. These encompass consideration of students' diverse individual and cultural differences, desisting from taking steps which are harmful to the student, practising within the scope of their competence and referring students to experts if they are unable

In spite of the above, UNESCO Counselling [58] warns of unethical practices by some counsellors. These ill practices involve incompetence, which is a result of lack of prerequisite knowledge and skills essential for professional behaviour, lack of integrity and moral commitment, violation of confidences, imposing values on students and creating dependence on the part of the student to meet the counsellor's

1.There is need for schools to avail guidance and counselling services to all students who need such services in order to promote self-efficacy in students.

2.Schools should employ professionally qualified counsellors who will be in a

3.Well-equipped guidance and counselling facilities should be provided by

4.Schools should initiate guidance and counselling staff development programmes for teachers to acquaint them with knowledge and skills on how to

As authors of this chapter, we acknowledge our colleagues, Dr. M. Mpofu and Dr. J. Shumba for being supportive and providing valuable contribution in compiling this chapter. Much appreciation is extended to Dr. P. Makati for editing and proofreading. The authors declare that they have no funding for the publication of

**Counselling** is the process in which one person gives advice to the other to help them navigate through a challenging situation. There is however, a difference between one giving advice as a friend and one doing it professional because they are

assist students who need guidance and counselling services.

own needs, for example, sexual relations and social interactions [59–64].

**80**

*Counseling and Therapy*

### **Author details**

Joyce Mathwasa1 \* and Lwazi Sibanda<sup>2</sup>

1 The University of Fort Hare, East London, South Africa

2 National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

\*Address all correspondence to: jmathwasa1@gmail.com; jmathwasa@yahoo.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**83**

pp. 307-337

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Abdullah MC. The relationship between students' self efficacy and their English language achievement. Malaysian Journal of Educators and Education.

[11] Purkey WW. What Students Say to Themselves: Internal Dialogue and School Success. Thousand Oaks, CA:

[12] Schunk DH, DiBenedetto MK. Self-efficacy theory in education. Handbook of Motivation at School.

[13] Bandura A, editor. Exercise of personal and collective efficacy in changing societies. In: Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies. Vol. 15. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1995.

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[2] Solberg VS, Carlstrom AH,

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*Enhancing Students' Self-Efficacy: Implication for High School Guidance and Counselling… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90555*

#### **References**

*Counseling and Therapy*

**82**

**Author details**

Joyce Mathwasa1

\* and Lwazi Sibanda<sup>2</sup>

provided the original work is properly cited.

1 The University of Fort Hare, East London, South Africa

2 National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

\*Address all correspondence to: jmathwasa1@gmail.com; jmathwasa@yahoo.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

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[34] Collishaw S, Pickles A, Messer J, Rutter M, Shearer C, Maughan B. Resilience to adult psychopathology following childhood maltreatment: Evidence from a community sample. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2007;**31**(3):211-229

[35] Rutter M. Resilience, Competence, and Coping. Child abuse & Neglect. 2007;**31**(3):205

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[47] Florida Department of Education Division of Workforce Development. Florida's School Counselling and

Guidance Framework: A Comprehensive Student Development Program Model. 2001. Retrieved from: https://www. scribd.com/document/248943081/ FL-School-Counselling-Framework

[48] Singh G. Educational guidance and counselling concept and its development strategies. Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and

Science. 2018;**2**(3):46-52

Science. 2017;**22**(7):41-48

[52] Nkechi EE, Ewomaoghene EE, Egenti N. The role of guidance and

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[50] National Council of Educational Research and Training. Guidance and Counselling. 2018. Retrieved from: http:// ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lehe108.pdf

[51] Owuor ME, Gori J, Kimani M. Effect of peer counselling on self esteem of students with behavioural and emotional difficulties in primary schools in Nakuru-Sub County. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social

Routledge; 2011. pp. 15-26

pp. 9-35

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Breaking of Affectional Bonds. London

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[40] Dykas MJ, Cassidy J. Attachment and the processing of social information

across the life span: Theory and evidence. Psychological Bulletin.

[41] Sachs-Ericsson N, Verona E, Joiner T, Preacher KJ. Parental verbal abuse and the mediating role of self-criticism in adult internalizing disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2006;**93**(1-3):71-78

[42] Christ C, De Waal MM, Dekker JJ, van Kuijk I, Van Schaik DJ, Kikkert MJ, et al. Linking childhood emotional abuse and depressive symptoms: The role of emotion dysregulation and interpersonal problems. PLoS One.

[43] Hailes HP, Yu R, Danese A, Fazel S. Long-term outcomes of childhood sexual abuse: An umbrella review. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2019;**6**(10):830-839

[44] Zimmerman BJ, Schunk DH. Selfregulated learning and performance: An introduction and an overview. In: Handbook of Self-Regulation of

theory and research: A review. Early Child Development and Care.

2010;**180**(1-2):9-23

2011;**137**(1):19-46

2019;**14**(2):e0211882

[38] Bretherton I, Munholland KA. Internal working models in attachment relationships: Elaborating a central construct in attachment theory. In: Cassidy J, Shaver PR, editors. Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. Washington DC: The Guilford Press; 2008. pp. 102-127

on children, youth, and families; committee on law and justice. Institute of Medicine. New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research. 2014

[37] Bowlby J. The Making and

(Tavistock); 1979

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on children, youth, and families; committee on law and justice. Institute of Medicine. New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research. 2014

*Counseling and Therapy*

1993;**28**(2):117-148

2002;**25**(2):88-102

2013:121-137

2011;**34**(1):65-98

akademik başarilarina etkisi. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi. 2011;**9**(3):519-540

International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education.

[28] Zimmerman BJ. Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn.

[29] Hoy AW, Spero RB. Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching: A comparison of four measures. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2005;**21**(4):343-356

[30] Ünal F. Child abuse and neglect in family. Turkish Social Investigation

[31] Akduman GG, Ruban C, Akduman B, Korkusuz İ. Çocuk ve cinsel istismar. Adli Psikiyatri Dergisi.

[32] Mennen FE, Kim K, Sang J, Trickett PK. Child neglect: Definition

[33] Sachs-Ericsson N, Medley AN, Kendall-Tackett K, Taylor J. Childhood abuse and current health problems among older adults: The mediating role of self-efficacy. Psychology of Violence.

[34] Collishaw S, Pickles A, Messer J, Rutter M, Shearer C, Maughan B. Resilience to adult psychopathology following childhood maltreatment: Evidence from a community sample. Child Abuse & Neglect.

[35] Rutter M. Resilience, Competence, and Coping. Child abuse & Neglect.

[36] Petersen AC, Joseph J, Feit M. Committee on child maltreatment research, policy, and practice for the next decade: Phase II; board

and identification of youth's experiences in official reports of maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect.

2010;**34**(9):647-658

2011;**1**(2):106

2007;**31**(3):211-229

2007;**31**(3):205

Contemporary Educational Psychology.

2019;**31**(1):86-95

2000;**25**(1):82-91

Bulletin. 2008;**1**:98

2005;**3**(1):9-14

efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist.

Kauffman DF, McKim C, Zumbrunn S. Examining dimensions of self-efficacy for writing. Journal of Education &

[21] Klassen R. A question of calibration: A review of the self-efficacy beliefs of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly.

[22] Pajares F. Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and achievement in writing: A review of the literature. Reading & Writing Quarterly. 2003;**19**(2):139-158

[23] Brown GT. Assessing assessment for learning: Reconsidering the policy and practice. Making a Difference in Education and Social Policy.

[24] Panadero E, Brown GT, Strijbos JW. The future of student self-assessment: A review of known unknowns and potential directions. Educational Psychology Review. 2016;**28**(4):803

[25] Corkett J, Hatt B, Benevides T. Student and teacher self-efficacy and the connection to reading and writing. Canadian Journal of Education.

[26] Andrade H, Cizek GJ. Students as the definitive source of formative assessment: Academic self-assessment and the self-regulation of learning. In: Handbook of Formative Assessment. New York: Routledge; 2010. pp. 102-117

[27] Filippou K. Students' academic selfefficacy in International Master's Degree Programs in Finnish Universities.

[19] Bandura A. Perceived self-

[20] Bruning R, Dempsey M,

Psychology. 2013;**105**(1):25

**84**

[37] Bowlby J. The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds. London (Tavistock); 1979

[38] Bretherton I, Munholland KA. Internal working models in attachment relationships: Elaborating a central construct in attachment theory. In: Cassidy J, Shaver PR, editors. Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. Washington DC: The Guilford Press; 2008. pp. 102-127

[39] Bretherton I. Fathers in attachment theory and research: A review. Early Child Development and Care. 2010;**180**(1-2):9-23

[40] Dykas MJ, Cassidy J. Attachment and the processing of social information across the life span: Theory and evidence. Psychological Bulletin. 2011;**137**(1):19-46

[41] Sachs-Ericsson N, Verona E, Joiner T, Preacher KJ. Parental verbal abuse and the mediating role of self-criticism in adult internalizing disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2006;**93**(1-3):71-78

[42] Christ C, De Waal MM, Dekker JJ, van Kuijk I, Van Schaik DJ, Kikkert MJ, et al. Linking childhood emotional abuse and depressive symptoms: The role of emotion dysregulation and interpersonal problems. PLoS One. 2019;**14**(2):e0211882

[43] Hailes HP, Yu R, Danese A, Fazel S. Long-term outcomes of childhood sexual abuse: An umbrella review. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2019;**6**(10):830-839

[44] Zimmerman BJ, Schunk DH. Selfregulated learning and performance: An introduction and an overview. In: Handbook of Self-Regulation of

Learning and Performance. New York: Routledge; 2011. pp. 15-26

[45] Bandura, A. Evolution of social cognitive theory. In: Smith KG,Hitt MA, editors. Great Minds in Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. pp. 9-35

[46] Care E, Kim H, Vista A, Anderson K. Education System Alignment for 21st Century Skills: Focus on Assessment. Center for Universal Education at the Brookings Institution; 2018. Available from: http://www.brookings. edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/ Education-system-alignment-for-21stcentury-skiils-012819.pdf [Retrieved: 15 October 2019]

[47] Florida Department of Education Division of Workforce Development. Florida's School Counselling and Guidance Framework: A Comprehensive Student Development Program Model. 2001. Retrieved from: https://www. scribd.com/document/248943081/ FL-School-Counselling-Framework

[48] Singh G. Educational guidance and counselling concept and its development strategies. Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science. 2018;**2**(3):46-52

[49] UNESCO Guidance: Module 2000a, 1. Retrieved from: unesco.org/ education/mebam/module\_1.pdf

[50] National Council of Educational Research and Training. Guidance and Counselling. 2018. Retrieved from: http:// ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lehe108.pdf

[51] Owuor ME, Gori J, Kimani M. Effect of peer counselling on self esteem of students with behavioural and emotional difficulties in primary schools in Nakuru-Sub County. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 2017;**22**(7):41-48

[52] Nkechi EE, Ewomaoghene EE, Egenti N. The role of guidance and counselling in effective teaching and learning in schools. RAY: International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies. 2016;**1**(2):36-48

[53] Owusu F, Dramanu BY, Nyarko PA, Opoku-Amankwa K. Assessment of guidance services in senior high schools in Upper Denkyira East Municipality. British Journal of Education. 2018;**6**(5):68-83

[54] Ruttoh MJ. Planning and implementation of guidance and counseling activities in secondary schools: A case of Kamariny Division of Keiyo District, Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice. 2015;**6**(5):1-4

[55] Nzeleni LP. Provision of guidance and counselling services in the schools in the Transkei sub-region of the Eastern Cape (Master's dissertation). University of South Africa; 2015

[56] Yusof R, Ishak DNM, Salleh DAM, Zahidi AM, Bakar AYA. Counselling self-efficacy (CSE) among Malaysian school counsellors. Malaysian Online Journal of Counselling. 2017;**3**(2):73-86

[57] Woods KE. Self-efficacy as a mediator in the relationship between non-counselling roles and wellness in school counsellors [Unpublished master's dissertation]. USA: Texas Tech University; 2009

[58] UNESCO Counselling: Module 2000b, 2. Retrieved from: unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000130374

[59] Andrade HL, Brookhart SM. Classroom assessment as the co-regulation of learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice. 2019;**2**:1-23

[60] Cunningham T, Caldwell C, Geltner J. A short-term study abroad program for school counseling students. Georgia School Counselors Association Journal. 2011;**18**(1):22-25

[61] Geltner JA, Clark MA. Engaging students in classroom guidance: Management strategies for middle school counselors. Professional School Counseling. 2005;**9**(2):2156759X0500900213

[62] McSherry D. Understanding and addressing the "neglect of neglect": Why are we making a molehill out of a mountain. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2007;**31**(6):607-614

[63] Pajares F, Schunk DH. Self-beliefs and school success: Self-efficacy, self-concept, and school achievement. Perception. 2001;**11**:239-266

[64] Zimmerman B, Schunk D. Competence and control beliefs: Distinguishing the means and ends. In: Handbook of Educational Psychology. Abingdon: Routledge; 2006. pp. 349-367

**87**

Section 5

Basic Counselling

Communication Skills

### Section 5

## Basic Counselling Communication Skills

*Counseling and Therapy*

2016;**1**(2):36-48

counselling in effective teaching and learning in schools. RAY: International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies.

[61] Geltner JA, Clark MA. Engaging students in classroom guidance: Management strategies for middle school counselors. Professional School Counseling. 2005;**9**(2):2156759X0500900213

2007;**31**(6):607-614

[62] McSherry D. Understanding and addressing the "neglect of neglect": Why are we making a molehill out of a mountain. Child Abuse & Neglect.

[63] Pajares F, Schunk DH. Self-beliefs and school success: Self-efficacy, self-concept, and school achievement.

Perception. 2001;**11**:239-266

[64] Zimmerman B, Schunk D. Competence and control beliefs: Distinguishing the means and ends. In: Handbook of Educational Psychology. Abingdon: Routledge; 2006. pp. 349-367

[53] Owusu F, Dramanu BY, Nyarko PA, Opoku-Amankwa K. Assessment of guidance services in senior high schools in Upper Denkyira East Municipality. British Journal of Education. 2018;**6**(5):68-83

[55] Nzeleni LP. Provision of guidance and counselling services in the schools in the Transkei sub-region of the Eastern Cape (Master's dissertation). University of South Africa; 2015

[56] Yusof R, Ishak DNM, Salleh DAM, Zahidi AM, Bakar AYA. Counselling self-efficacy (CSE) among Malaysian school counsellors. Malaysian Online Journal of Counselling. 2017;**3**(2):73-86

[57] Woods KE. Self-efficacy as a mediator in the relationship between non-counselling roles and wellness in school counsellors [Unpublished master's dissertation]. USA: Texas Tech

[58] UNESCO Counselling: Module 2000b, 2. Retrieved from: unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000130374

[59] Andrade HL, Brookhart SM. Classroom assessment as the

[60] Cunningham T, Caldwell C, Geltner J. A short-term study abroad program for school counseling students. Georgia School Counselors Association

Journal. 2011;**18**(1):22-25

co-regulation of learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice.

University; 2009

2019;**2**:1-23

[54] Ruttoh MJ. Planning and implementation of guidance and counseling activities in secondary schools: A case of Kamariny Division of Keiyo District, Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice. 2015;**6**(5):1-4

**86**

**89**

**Chapter 7**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Self-Esteem: A Positive Way to

*Malinge Livingstone Gqeba and Nolonwabo Majibha*

outlining therapy approaches for positive self-esteem formation.

**Keywords:** globalisation, self-esteem, affirmation, intervention

The process of globalisation has changed the pattern of social life of people across the globe. Undoubtedly this has had a bad impact on the lives of the people as it affects their social structures. This is because even though globalisation does have its advantages, it also has its disadvantages which we can say are the "negative effects" it has on people. The people that are mostly affected are the youth as they tend to be very "impressionable" and sometimes even "gullible" to the most appealing media and technology advances. For some they seek affirmations in these platforms, which may work to their detriment. Hence negative effects of globalisation manifests in all kinds of problems which have the potential to destroy individuals and families if there are no proper interventions in place to ensure better outcomes for all. This chapter will then try to explain what globalisation is, its impact on individuals especially the youth and the role of family and teachers in establishing and affirming children's positive self-esteem. Ultimately the chapter will end by

This chapter will commence by explaining what self-esteem is. This is because self-esteem may have a direct impact on how a person sees himself/herself as it may also contribute to the way they conduct and present themselves to the world. The formation of a positive self-esteem is a direct result of a positive self-concept. So, what is self-concept? We are all good at something and we all do things that we can be proud of. These successes help us to develop a good self-concept. When you are successful at something, you feel good about yourself. These feelings bring about some confidence which is a feeling of self-assurance that is based on an awareness and appreciation of your abilities [1, 2]. Therefore it can safely be assumed that a person has a good idea about who he is, and these feelings can easily be transferred to the formation of a positive self-esteem. In other words, that confidence that a person has is a feeling of assurance that is based on an awareness and appreciation of his abilities. This means that one is certain of his/her knowledge, abilities and skills, especially in situations where these will succeed [1, 2]. That brings on what is called a positive self-esteem, which goes a bit deeper than self-concept because it has to do with self-respect and whether you understand and value your worth as a

Psychosocial Well-Being

*Zoleka Ntshuntshe, Nokuzola Gqeba,* 

#### **Chapter 7**

## Self-Esteem: A Positive Way to Psychosocial Well-Being

*Zoleka Ntshuntshe, Nokuzola Gqeba, Malinge Livingstone Gqeba and Nolonwabo Majibha*

#### **Abstract**

The process of globalisation has changed the pattern of social life of people across the globe. Undoubtedly this has had a bad impact on the lives of the people as it affects their social structures. This is because even though globalisation does have its advantages, it also has its disadvantages which we can say are the "negative effects" it has on people. The people that are mostly affected are the youth as they tend to be very "impressionable" and sometimes even "gullible" to the most appealing media and technology advances. For some they seek affirmations in these platforms, which may work to their detriment. Hence negative effects of globalisation manifests in all kinds of problems which have the potential to destroy individuals and families if there are no proper interventions in place to ensure better outcomes for all. This chapter will then try to explain what globalisation is, its impact on individuals especially the youth and the role of family and teachers in establishing and affirming children's positive self-esteem. Ultimately the chapter will end by outlining therapy approaches for positive self-esteem formation.

**Keywords:** globalisation, self-esteem, affirmation, intervention

#### **1. Introduction**

This chapter will commence by explaining what self-esteem is. This is because self-esteem may have a direct impact on how a person sees himself/herself as it may also contribute to the way they conduct and present themselves to the world. The formation of a positive self-esteem is a direct result of a positive self-concept. So, what is self-concept? We are all good at something and we all do things that we can be proud of. These successes help us to develop a good self-concept. When you are successful at something, you feel good about yourself. These feelings bring about some confidence which is a feeling of self-assurance that is based on an awareness and appreciation of your abilities [1, 2]. Therefore it can safely be assumed that a person has a good idea about who he is, and these feelings can easily be transferred to the formation of a positive self-esteem. In other words, that confidence that a person has is a feeling of assurance that is based on an awareness and appreciation of his abilities. This means that one is certain of his/her knowledge, abilities and skills, especially in situations where these will succeed [1, 2]. That brings on what is called a positive self-esteem, which goes a bit deeper than self-concept because it has to do with self-respect and whether you understand and value your worth as a

person. This develops from infancy and continues up to adulthood, with a person feeling capable whilst also feeling loved.

Major contributors to the formation of a positive self-esteem are influences on your self-confidence and self- image which are your experiences in life, positive input and feedback from others, such as family, friends and peers, achievements and failure, beliefs and values, in other words, that feeling of being loved and accepted by others [3–5]. Thus when a child has successfully formed a positive self-concept, it is easy to translate those feelings and emotions to the formation of a positive self-esteem. When a person has formed a positive self-concept it is then very difficult to be easily taken in by all the bad things around them as it is often a personality trait which tends to be stable and enduring. Hence it is very important for teachers at school to continue to praise, acknowledge and affirm children as this is a direct continuation of what parents have already started at home. This is because how we see ourselves is often influenced by how other people see us and how they treat us. In addition to this, constant self-affirmations are necessary for a continued self-esteem. This simply means that a child does not need to sit and wait for others to affirm him; he can practise reciting self-affirmations which will continue to give him confidence, a positive self-image and ultimately the formation of a positive self-esteem about him. These positive self-affirmations can be in the form of "I am loved; I can do it; I am not afraid to fail; I can make friends easily; I am not afraid to ask for help; I am not scared to try out new things; I love myself even though sometimes I fail; I act responsibly; I am intelligent and every day brings new possibilities".

Self-esteem is a term used to describe a person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. It can also be described as how an individual sees himself/herself, how he/she perceives his value to the world and how valuable he/she thinks he/ she is to other people [6]. People are often described as either having high selfesteem, in which case they think very well of themselves and their abilities, or low self- esteem (filled with doubts and criticism about themselves and their abilities). Self-esteem is important because it is an essential human need that is vital for survival and normal healthy development [6]. According to Maslow [7], psychological health is not possible unless the essential core of a person is fundamentally accepted, loved and respected by others and by himself.

Self-esteem also allows people to face life with more confidence, benevolence and optimism, thereby easily reaching their goals, and to self-actualise [8]. According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, there is the need to belong and in that process of the adolescent trying to fit in with peers. Also, one of the esteem needs people have is to be acknowledged as individuals in their own right and as a person of worth to others [8]. The self-esteem that a person has is a key factor in the way that a person relates to others, how he /she sees himself and the priority they give to meeting their own needs [6]. Adolescents who do not have the required context/ environment and experiences for the development of healthy identity or because of severe stress may not be able to develop healthy identity. This may lead them to experience self-doubt and later on engage in self-destructive behaviours to relieve anxiety associated with confusion [9]. Maslow's hierarchy of needs states that until physical needs are satisfied, other needs cannot be met. However, literature has shown that interaction with children especially young children and youth revealed that the need for love and caring is necessary and more important than many physical needs [10]. Therefore the need for love and acceptance is very important to children as they contribute towards formation of a positive self-esteem. The above discussion has clearly shown the importance of a positive self-esteem with regard to preservation of the youth. Donnelan et al. [11] found low self-esteem in adolescence to be particularly damaging and is directly associated with aggression,

**91**

*Self-Esteem: A Positive Way to Psychosocial Well-Being DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92033*

it's positive and negative aspects.

**2. Globalisation: the context**

**2.1 Opportunities of globalisation**

**2.2 Threats of globalisation**

replaced by machines.

• Job markets at international levels

• Building of relations across borders

Malaysia [14].

antisocial behaviour and delinquency. The youths are already at risk of developing low self-esteem due to a variety of reasons, and when there is no adult be in the form of a parent or teacher to play a significant role in the life of a child, the child may develop low self-esteem [6]. The above discussion has also shown the close link between a positive self-esteem and a healthy psychosocial well-being. High self-esteem is generally linked to positive outcomes [12]. In addition to this, it has been noted that people with higher and stable self-esteem generally have better life satisfaction and greater optimism about the future and better physical health than do those with lower self-esteem [13]. The next section will delve deeper and explain what globalisation is; how it affects people in general, particularly the youth; and

Whilst the idea of globalisation is improving, interconnectedness across borders is a positive thing for the youth; it also brings about the reality of inequality and the widening of divisions between people. Young people have to grapple with the reality of global opportunities being exposed to them but also have to deal with the reality of poverty and deprivation in some instances (cultural, economic and social). Poverty and deprivation amongst the least-developed countries have forced the

Social implications of globalisation also have to do with where the people are located in North–South divide. There is evidence to suggest that there is improvement in the provision of health and education in developing countries given that they have been in the globalisation process. Added to this is the fact that there is recorded drop in infant mortality rate by 30% in countries like Brazil, Egypt and

• Greater access to information—cell phones, Instagram, Twitter and Facebook

• Access to information across borders, religions, cultures and races

have been drawn into religious cults using the internet.

people by dangling the potential of a life of opulence.

• Youths have become a target for recruitment by terrorist organisations and

• Drug trafficking—youths are being recruited into becoming drug mules.

• Fourth industrial revolution—job losses as semi-skilled workforce will be

Because of this, it has become easy for groups with ill intentions to lure young

• Human trafficking is also on the rise using job opportunities to lure job seekers.

youth to migrate to countries that promise better opportunities [14].

*Self-Esteem: A Positive Way to Psychosocial Well-Being DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92033*

*Counseling and Therapy*

possibilities".

feeling capable whilst also feeling loved.

person. This develops from infancy and continues up to adulthood, with a person

Major contributors to the formation of a positive self-esteem are influences on your self-confidence and self- image which are your experiences in life, positive input and feedback from others, such as family, friends and peers, achievements and failure, beliefs and values, in other words, that feeling of being loved and accepted by others [3–5]. Thus when a child has successfully formed a positive self-concept, it is easy to translate those feelings and emotions to the formation of a positive self-esteem. When a person has formed a positive self-concept it is then very difficult to be easily taken in by all the bad things around them as it is often a personality trait which tends to be stable and enduring. Hence it is very important for teachers at school to continue to praise, acknowledge and affirm children as this is a direct continuation of what parents have already started at home. This is because how we see ourselves is often influenced by how other people see us and how they treat us. In addition to this, constant self-affirmations are necessary for a continued self-esteem. This simply means that a child does not need to sit and wait for others to affirm him; he can practise reciting self-affirmations which will continue to give him confidence, a positive self-image and ultimately the formation of a positive self-esteem about him. These positive self-affirmations can be in the form of "I am loved; I can do it; I am not afraid to fail; I can make friends easily; I am not afraid to ask for help; I am not scared to try out new things; I love myself even though sometimes I fail; I act responsibly; I am intelligent and every day brings new

Self-esteem is a term used to describe a person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. It can also be described as how an individual sees himself/herself, how he/she perceives his value to the world and how valuable he/she thinks he/ she is to other people [6]. People are often described as either having high selfesteem, in which case they think very well of themselves and their abilities, or low self- esteem (filled with doubts and criticism about themselves and their abilities). Self-esteem is important because it is an essential human need that is vital for survival and normal healthy development [6]. According to Maslow [7], psychological health is not possible unless the essential core of a person is fundamentally

Self-esteem also allows people to face life with more confidence, benevolence

and optimism, thereby easily reaching their goals, and to self-actualise [8]. According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, there is the need to belong and in that process of the adolescent trying to fit in with peers. Also, one of the esteem needs people have is to be acknowledged as individuals in their own right and as a person of worth to others [8]. The self-esteem that a person has is a key factor in the way that a person relates to others, how he /she sees himself and the priority they give to meeting their own needs [6]. Adolescents who do not have the required context/ environment and experiences for the development of healthy identity or because of severe stress may not be able to develop healthy identity. This may lead them to experience self-doubt and later on engage in self-destructive behaviours to relieve anxiety associated with confusion [9]. Maslow's hierarchy of needs states that until physical needs are satisfied, other needs cannot be met. However, literature has shown that interaction with children especially young children and youth revealed that the need for love and caring is necessary and more important than many physical needs [10]. Therefore the need for love and acceptance is very important to children as they contribute towards formation of a positive self-esteem. The above discussion has clearly shown the importance of a positive self-esteem with regard to preservation of the youth. Donnelan et al. [11] found low self-esteem in adolescence to be particularly damaging and is directly associated with aggression,

accepted, loved and respected by others and by himself.

**90**

antisocial behaviour and delinquency. The youths are already at risk of developing low self-esteem due to a variety of reasons, and when there is no adult be in the form of a parent or teacher to play a significant role in the life of a child, the child may develop low self-esteem [6]. The above discussion has also shown the close link between a positive self-esteem and a healthy psychosocial well-being. High self-esteem is generally linked to positive outcomes [12]. In addition to this, it has been noted that people with higher and stable self-esteem generally have better life satisfaction and greater optimism about the future and better physical health than do those with lower self-esteem [13]. The next section will delve deeper and explain what globalisation is; how it affects people in general, particularly the youth; and it's positive and negative aspects.

#### **2. Globalisation: the context**

Whilst the idea of globalisation is improving, interconnectedness across borders is a positive thing for the youth; it also brings about the reality of inequality and the widening of divisions between people. Young people have to grapple with the reality of global opportunities being exposed to them but also have to deal with the reality of poverty and deprivation in some instances (cultural, economic and social). Poverty and deprivation amongst the least-developed countries have forced the youth to migrate to countries that promise better opportunities [14].

Social implications of globalisation also have to do with where the people are located in North–South divide. There is evidence to suggest that there is improvement in the provision of health and education in developing countries given that they have been in the globalisation process. Added to this is the fact that there is recorded drop in infant mortality rate by 30% in countries like Brazil, Egypt and Malaysia [14].

#### **2.1 Opportunities of globalisation**


#### **2.2 Threats of globalisation**


Because of this, it has become easy for groups with ill intentions to lure young people by dangling the potential of a life of opulence.

#### **2.3 Globalisation and youth identity**

Globalisation impacts directly and has a powerful influence on youth lives. The social benefits of globalisation are that it provides work opportunities that in turn increase independence, self-esteem and positive contribution to their family's well-being. Accessing the economic benefits (jobs) of globalisation, the youths have to migrate. Migration involves adapting to social changes that might include identity and a sense of place in the world. Beyond migration, things like employment patterns, friendship groups and usage of the internet all impact on the identity. Youths tend to be the most consumers of culture and are targets of messages loaded with global social problems. The Commission on Integrity and Cohesion [15] identified three themes that strengthen the influence on youth identity crisis. These are


These impact on the notion of self and sense of belonging that are critical to youth identity, whilst on the other hand Gidley [16] bemoans the western cultural influence brought about by globalisation. Gidley points out that globalisation homogenises dominant (western) culture. This deprives young people individuality and identity that are central to the development of young people.

On the other hand, Ray [17] posits that globalisation creates a fluid world due to increased hybridism and differentiation. Hybridism according to scholars like Bhabha [18] and Soja [19] is a state of "in-betweenness." As far as Bhabha is concerned, hybridism manifests itself as a form of progressive alternative in the construction of culture and identity. This creates an opportunity for the youth to act across cultures and create an understanding within a self-motivated interchange and inclusion in the global sphere [20]. Ray [17] seems to agree with the report of the Commission on Integrity and Cohesion [15] in positing that the globalised world does not "create homogeneity and polarisation" but rather creates creative and eclectic mix of identities. This situation creates difficulties for young people as they find it difficult to construct social identities. Added to this are cultural influences, needs of the labour market and the nature of education [21].

On the other hand Elie [22] provides a comprehensive list of 11 themes of how globalisation affects youth lives. The list is inclusive of the themes identified by the authors above. They are

**93**

ties and corporations.

*Self-Esteem: A Positive Way to Psychosocial Well-Being DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92033*

• Violence and young people's security

• Young people access to technology

• Global youth culture and identity

• Young people access to water

**3. Access to and privatisation**

positive version of globalisation.

• Globalisation of youth activism and human rights

Globalisation has led to privatisation of education for different reasons that include improvements of efficacy and getting rid of government monopolies that impact negatively on trade [23]. The two scholars suggest that internationally more than 10,000 state-owned companies were privatised in 10 years between 1998 and 2008. The privatisation has not always yielded good results for both underdeveloped and developed nations. It has led to negative impact on environment, high levels of corruption and declining employment. The negative impact of privatisation on young people includes limited access to education, restricted employment opportu-

Traditionally, multilateral institutions were considered "remote and intangible" particularly by young people. However, with globalisation, young people have come to realise that these institutions play a pivotal role in their lives. In the 11 issues identified above, the role of multilateral institutions has been highlighted. There is evidence to the effect that with some reform, these institutions can give rise to a

It has become abundantly clear that young people globally do not find space to voice their opinions. Even institutions that offer them a voice do so with strict limitations. This limitation of channels for young people to voice their opinions has

The interconnectedness between international economies has led to skewed relations where multilateral agencies operating in one region can exercise power that impact on nations, communities and households of other regions. This happens through "decisions, actions or inaction by these agencies [24]. Goodman [25] posits

The young has learnt that whilst opportunities have increased with globalisation, the imbalance in power relations institutionalises poverty through wealth and resources being concentrated amongst economically dominant nations, communi-

that these power imbalances are a prominent feature of globalisation.

nities and diminishing choices that were once open to young people.

**4. Global structure and financial architecture**

**5. Representation, activism and human rights**

led to apathy when it comes to formal politics.

**6. Inequitable representations**


*Self-Esteem: A Positive Way to Psychosocial Well-Being DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92033*


*Counseling and Therapy*

generation.

authors above. They are

• Indigenous youth

contribute to transnationalism.

**2.3 Globalisation and youth identity**

Globalisation impacts directly and has a powerful influence on youth lives. The social benefits of globalisation are that it provides work opportunities that in turn increase independence, self-esteem and positive contribution to their family's well-being. Accessing the economic benefits (jobs) of globalisation, the youths have to migrate. Migration involves adapting to social changes that might include identity and a sense of place in the world. Beyond migration, things like employment patterns, friendship groups and usage of the internet all impact on the identity. Youths tend to be the most consumers of culture and are targets of messages loaded with global social problems. The Commission on Integrity and Cohesion [15] identified three

• Super diversity—migrants suddenly come from countries all over the world

• Multiple identities—the diverse sources of identity include race, gender and

• Transnationalism—easy communication and links with even all over the globe

These impact on the notion of self and sense of belonging that are critical to youth identity, whilst on the other hand Gidley [16] bemoans the western cultural influence brought about by globalisation. Gidley points out that globalisation homogenises dominant (western) culture. This deprives young people individuality

On the other hand, Ray [17] posits that globalisation creates a fluid world due to increased hybridism and differentiation. Hybridism according to scholars like Bhabha [18] and Soja [19] is a state of "in-betweenness." As far as Bhabha is concerned, hybridism manifests itself as a form of progressive alternative in the construction of culture and identity. This creates an opportunity for the youth to act across cultures and create an understanding within a self-motivated interchange and inclusion in the global sphere [20]. Ray [17] seems to agree with the report of the Commission on Integrity and Cohesion [15] in positing that the globalised world does not "create homogeneity and polarisation" but rather creates creative and eclectic mix of identities. This situation creates difficulties for young people as they find it difficult to construct social identities. Added to this are cultural influ-

On the other hand Elie [22] provides a comprehensive list of 11 themes of how globalisation affects youth lives. The list is inclusive of the themes identified by the

themes that strengthen the influence on youth identity crisis. These are

and not only those that have historical links with each other.

and identity that are central to the development of young people.

ences, needs of the labour market and the nature of education [21].

• HIV/AIDS prevention, treatment and care for the youth

• Export-oriented manufacturing industries and young workers

• Access to and privatisation of education

• Trafficking of young women

• Vulnerability of agricultural youth

**92**

• Global youth culture and identity

#### **3. Access to and privatisation**

Globalisation has led to privatisation of education for different reasons that include improvements of efficacy and getting rid of government monopolies that impact negatively on trade [23]. The two scholars suggest that internationally more than 10,000 state-owned companies were privatised in 10 years between 1998 and 2008. The privatisation has not always yielded good results for both underdeveloped and developed nations. It has led to negative impact on environment, high levels of corruption and declining employment. The negative impact of privatisation on young people includes limited access to education, restricted employment opportunities and diminishing choices that were once open to young people.

#### **4. Global structure and financial architecture**

Traditionally, multilateral institutions were considered "remote and intangible" particularly by young people. However, with globalisation, young people have come to realise that these institutions play a pivotal role in their lives. In the 11 issues identified above, the role of multilateral institutions has been highlighted. There is evidence to the effect that with some reform, these institutions can give rise to a positive version of globalisation.

#### **5. Representation, activism and human rights**

It has become abundantly clear that young people globally do not find space to voice their opinions. Even institutions that offer them a voice do so with strict limitations. This limitation of channels for young people to voice their opinions has led to apathy when it comes to formal politics.

#### **6. Inequitable representations**

The interconnectedness between international economies has led to skewed relations where multilateral agencies operating in one region can exercise power that impact on nations, communities and households of other regions. This happens through "decisions, actions or inaction by these agencies [24]. Goodman [25] posits that these power imbalances are a prominent feature of globalisation.

The young has learnt that whilst opportunities have increased with globalisation, the imbalance in power relations institutionalises poverty through wealth and resources being concentrated amongst economically dominant nations, communities and corporations.

#### **7. Education**

Evidence has shown that investment in education contributes to equitable development and large-scale reduction of poverty. Oxform International [26] has however reported that 130 children of primary school-going age have no access to basic education. Globalisation to some is a barrier as many young people, particularly from poor households, get deprived of skills necessary for employment, limiting their productive capacity. The burden placed on many governments by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, to service foreign debt, limits the capacity of these governments to provide basic education.

#### **8. Displacement**

Globalisation has led to displacement of people from their arenas where they are able to make a living to unfamiliar territories where life is challenging. Reasons for displacement include environmental impact of globalisation, changes in agricultural patterns and the ever-present threat of conflict over resources. The reality is that whilst globalisation is known for the availability of increased economic opportunities, they are not open to all. Even with the commitments made at the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit in 1992 and at the World Summit on Sustainable Development, very little has changed on environmental displacement [22].

#### **9. Mitigating youth identity crisis**

#### **9.1 Intervention mechanisms**

Westergaard ([27], pp. 98–105) posits that in counselling young people, it is important to bear in mind that the counsellor is not dealing with "mini-adults". Young people have got their own challenging and complex issues. In her research ([27], pp. 98–105) four themes have been developed, which are essential in counselling young people. These are the significance of safety in the relationships, building the therapeutic alliance, flexibility and integration relating to theoretical orientation and the use of creativity. These might be some of the considerations in assisting youth to cope with the effects of globalisation.

#### **9.2 Role of family in establishing and affirming children's positive self-esteem**

In the introduction of this chapter, a point was raised where teachers take up the role of continuing praising, acknowledging and affirming children, from parents.

Parents and teachers are supposed to play a team role in this aspect; it is not bearing fruit to shift the blame to each other, whilst each one of them has a unique contribution. These roles are clearly explained in the introduction of this chapter, which includes to love and to create an atmosphere of belongingness. The following are some of the ways that Adler and Steward [28] recommend:


**95**

*Self-Esteem: A Positive Way to Psychosocial Well-Being DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92033*

many ways including group work.

changing their thought patterns.

to increase psychological flexibility.

overcome their anxiety or distress.

therapy approaches:

**11. Conclusion**

motivated by values.

• Individual needs should be considered at home and at school.

children to grow confidence and reach their full potential.

**10. Therapy approaches for a positive self-esteem formation**

• Teachers should be conscious of individual's learner multicultural needs.

• Learners/children should be assisted to feel good about themselves, and

• Learners should be assisted to form strong relationships with their peers in so

teachers and parents should utilise powerful verbal feedback to assist learners/

Low self-esteem is not a condition or state of mind that cannot be addressed; it can be addressed or corrected with the engagement of one or all the following

• **Cognitive behavioural therapy**: Beck & Freeman [29] explains this as a

• **Exposure therapy:** Hayes and Smith [31] view it as that which involves exposing the patient to the anxiety source; doing so is thought to help them

short-term therapy technique that can help people find new ways to behave by

• **Acceptance and commitment therapy**: Burke [30] paints a picture of a unique empirically based psychological intervention that uses acceptance and mindfulness strategies, together with commitment and behaviour change strategies,

• **Mindfulness-based therapies**: Burke [30] unpacks this as an approach to psychotherapy that uses cognitive behavioural therapy methods in collaboration with mindfulness meditative practices and similar psychological strategies.

• Reflecting back to the introduction of this chapter, Maslow, in his definition of self-actualised person, highlights that he is the one who is characterised by no mental illness, is satisfied in basic needs, has fully exploited his talents and is

• Maslow's tenet to his theory suggests that satisfying needs (as mentioned in the introduction) make an individual healthy, and failure to satisfy makes one sick

• In an effort to bring the winding up of this chapter, the writer saw that it is necessary that the relationship of Maslow's theory, globalisation and selfesteem be closely knitted together. Also the topics that will follow will serve to

or act evil with the possibility of low self-esteem.

• Effects of globalisation in the absence of self-esteem.

synchronise and serve as a peroration.

• All learners should have a sense of belonging in class and at home.

*Counseling and Therapy*

Evidence has shown that investment in education contributes to equitable development and large-scale reduction of poverty. Oxform International [26] has however reported that 130 children of primary school-going age have no access to basic education. Globalisation to some is a barrier as many young people, particularly from poor households, get deprived of skills necessary for employment, limiting their productive capacity. The burden placed on many governments by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, to service foreign debt, limits

Globalisation has led to displacement of people from their arenas where they are able to make a living to unfamiliar territories where life is challenging. Reasons for displacement include environmental impact of globalisation, changes in agricultural patterns and the ever-present threat of conflict over resources. The reality is that whilst globalisation is known for the availability of increased economic opportunities, they are not open to all. Even with the commitments made at the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit in 1992 and at the World Summit on Sustainable Development, very little has changed on environmental displacement [22].

Westergaard ([27], pp. 98–105) posits that in counselling young people, it is important to bear in mind that the counsellor is not dealing with "mini-adults". Young people have got their own challenging and complex issues. In her research ([27], pp. 98–105) four themes have been developed, which are essential in counselling young people. These are the significance of safety in the relationships, building the therapeutic alliance, flexibility and integration relating to theoretical orientation and the use of creativity. These might be some of the considerations in assisting

**9.2 Role of family in establishing and affirming children's positive self-esteem**

In the introduction of this chapter, a point was raised where teachers take up the role of continuing praising, acknowledging and affirming children, from

Parents and teachers are supposed to play a team role in this aspect; it is not bearing fruit to shift the blame to each other, whilst each one of them has a unique contribution. These roles are clearly explained in the introduction of this chapter, which includes to love and to create an atmosphere of belongingness. The following

• Learners'/children's abilities and talents should be discovered and appreciated.

are some of the ways that Adler and Steward [28] recommend:

• All learners/children should feel loved by the teacher/parent.

• All learners should have a sense of belonging in class and at home.

the capacity of these governments to provide basic education.

**7. Education**

**8. Displacement**

**9. Mitigating youth identity crisis**

youth to cope with the effects of globalisation.

**9.1 Intervention mechanisms**

**94**

parents.


### **10. Therapy approaches for a positive self-esteem formation**

Low self-esteem is not a condition or state of mind that cannot be addressed; it can be addressed or corrected with the engagement of one or all the following therapy approaches:


#### **11. Conclusion**


#### **Author details**

Zoleka Ntshuntshe\*, Nokuzola Gqeba, Malinge Livingstone Gqeba and Nolonwabo Majibha University of Fort Hare, East London, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: zntshuntshe@ufh.ac.za

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**97**

*Self-Esteem: A Positive Way to Psychosocial Well-Being DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92033*

[9] Reyland SA, Higgins-

2002;**4**(2):285-249

2017

D'Alessandro A, Mcmahon TJ. Tell them you love them because you never know when things could change: Voices of adolescents living with HIV-positive mothers. AIDS Care.

[10] Ntshuntshe Z. Provision of Psychosocial Support to Orphans by Educators in Secondary Schools in the King Williams Town District, Eastern Cape, South Africa: Towards a Framework of Psychosocial Support;

[11] Donnelan B, Trzeniewski K, Robins R, Moffit T, Capsi A. Low self-esteem is related to aggression, antisocial behaviour and delinquency. Psychological Science. 2005;**16**:328- 335. Available from: http://www. newharbinger.com/Psvchsolve/ SelfEsteem/tablid/159/default.aspx

[12] Steiger AE, Allemand M, Robins RW, Fend HA. Low and decreasing self-esteem during adolescence predict adult depression two decades later. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2014;**106**(2):325-

338. DOI: 10.1037/a0035133

self-worth for male and female engineering and psychology majors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;**85**(3):507-516. DOI:

10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.507

2008;**14**(7):1-14

[14] Born D. Young people, identity and living in a global society.

[15] Commission on Integrity and Cohesion; 2007. Available from: http://

www.equallyours.org.uk

Development Education and Research.

[13] Crocker J, Karpinski A, Quinn DM, Chase SK. When grades determine self-worth: Consequences of contingent

[1] Held BS. The tyranny of the positive attitude in America: Observation band speculation. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2002;**58**:965-992. DOI:

[3] Swann WB, Bosson JK, Pelham BW. Different partners, different selves: Strategic verification of circumscribed identities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2002;**28**(9):1215- 1228. DOI: 10.1177/01461672022812007

[4] Swann WB Jr, De La Ronde C, Hixon JG. Authenticity and positivity strivings in marriage and courtship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1994;**66**:857-869

[5] Swann WB Jr, Pelham BW. Who wants out when the going gets good? Psychological investment and preference for self-verifying college roommates. Journal of Self and Identity.

[6] Olegbeleye AO. Predictors of the Mental Health of Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Nigeria. Ife Psychologia Publication; 2013. Available from: http://www.readperiodicals. com/201309/3093274031.html

[7] Maslow AH. A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review. 1943;**50**(4):370-396. DOI: 10.1037/

[8] Cherry K. Erikson's Stages of

psychosocial 3htm.About.com

Psychosocial Development. www.about. com.about com.2011. Web 28 Jan 2011. 2012. Available from: http: psychology. about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/

2002;**1**:219-233

h0054346

psychology

10.1002/jclp.10093

**References**

1995;**65**(2):322-342

[2] Tafarodi RW, Swann WB Jr. Self-liking and self-competence as dimensions of global self-esteem: Initial validation of a measure. Journal of Personality Assessment. *Self-Esteem: A Positive Way to Psychosocial Well-Being DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92033*

#### **References**

*Counseling and Therapy*

then self-esteem may be affected.

for making ends meet.

**96**

**Author details**

and Nolonwabo Majibha

Zoleka Ntshuntshe\*, Nokuzola Gqeba, Malinge Livingstone Gqeba

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

• As youth moves to other countries to, amongst other things, pursue greener pastures, the dilemma of hybridisation which has been outlined in the previous section may surface. This is strongly associated to a lack of the sense of belongingness, which has a strong potential in leaving one with a low self-esteem.

• The previous section also puts a specific emphasis on the fact that globalisation creates a mix of identities for young people as they find it difficult to construct social identities. In one's life, attachments are not only to family and friends and familiar landmarks but also to one's social status. If one had a solid social status of perhaps very influential in the society where he have lived but suddenly is dependent upon other people for assistance and has no influence at all,

• The previous section also underpins the feeling of displacement as a direct effect of globalisation. As people move from where they are able to make a living to unfamiliar territories where life is challenging, self-esteem tends to be very fragile especially in environments where love (as highlighted in Maslow's theory) is not thriving and only the survival of the fittest is a necessary factor

University of Fort Hare, East London, South Africa

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: zntshuntshe@ufh.ac.za

[1] Held BS. The tyranny of the positive attitude in America: Observation band speculation. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2002;**58**:965-992. DOI: 10.1002/jclp.10093

[2] Tafarodi RW, Swann WB Jr. Self-liking and self-competence as dimensions of global self-esteem: Initial validation of a measure. Journal of Personality Assessment. 1995;**65**(2):322-342

[3] Swann WB, Bosson JK, Pelham BW. Different partners, different selves: Strategic verification of circumscribed identities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2002;**28**(9):1215- 1228. DOI: 10.1177/01461672022812007

[4] Swann WB Jr, De La Ronde C, Hixon JG. Authenticity and positivity strivings in marriage and courtship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1994;**66**:857-869

[5] Swann WB Jr, Pelham BW. Who wants out when the going gets good? Psychological investment and preference for self-verifying college roommates. Journal of Self and Identity. 2002;**1**:219-233

[6] Olegbeleye AO. Predictors of the Mental Health of Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Nigeria. Ife Psychologia Publication; 2013. Available from: http://www.readperiodicals. com/201309/3093274031.html

[7] Maslow AH. A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review. 1943;**50**(4):370-396. DOI: 10.1037/ h0054346

[8] Cherry K. Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development. www.about. com.about com.2011. Web 28 Jan 2011. 2012. Available from: http: psychology. about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/ psychosocial 3htm.About.com psychology

[9] Reyland SA, Higgins-D'Alessandro A, Mcmahon TJ. Tell them you love them because you never know when things could change: Voices of adolescents living with HIV-positive mothers. AIDS Care. 2002;**4**(2):285-249

[10] Ntshuntshe Z. Provision of Psychosocial Support to Orphans by Educators in Secondary Schools in the King Williams Town District, Eastern Cape, South Africa: Towards a Framework of Psychosocial Support; 2017

[11] Donnelan B, Trzeniewski K, Robins R, Moffit T, Capsi A. Low self-esteem is related to aggression, antisocial behaviour and delinquency. Psychological Science. 2005;**16**:328- 335. Available from: http://www. newharbinger.com/Psvchsolve/ SelfEsteem/tablid/159/default.aspx

[12] Steiger AE, Allemand M, Robins RW, Fend HA. Low and decreasing self-esteem during adolescence predict adult depression two decades later. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2014;**106**(2):325- 338. DOI: 10.1037/a0035133

[13] Crocker J, Karpinski A, Quinn DM, Chase SK. When grades determine self-worth: Consequences of contingent self-worth for male and female engineering and psychology majors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;**85**(3):507-516. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.507

[14] Born D. Young people, identity and living in a global society. Development Education and Research. 2008;**14**(7):1-14

[15] Commission on Integrity and Cohesion; 2007. Available from: http:// www.equallyours.org.uk

[16] Gidley J. Globalization and its impact on youth. Journal of Futures Studies. 2001;**6**(1):89-106

[17] Ray L. Globalisation and Everyday Life. Abingdon: Routledge; 2007

[18] Bhabha HK. Third space and African identity. Journal of African Cultural Studies. 1994;**21**(1):23-32. DOI: 10.1080/13696810902986417

[19] Soja EW. Third Space: Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-and-Imagined. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 1996

[20] Turken S, Rudmin FW. On psychological effects of globalization: development of a scale of global identity. Psychology & Society. 2013;**5**(2):63-89

[21] Furlong A, Cartmel F. Young People and Social Change. 2nd ed. Buckingham: Open University Press/ McGraw Hill; 2007

[22] Aoun EG. Effects of globalisation on young people. Romanian Economic Journal. 2006;**21**:2-5

[23] Barker D, Mander J. Invisible Government-the World Trade Organisation: Global Government for the New Millennium? San Francisco: International Forum on Globalisation; 2001

[24] Held D, McGrew A, Goldblatt HD, Perraton J. Global Transformation. London: Polity Press; 1999

[25] Goodman J. WEF coming town. Arena Magazine. 2000;**47**:45-47

[26] Oxform International. Education Now. London: Oxform International; 2005

[27] Westergaard J. Counselling young people: Counsellors perspectives on 'what works'- an exploratory study. Counselling and Psychotherapy

Research. 2013;**13**(2):98-105. Available from: https//doi.org/10.1080/14733145.2 012.730541

[28] Adler N, Stewart J. Self-esteem. Psychosocial Working Group. 2004. Available from: http//www.macses.ucsf. edu/research/psychosocial/selfesteem

[29] Beck AT, Freeman AM. Cognitive Therapy of Personality Disorders. New York, NY: US. Guildford Press; 1990

[30] Burke CA, editor. Mindfulnessbased approaches with children and adolescents: A preliminary review of current research in an emergent field. Journal of Child and Family Studies. 2010;**19**:133-134

[31] Hayes SC, Smith S. Get out of your mind and into your life. The new acceptance and commitment therapy. Santa Rosa, CA: New Harbinger Publications; 2005

**99**

**Chapter 8**

**Abstract**

and a stable family environment.

**1. Introduction**

**Keywords:** verbal communication, globalisation

Verbal Communication in

*Zoleka Ntshuntshe, Nokuzola Gqeba and Malinge Gqeba*

Globalisation has many facets which affect individuals and families alike. One of the areas affected by globalisation is communication, which is no longer regarded as something that happens between two or more individuals in a physical setting, but in the twenty-first century, can take on a different form. Hence, through the use of media and technology, verbal communication has taken a back seat. Social media platforms have become children's main mode of communication and in the process losing sight of the most important aspects that verbal communication entails, like how the message is communicated and received. It is sometimes forgotten that the message often carries thoughts and emotions proving that it is more than simply the translation of information. Communication is a symbolic process by which people create shared meanings. Thus, the absence of verbal communication in families has resulted in parents not really engaging with their children and being aware of what they are up to, thus leading to an unstable family environment which is not conducive to the positive development of children. This chapter will explore the importance of verbal communication for the creation of attentiveness in children

Communication is the act or process of using words, sounds, signs or behaviours to express or exchange information or to express your ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc., to someone else (Merriam Webster). Communication also entails the use of verbal and non-verbal cues, and in the process often a big deal of information is passed, and sometimes misunderstandings can also occur. This is because you can share the words without really conveying the message because of poor communication. Alternatively you can share the wrong message because of poor communication. This is because communication can entail the use of verbal and non-verbal cues. There are many forms of communication, but for this chapter, we shall focus on interpersonal communication which is the most common form of communication between people. The most common of this type of communication is verbal interpersonal communi-

This chapter will explore verbal communication and why it so important as an effective method for the conveying of messages between two people. It is sometimes forgotten that the message often carries thoughts and emotions which proves that it is in fact more than simply the translation of information. Hence, Sadri-Flammia [1] sums up communication as a symbolic process by which people create shared

cation, which is also laden with its own subsections that go with it.

Counselling and Therapy

#### **Chapter 8**

*Counseling and Therapy*

[16] Gidley J. Globalization and its impact on youth. Journal of Futures

[18] Bhabha HK. Third space and African identity. Journal of African Cultural Studies. 1994;**21**(1):23-32. DOI:

[19] Soja EW. Third Space: Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-and-Imagined. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 1996

[20] Turken S, Rudmin FW. On psychological effects of globalization: development of a scale of global identity. Psychology & Society.

[21] Furlong A, Cartmel F. Young People and Social Change. 2nd ed. Buckingham: Open University Press/

[22] Aoun EG. Effects of globalisation on young people. Romanian Economic

[23] Barker D, Mander J. Invisible Government-the World Trade

Organisation: Global Government for the New Millennium? San Francisco: International Forum on Globalisation;

[24] Held D, McGrew A, Goldblatt HD, Perraton J. Global Transformation.

[25] Goodman J. WEF coming town. Arena Magazine. 2000;**47**:45-47

[26] Oxform International. Education Now. London: Oxform International;

[27] Westergaard J. Counselling young people: Counsellors perspectives on 'what works'- an exploratory study. Counselling and Psychotherapy

London: Polity Press; 1999

2013;**5**(2):63-89

McGraw Hill; 2007

Journal. 2006;**21**:2-5

2001

10.1080/13696810902986417

[17] Ray L. Globalisation and Everyday Life. Abingdon: Routledge; 2007

Research. 2013;**13**(2):98-105. Available from: https//doi.org/10.1080/14733145.2

[28] Adler N, Stewart J. Self-esteem. Psychosocial Working Group. 2004. Available from: http//www.macses.ucsf. edu/research/psychosocial/selfesteem

[29] Beck AT, Freeman AM. Cognitive Therapy of Personality Disorders. New York, NY: US. Guildford Press;

[30] Burke CA, editor. Mindfulnessbased approaches with children and adolescents: A preliminary review of current research in an emergent field. Journal of Child and Family Studies.

[31] Hayes SC, Smith S. Get out of your mind and into your life. The new acceptance and commitment therapy. Santa Rosa, CA: New Harbinger

012.730541

1990

2010;**19**:133-134

Publications; 2005

Studies. 2001;**6**(1):89-106

**98**

2005

## Verbal Communication in Counselling and Therapy

*Zoleka Ntshuntshe, Nokuzola Gqeba and Malinge Gqeba*

#### **Abstract**

Globalisation has many facets which affect individuals and families alike. One of the areas affected by globalisation is communication, which is no longer regarded as something that happens between two or more individuals in a physical setting, but in the twenty-first century, can take on a different form. Hence, through the use of media and technology, verbal communication has taken a back seat. Social media platforms have become children's main mode of communication and in the process losing sight of the most important aspects that verbal communication entails, like how the message is communicated and received. It is sometimes forgotten that the message often carries thoughts and emotions proving that it is more than simply the translation of information. Communication is a symbolic process by which people create shared meanings. Thus, the absence of verbal communication in families has resulted in parents not really engaging with their children and being aware of what they are up to, thus leading to an unstable family environment which is not conducive to the positive development of children. This chapter will explore the importance of verbal communication for the creation of attentiveness in children and a stable family environment.

**Keywords:** verbal communication, globalisation

#### **1. Introduction**

Communication is the act or process of using words, sounds, signs or behaviours to express or exchange information or to express your ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc., to someone else (Merriam Webster). Communication also entails the use of verbal and non-verbal cues, and in the process often a big deal of information is passed, and sometimes misunderstandings can also occur. This is because you can share the words without really conveying the message because of poor communication. Alternatively you can share the wrong message because of poor communication. This is because communication can entail the use of verbal and non-verbal cues. There are many forms of communication, but for this chapter, we shall focus on interpersonal communication which is the most common form of communication between people. The most common of this type of communication is verbal interpersonal communication, which is also laden with its own subsections that go with it.

This chapter will explore verbal communication and why it so important as an effective method for the conveying of messages between two people. It is sometimes forgotten that the message often carries thoughts and emotions which proves that it is in fact more than simply the translation of information. Hence, Sadri-Flammia [1] sums up communication as a symbolic process by which people create shared

meanings. So what is verbal communication? Verbal communication is about language, both written and spoken. Verbal communication is about spoken and written language. In other words human beings interact through the use of words or messages in the form of language (Oxford reference.com/view/10.1093/oi/ authority.20110803115457102).

Effective verbal communication skills include more than just talking. Verbal communication encompasses both how you deliver messages and how you receive them. Therefore, it goes without saying that for parent's effective communication will automatically engage the use of both verbal and non-verbal communication. Communication is a very important skill and it's one that is essential that every parent should have.

Parents who can convey information clearly and effectively are at a very big advantage as this means that children are in a position to interpret their messages and act appropriately on the information that they receive and have a better chance of executing their tasks and perhaps excelling at school as well.

### **2. Methodology**

#### **2.1 Research methodology**

#### *2.1.1 Population*

The population of the study is young people that are having issues with their self -esteem. This is informed by the fact that the youth of today is easily influenced by external factors such as (television, the Internet, clothes, etc.).

#### *2.1.2 Sample*

Young people were purposely sampled for the study.

#### *2.1.3 Research instrument*

Given that the study is of a descriptive nature, the researcher collected data desktop analysis.

#### **3. The concept of communication**

A theoretical understanding of the concept of communication is important in order to understand the impact of globalisation on family communication. That is borne of the fact that the family is a unit of society and most importantly an agent of socialisation. Van Ruler [2] posits that even among scholars, there has never been an understanding of what "communication" or "to communicate" means. The study gravitates towards those scholars whose definitions of communication are similar with each other, purely for the purposes of the study.

Glare [3] argues that the word "communicate" comes from the Latin word "communicare" which means "to make generally accessible" or "to discuss together". Meanwhile, Ezezue [4] posits that communication comes from the Latin word "communis" which he describes to mean "to share". In this context and according to him, sharing can also be taken to mean "partake" and/or "cooperation" which therefore makes "communication" a social activity. If there is any synergy between the definitions from the two scholars, it is the fact that

**101**

*Verbal Communication in Counselling and Therapy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92316*

between two or more people.

be discussed.

**4. Types of communication**

**4.1 Verbal communication**

**4.2 Written communication**

each other from different parts of the world.

**4.3 Non-verbal communication**

communication is a tool for bringing people together and it involves reaching out

Rosenberg [5] on the other hand suggests that, among other things, communication involves the process of creating meaning psychologically, socially and culturally. The definition by Rosengren also recognises the fact that communication is a social activity and adds the element of interpretation, decoding or creating meaning out of the message. To Rosengren, communication is "how" messages are understood intellectually and how ambiguity arises and gets resolved. The notion of communication involving meaning is supported by Littlejohn (1992) in arguing that "communication" does not happen without the creation of meaning

From the agreements above, it can be deduced that communication is a social activity that involves decoding meaning to create a social, cultural and psychological meaning and context. The definitions above also acknowledge that communication is a complex activity or process that can lead to ambiguity or barriers to communication. A definition from Kelvin-Iloafu [6] encompasses all the above in stating that communication "is a crucial instrument of social interactions and a medium through which all relationships are established and maintained". It follows therefore that for communication to be a success, there needs to be a common understanding from verbal and non-verbal symbols [7]. For communication to be understood well, the different types of communication should

Verbal communication is based on a face-to-face interaction. This may also involve the use of electronic devices like telephone and megaphone/loudhailer. The common thread in these communications methods is that a human voice is heard from the transmitter to the receiver. Verbal communication has been the main feature of family communication in their social role of socialising the young to the norms and values of the community. This form of communication happens from birth to death as the mother verbally communicates with the young even before

Written communication involves the translation of oral messages into visible alphabetic symbols, words and symbols, thus making reading and writing necessary competences in written communication. Ever since the early days of civilisation, communication in writing has developed and taken new forms different from a paper to a computer and more recently to mobile phones. With the world becoming a global village, families have also relied on written communication to link up with

Non-verbal communication involves the transmission of messages without the use of words, letters or symbols. This communication involves reliance on our physical environment, body movement, drawings and pictures including sign language. Family members are able to use body language to communicate with each

they can be able to comprehend the message nor respond to it.

and people create and use meaning in interpreting events.

#### *Verbal Communication in Counselling and Therapy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92316*

*Counseling and Therapy*

parent should have.

**2. Methodology**

*2.1.1 Population*

*2.1.2 Sample*

*2.1.3 Research instrument*

**3. The concept of communication**

with each other, purely for the purposes of the study.

desktop analysis.

**2.1 Research methodology**

authority.20110803115457102).

meanings. So what is verbal communication? Verbal communication is about language, both written and spoken. Verbal communication is about spoken and written language. In other words human beings interact through the use of words or messages in the form of language (Oxford reference.com/view/10.1093/oi/

Effective verbal communication skills include more than just talking. Verbal communication encompasses both how you deliver messages and how you receive them. Therefore, it goes without saying that for parent's effective communication will automatically engage the use of both verbal and non-verbal communication. Communication is a very important skill and it's one that is essential that every

Parents who can convey information clearly and effectively are at a very big advantage as this means that children are in a position to interpret their messages and act appropriately on the information that they receive and have a better chance

The population of the study is young people that are having issues with their self -esteem. This is informed by the fact that the youth of today is easily influenced

Given that the study is of a descriptive nature, the researcher collected data

A theoretical understanding of the concept of communication is important in order to understand the impact of globalisation on family communication. That is borne of the fact that the family is a unit of society and most importantly an agent of socialisation. Van Ruler [2] posits that even among scholars, there has never been an understanding of what "communication" or "to communicate" means. The study gravitates towards those scholars whose definitions of communication are similar

Glare [3] argues that the word "communicate" comes from the Latin word "communicare" which means "to make generally accessible" or "to discuss together". Meanwhile, Ezezue [4] posits that communication comes from the Latin word "communis" which he describes to mean "to share". In this context and according to him, sharing can also be taken to mean "partake" and/or "cooperation" which therefore makes "communication" a social activity. If there is any synergy between the definitions from the two scholars, it is the fact that

of executing their tasks and perhaps excelling at school as well.

by external factors such as (television, the Internet, clothes, etc.).

Young people were purposely sampled for the study.

**100**

communication is a tool for bringing people together and it involves reaching out between two or more people.

Rosenberg [5] on the other hand suggests that, among other things, communication involves the process of creating meaning psychologically, socially and culturally. The definition by Rosengren also recognises the fact that communication is a social activity and adds the element of interpretation, decoding or creating meaning out of the message. To Rosengren, communication is "how" messages are understood intellectually and how ambiguity arises and gets resolved. The notion of communication involving meaning is supported by Littlejohn (1992) in arguing that "communication" does not happen without the creation of meaning and people create and use meaning in interpreting events.

From the agreements above, it can be deduced that communication is a social activity that involves decoding meaning to create a social, cultural and psychological meaning and context. The definitions above also acknowledge that communication is a complex activity or process that can lead to ambiguity or barriers to communication. A definition from Kelvin-Iloafu [6] encompasses all the above in stating that communication "is a crucial instrument of social interactions and a medium through which all relationships are established and maintained". It follows therefore that for communication to be a success, there needs to be a common understanding from verbal and non-verbal symbols [7]. For communication to be understood well, the different types of communication should be discussed.

#### **4. Types of communication**

#### **4.1 Verbal communication**

Verbal communication is based on a face-to-face interaction. This may also involve the use of electronic devices like telephone and megaphone/loudhailer. The common thread in these communications methods is that a human voice is heard from the transmitter to the receiver. Verbal communication has been the main feature of family communication in their social role of socialising the young to the norms and values of the community. This form of communication happens from birth to death as the mother verbally communicates with the young even before they can be able to comprehend the message nor respond to it.

#### **4.2 Written communication**

Written communication involves the translation of oral messages into visible alphabetic symbols, words and symbols, thus making reading and writing necessary competences in written communication. Ever since the early days of civilisation, communication in writing has developed and taken new forms different from a paper to a computer and more recently to mobile phones. With the world becoming a global village, families have also relied on written communication to link up with each other from different parts of the world.

#### **4.3 Non-verbal communication**

Non-verbal communication involves the transmission of messages without the use of words, letters or symbols. This communication involves reliance on our physical environment, body movement, drawings and pictures including sign language. Family members are able to use body language to communicate with each other without losing meaning because they know each other well. This therefore means that there should be a common understanding between the transmitter and the receiver on what the movement and or the sign entails.

#### **4.4 Kinesics**

Kinesics involves the study of communication through body movement and facial expression. Posture and gestures are important features in this form of communication.

#### **4.5 Proxemics**

Proxemics involve the way people use physical space to convey messages between them. For instance people use the four distances in communication on a face-to- face basis. For very confidential communications, an intimate distance is used. In a conversation involving family and close friends, a personal distance can be adopted. For business transactions a social distance is used. Lastly a public distance is used when talking to a group in a room [6].

#### **4.6 Insights to verbal communication**

Language is what sets humans apart from another species in communication. Even though the use of symbols and body language may be useful in communication, language gifts human communication with three properties, semanticity, generativity and displacement, and these distinguish language from other forms of communication that other species have.

#### **4.7 Semanticity**

In human communication, signals and symbols have meaning. If a person consistently scratches one spot in their body, it indicates that they have an itch on their body. To an observer, the scratching might signal a skin irritation, but the scratching cannot express the word "itch" when expressed in words. Language is pivotal therefore in that even families rely on language to communicate even those things that cannot be adequately expressed through symbols.

#### **4.8 Generativity**

This can also be called productivity. Languages by their very nature can generate an endless number of meaningful messages. Languages enable symbols to be merged and recombined in ways that produce unique meanings, and as a result any competent language user is able to produce and make meaning of utterances that have never been uttered before but are immediately comprehensible to all competent language users.

#### **4.9 Displacement**

Language has an ability to explain or define things that are sometimes abstract or more remote in space and time or even things that exist only in imagination. Krauss [8] quotes Bertrand Russell in saying "No matter how eloquent a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his father is poor but honest." Even in families, family members are able to communicate and even abstract things. Language is able to convey displaced messages that distinguish it from other communication modalities.

**103**

**5.1 Noise**

and body language.

**5. Barriers to communication**

effective communication.

*Verbal Communication in Counselling and Therapy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92316*

**4.12 Positive aspects of verbal communication**

*4.12.1 Verbal communication increases motivation*

*4.12.2 Verbal communication provides clarity*

seeking questions as they observe in growing up.

**4.13 How to improve your verbal communication skills**

way to boost confidence. It also serves as a team-building session.

Language functions as a medium of instruction in many ways. Krauss and Fusse [9] identify four models or paradigms of communication. The four paradigms are encoding-decoding paradigm, the internalist paradigm, the perspective-taking paradigm and the dialogue paradigm. For the purposes of the study, focus will only

"Language often is derived as a code that uses words, phrases and sentences to convey meanings" [9]. Coding is a system that outlines a set of signals onto a set of important meanings. "The Encoding-Coding approach to language conceives of communication as a process in which speakers encode their ideas in words, phrases and sentences, and listeners decode these signals in order to recover the underlying

Verbal communication assists in getting the message across more effectively and quickly. In addition, tactful verbal communication skills are capable of dealing with

Through verbal communication, leaders and family heads are able to give word of appreciation. Emails can be impersonal, but words sound more personal and reassuring. Having regular in-person meetings with family or colleagues goes a long

Some people are more prone to remember or retain information directly and verbally presented to them. For training, verbal communication comes handy as questions can be asked and answers provided immediately. Even within families, the value is that young people are able to learn quicker as they can ask information-

For those who lack in communication skills, they can read books or go for professional and professional and personal development. A key component of communication is listening. This requires key issues like eye contact, facial expression

This serious barrier negatively affects communication. This is rife in families particularly when there are different generations living together. The younger generations are more likely to enjoy loud music and/or headphones that impede

**4.10 Four communication paradigms**

be given to encoding-coding.

**4.11 Encoding and decoding**

ideas" [9].

disputes.

#### **4.10 Four communication paradigms**

Language functions as a medium of instruction in many ways. Krauss and Fusse [9] identify four models or paradigms of communication. The four paradigms are encoding-decoding paradigm, the internalist paradigm, the perspective-taking paradigm and the dialogue paradigm. For the purposes of the study, focus will only be given to encoding-coding.

#### **4.11 Encoding and decoding**

*Counseling and Therapy*

**4.4 Kinesics**

communication.

**4.5 Proxemics**

**4.7 Semanticity**

**4.8 Generativity**

**4.9 Displacement**

other without losing meaning because they know each other well. This therefore means that there should be a common understanding between the transmitter and

Kinesics involves the study of communication through body movement and facial expression. Posture and gestures are important features in this form of

Proxemics involve the way people use physical space to convey messages between them. For instance people use the four distances in communication on a face-to- face basis. For very confidential communications, an intimate distance is used. In a conversation involving family and close friends, a personal distance can be adopted. For business transactions a social distance is used. Lastly a public

Language is what sets humans apart from another species in communication. Even though the use of symbols and body language may be useful in communication, language gifts human communication with three properties, semanticity, generativity and displacement, and these distinguish language from other forms of

In human communication, signals and symbols have meaning. If a person consistently scratches one spot in their body, it indicates that they have an itch on their body. To an observer, the scratching might signal a skin irritation, but the scratching cannot express the word "itch" when expressed in words. Language is pivotal therefore in that even families rely on language to communicate even those

This can also be called productivity. Languages by their very nature can generate an endless number of meaningful messages. Languages enable symbols to be merged and recombined in ways that produce unique meanings, and as a result any competent language user is able to produce and make meaning of utterances that have never been uttered before but are immediately comprehensible to all competent language users.

Language has an ability to explain or define things that are sometimes abstract or more remote in space and time or even things that exist only in imagination. Krauss [8] quotes Bertrand Russell in saying "No matter how eloquent a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his father is poor but honest." Even in families, family members are able to communicate and even abstract things. Language is able to convey displaced messages that distinguish it from other communication

things that cannot be adequately expressed through symbols.

the receiver on what the movement and or the sign entails.

distance is used when talking to a group in a room [6].

**4.6 Insights to verbal communication**

communication that other species have.

**102**

modalities.

"Language often is derived as a code that uses words, phrases and sentences to convey meanings" [9]. Coding is a system that outlines a set of signals onto a set of important meanings. "The Encoding-Coding approach to language conceives of communication as a process in which speakers encode their ideas in words, phrases and sentences, and listeners decode these signals in order to recover the underlying ideas" [9].

#### **4.12 Positive aspects of verbal communication**

Verbal communication assists in getting the message across more effectively and quickly. In addition, tactful verbal communication skills are capable of dealing with disputes.

#### *4.12.1 Verbal communication increases motivation*

Through verbal communication, leaders and family heads are able to give word of appreciation. Emails can be impersonal, but words sound more personal and reassuring. Having regular in-person meetings with family or colleagues goes a long way to boost confidence. It also serves as a team-building session.

#### *4.12.2 Verbal communication provides clarity*

Some people are more prone to remember or retain information directly and verbally presented to them. For training, verbal communication comes handy as questions can be asked and answers provided immediately. Even within families, the value is that young people are able to learn quicker as they can ask informationseeking questions as they observe in growing up.

#### **4.13 How to improve your verbal communication skills**

For those who lack in communication skills, they can read books or go for professional and professional and personal development. A key component of communication is listening. This requires key issues like eye contact, facial expression and body language.

#### **5. Barriers to communication**

#### **5.1 Noise**

This serious barrier negatively affects communication. This is rife in families particularly when there are different generations living together. The younger generations are more likely to enjoy loud music and/or headphones that impede effective communication.

#### **5.2 Perception**

This happens when the receiver of the message interprets the message in a manner that suites them far from the intended meaning. The perception of the receiver might be far from the intended meaning and thus distort the real meaning and interpretation of the meaning.

#### **5.3 Emotions**

When the transmitter of the message appears to be emotional when conveying a message, objective and effective listening gets affected; thus, the assimilation of information is hampered. Emotional states that lead to this involve anger, fear, sorrow, happiness, etc.

#### **5.4 Source credibility**

The extent to which a source of information is trusted and credible affects the receivers' perception of the message. Lack of credibility can lead to distortion or doubt on the side of the receiver.

#### **5.5 Information overload**

Given the spread at which the modern world moves and the amount of data produced in the global village, information becomes overloaded, and interpretation gets difficult.

#### **5.6 Dangers of lack of communication**

Mokeyane [10] posits that healthy communication between a parent and a child strengthens the relation between them. It is therefore critical for parents to cultivate a culture of healthy, open and mutually respectful communication between the two.

#### *5.6.1 Weak emotional bond*

Healthy communication strengthens the emotional bond between parent and child and the rest of the family. The child feels free and secure. While lack of communication creates distance, trust issues and emotional problems that later lead to mental illness. The bond between the child and a parent lays the foundation for future relationships and behaviour. Healthy communication reassures the child that the parent or the family is there for them and it shows interest in them as individuals [10].

#### **6. Behavioural problems**

Children who lack the necessary verbal communication skills to express difficult emotional issues are more prone to face behavioural issues. A child who cannot verbally express their emotions may tend to use force or aggression to express emotions.

#### **7. Conflict resolution**

Teaching a child to verbally express their emotions helps the child to develop effective ways of dealing with conflict. Role modelling ways of verbally resolving

**105**

**10. Questioning**

*Verbal Communication in Counselling and Therapy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92316*

ful. We shall explore a few of these skills:

the child to act out that behaviour in dealing with conflict.

**9. Encouragers, paraphrasing and summarising**

closer look at each of the three ways of communicating.

would need to make use of other techniques as well.

**8. Basic verbal communication skills used in counselling**

saying. In this way the client feels understood and acknowledged.

conflict (by parents) through open and respectful communication creatively equips

Basic verbal communication skills in counselling include using counselling microskills which are specific skills a counsellor can use to enhance their communication with clients. Counselling microskills enable a counsellor to effectively build a working alliance and engage clients in discussion that is both helpful and meaning-

These microskills mean that the counsellor is attentive to what he/she has been

Encourager is a strategy in which a counsellor uses to encourage a client to talk and open up more freely. In this way both counsellor and client are able to explore issues in greater depth. This skill also informs the client that the counsellor is attentive to what he/she has been saying. In this way the client feels understood, acknowledged and valued. On the other hand, paraphrasing and summarising are more active ways of saying to the client that they have been listened to. Summarising also assists the client to organise their thinking. The following paragraph will take a

Encouragers are a variety of verbal and non-verbal ways of urging clients to continue talking. The different types of encouragers include non-verbal minimal responses such as a nod of the head or positive facial expressions and verbal minimal responses such as "I hear what you're saying". There can also be brief invitations to continue such as "Tell me more". What this means is that encouragers are simply a way of encouraging the client to keep on talking. In order for a counsellor to have more influence on the direction in which he wants to steer the conversation, he

Paraphrases: In order to be able for the counsellor to paraphrase, he needs to choose the most important details of the conversation and reflects them back to the client. How does this happen? These paraphrases can be in the form of a few words or one or two brief sentences. Important to remember is that paraphrasing is not a matter of simply repeating what the client has stated but rather capturing the essence of what the client has said. If the counsellor has captured what the client is saying, then the client will give out a signal as some form of a confirmation. In a way it is reaffirming what was said earlier on that; it is a way to acknowledge that the client is heard. Summaries can be brief statements of longer excerpts. It entails attending to verbal and non-verbal comments from the client over a period of time and then pulls together key parts of the extended communication and restating them for the client as accurately as possible. Summaries are similar to paraphrasing, with the exception

Questioning is another skill which can yield good results if used properly. The purpose of using questions during the counselling session is that they can help to open up new areas for discussion. They can also assist to pinpoint an issue, and they

that they are used less frequently and encompass more information.

*Counseling and Therapy*

interpretation of the meaning.

This happens when the receiver of the message interprets the message in a manner that suites them far from the intended meaning. The perception of the receiver might be far from the intended meaning and thus distort the real meaning and

When the transmitter of the message appears to be emotional when conveying a message, objective and effective listening gets affected; thus, the assimilation of information is hampered. Emotional states that lead to this involve anger, fear,

The extent to which a source of information is trusted and credible affects the receivers' perception of the message. Lack of credibility can lead to distortion or

Given the spread at which the modern world moves and the amount of data produced in the global village, information becomes overloaded, and interpretation

Mokeyane [10] posits that healthy communication between a parent and a child strengthens the relation between them. It is therefore critical for parents to cultivate a culture of healthy, open and mutually respectful communication between the two.

Children who lack the necessary verbal communication skills to express difficult emotional issues are more prone to face behavioural issues. A child who cannot verbally express their emotions may tend to use force or aggression to express emotions.

Teaching a child to verbally express their emotions helps the child to develop effective ways of dealing with conflict. Role modelling ways of verbally resolving

Healthy communication strengthens the emotional bond between parent and child and the rest of the family. The child feels free and secure. While lack of communication creates distance, trust issues and emotional problems that later lead to mental illness. The bond between the child and a parent lays the foundation for future relationships and behaviour. Healthy communication reassures the child that the parent or the family is there for them and it shows interest in them as individuals [10].

**5.2 Perception**

**5.3 Emotions**

sorrow, happiness, etc.

**5.4 Source credibility**

doubt on the side of the receiver.

**5.6 Dangers of lack of communication**

**5.5 Information overload**

*5.6.1 Weak emotional bond*

**6. Behavioural problems**

**7. Conflict resolution**

gets difficult.

**104**

conflict (by parents) through open and respectful communication creatively equips the child to act out that behaviour in dealing with conflict.

#### **8. Basic verbal communication skills used in counselling**

Basic verbal communication skills in counselling include using counselling microskills which are specific skills a counsellor can use to enhance their communication with clients. Counselling microskills enable a counsellor to effectively build a working alliance and engage clients in discussion that is both helpful and meaningful. We shall explore a few of these skills:

#### **9. Encouragers, paraphrasing and summarising**

These microskills mean that the counsellor is attentive to what he/she has been saying. In this way the client feels understood and acknowledged.

Encourager is a strategy in which a counsellor uses to encourage a client to talk and open up more freely. In this way both counsellor and client are able to explore issues in greater depth. This skill also informs the client that the counsellor is attentive to what he/she has been saying. In this way the client feels understood, acknowledged and valued. On the other hand, paraphrasing and summarising are more active ways of saying to the client that they have been listened to. Summarising also assists the client to organise their thinking. The following paragraph will take a closer look at each of the three ways of communicating.

Encouragers are a variety of verbal and non-verbal ways of urging clients to continue talking. The different types of encouragers include non-verbal minimal responses such as a nod of the head or positive facial expressions and verbal minimal responses such as "I hear what you're saying". There can also be brief invitations to continue such as "Tell me more". What this means is that encouragers are simply a way of encouraging the client to keep on talking. In order for a counsellor to have more influence on the direction in which he wants to steer the conversation, he would need to make use of other techniques as well.

Paraphrases: In order to be able for the counsellor to paraphrase, he needs to choose the most important details of the conversation and reflects them back to the client. How does this happen? These paraphrases can be in the form of a few words or one or two brief sentences. Important to remember is that paraphrasing is not a matter of simply repeating what the client has stated but rather capturing the essence of what the client has said. If the counsellor has captured what the client is saying, then the client will give out a signal as some form of a confirmation. In a way it is reaffirming what was said earlier on that; it is a way to acknowledge that the client is heard.

Summaries can be brief statements of longer excerpts. It entails attending to verbal and non-verbal comments from the client over a period of time and then pulls together key parts of the extended communication and restating them for the client as accurately as possible. Summaries are similar to paraphrasing, with the exception that they are used less frequently and encompass more information.

#### **10. Questioning**

Questioning is another skill which can yield good results if used properly. The purpose of using questions during the counselling session is that they can help to open up new areas for discussion. They can also assist to pinpoint an issue, and they

#### *Counseling and Therapy*

can assist to clarify information that at first may seem ambiguous to the counsellor. The type of questions to use for instance may encourage clients to reflect on some information and the client's own actions. Thus counsellors need to familiarise themselves about the different types of questioning techniques they can use while also knowing the direction in which the questioning is taking. However, caution should be exercised in overusing this technique as it may send out the wrong idea that that the counsellor is the one in charge of the situation.

The counsellor can use two main types of questions: (1) open and (2) closed questions.

Open questions give the client the opportunity to speak as much as possible, while on the other hand, the counsellor gets the opportunity to collect as much information as possible. Questions such as what, why, how or could can be used.

"How" questions encourage the client to talk about their feelings and/or process. "What" questions more often lead to the collection of facts and information. "When" questions bring about information regarding timing of the problem, and this can include events and information preceding or following the event. "Where" questions may reveal the environment, situation or place where that the event took place, and "why" questions usually give the counsellor information regarding the reasons of the event or information leading up to the event.

It is important to note that care must be taken by the counsellor when asking "why" questions as these type of questions may provoke feelings of defensiveness in clients and may encourage clients to feel as though they need to justify themselves in some way.

Closed questions normally begin with is, are or do and may be answered by a simple yes or no. It is important to note that while questioning techniques can be used positively to draw out and clarify issues relevant to the counselling session, there is also the very real danger of overusing questions or using questioning techniques that can have a negative impact on the session. For instance, the use of the wrong types of questioning techniques, at the wrong time, in the hands of an unskilled interviewer or counsellor, can cause unnecessary discomfort and confusion to the client.

#### **11. Reflection of meaning**

This type of strategy helps clients to reflect and find meaning into their life experiences. Hence, the skill of reflection of meaning is to assist clients to explore their values and goals in life, by understanding the deeper aspects of their experiences.

#### **12. Reflecting and clarifying**

Reflecting is the process of retelling the other person your understanding of what has been said. In other words it may involve paraphrasing the message communicated to you by the speaker in your own words. This means that the counsellor needs to try and capture the essence of the facts and feelings expressed and communicate your own understanding back to the speaker. It is a useful skill to the counsellor because it tells whether the counsellor has in fact clearly understood the message conveyed to him (skillsyouneed.com/ips/verbal-communication.html).

#### **13. Importance of verbal communication in counselling**

This chapter has demonstrated that communication can impact counselling in a variety of ways; such effective communication skills have been highlighted through

**107**

*Verbal Communication in Counselling and Therapy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92316*

how they are responding to them.

the different modes of communication as well as the effective communication skills counsellors can utilise. On the part of the counsellor, reflecting and clarifying are a particularly important listening skill, and in this process, empathy is communicated to the patient. According to Carl Rogers, empathy is considered a basic condition in counselling and can be seen as communicating a sense of caring and understanding. According to this definition, empathy involves not just caring but being perceived as caring This again is validation that the patient is heard and his/her feelings are acknowledged and seen as valid. The patient needs validation of experience, which is crucial for emotionally sensitive people. The patient needs to get recognition and acceptance that the experience the person has just gone through was a valid one [11, 12]. When it comes to achieving psychological well-being, validation plays an important role. Validation from others is one of the best tools to help emotionally sensitive people manage their feelings effectively. Validation primarily consists of two aspects: that one's inner experiences, i.e. thoughts, emotions, feelings and behaviours, will be acknowledged, understood and accepted by other people. On the other side, one's identity is accepted by others as well. To validate someone's feelings means first to accept someone's feelings. Following this is to understand and eventually to nurture them. Validation entails listening. Therefore, painful experiences that are expressed, acknowledged and validated by a trusted listener will diminish [11, 12]. On the other hand, painful feelings that are ignored will gain strength. Communicating when one is overwhelmed with emotion is most often very difficult, and being able to trust someone enough to share one's feelings with is a great achievement. Thus, the absence of verbal communication in families has the potential to result in problems such as parents not really engaging with their children and being aware of

**14. Therapeutic strategies for effective verbal communication**

within a "context, have some effect and provide some opportunity."

capable of having more than one of the following purposes:

able at this present time?"

Monday to Saturday".

Sibiya [13] sums up the purposes of communication as to inquire, inform, persuade, entertain, request and investigate. Sibiya posits that a single message is

• To convey information/opinion, for example, "this is the doctors rooms".

• To give social acknowledgement, for example, "doctor is available from

• To request information/opinion/behaviour, for example, "is the doctor avail-

The concept of therapeutic communication has been defined by scholars to with the purpose of decoding its complexity. They do this by defining each word separately. "Therapeutic refers to the science and the art of healing, of or pertaining to the treatment or beneficial act (Miller and Keane, 1972; Potter and Perry, 1989). Similarly, Rogers (1961) refers to the helping relationship "which is one that promotes growth and development and improved coping with life for other person". Furthermore, some scholars have defined "communication" as having definitions that emphasise either the message or the meaning. Mohan et al. (1992) posit that communication is "the ordered transfer of meaning: social interaction through messages: reciprocal creation of meaning: sharing of information, ideas or attitudes between or among people". Similarly, De Vito (1991) posits that communication is whereby one or more people send or receive messages that have a potential of being disturbed by noise and occur

#### *Verbal Communication in Counselling and Therapy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92316*

*Counseling and Therapy*

questions.

can assist to clarify information that at first may seem ambiguous to the counsellor. The type of questions to use for instance may encourage clients to reflect on some information and the client's own actions. Thus counsellors need to familiarise themselves about the different types of questioning techniques they can use while also knowing the direction in which the questioning is taking. However, caution should be exercised in overusing this technique as it may send out the wrong idea that that

The counsellor can use two main types of questions: (1) open and (2) closed

Open questions give the client the opportunity to speak as much as possible, while on the other hand, the counsellor gets the opportunity to collect as much information as possible. Questions such as what, why, how or could can be used. "How" questions encourage the client to talk about their feelings and/or process. "What" questions more often lead to the collection of facts and information. "When" questions bring about information regarding timing of the problem, and this can include events and information preceding or following the event. "Where" questions may reveal the environment, situation or place where that the event took place, and "why" questions usually give the counsellor information regarding the

It is important to note that care must be taken by the counsellor when asking "why" questions as these type of questions may provoke feelings of defensiveness in clients and may encourage clients to feel as though they need to justify themselves in some way. Closed questions normally begin with is, are or do and may be answered by a simple yes or no. It is important to note that while questioning techniques can be used positively to draw out and clarify issues relevant to the counselling session, there is also the very real danger of overusing questions or using questioning techniques that can have a negative impact on the session. For instance, the use of the wrong types of questioning techniques, at the wrong time, in the hands of an unskilled interviewer

This type of strategy helps clients to reflect and find meaning into their life experiences. Hence, the skill of reflection of meaning is to assist clients to explore their values and goals in life, by understanding the deeper aspects of their experiences.

Reflecting is the process of retelling the other person your understanding of what has been said. In other words it may involve paraphrasing the message communicated to you by the speaker in your own words. This means that the counsellor needs to try and capture the essence of the facts and feelings expressed and communicate your own understanding back to the speaker. It is a useful skill to the counsellor because it tells whether the counsellor has in fact clearly understood the message

This chapter has demonstrated that communication can impact counselling in a variety of ways; such effective communication skills have been highlighted through

conveyed to him (skillsyouneed.com/ips/verbal-communication.html).

**13. Importance of verbal communication in counselling**

or counsellor, can cause unnecessary discomfort and confusion to the client.

the counsellor is the one in charge of the situation.

reasons of the event or information leading up to the event.

**11. Reflection of meaning**

**12. Reflecting and clarifying**

**106**

the different modes of communication as well as the effective communication skills counsellors can utilise. On the part of the counsellor, reflecting and clarifying are a particularly important listening skill, and in this process, empathy is communicated to the patient. According to Carl Rogers, empathy is considered a basic condition in counselling and can be seen as communicating a sense of caring and understanding. According to this definition, empathy involves not just caring but being perceived as caring This again is validation that the patient is heard and his/her feelings are acknowledged and seen as valid. The patient needs validation of experience, which is crucial for emotionally sensitive people. The patient needs to get recognition and acceptance that the experience the person has just gone through was a valid one [11, 12]. When it comes to achieving psychological well-being, validation plays an important role. Validation from others is one of the best tools to help emotionally sensitive people manage their feelings effectively. Validation primarily consists of two aspects: that one's inner experiences, i.e. thoughts, emotions, feelings and behaviours, will be acknowledged, understood and accepted by other people. On the other side, one's identity is accepted by others as well. To validate someone's feelings means first to accept someone's feelings. Following this is to understand and eventually to nurture them.

Validation entails listening. Therefore, painful experiences that are expressed, acknowledged and validated by a trusted listener will diminish [11, 12]. On the other hand, painful feelings that are ignored will gain strength. Communicating when one is overwhelmed with emotion is most often very difficult, and being able to trust someone enough to share one's feelings with is a great achievement. Thus, the absence of verbal communication in families has the potential to result in problems such as parents not really engaging with their children and being aware of how they are responding to them.

### **14. Therapeutic strategies for effective verbal communication**

The concept of therapeutic communication has been defined by scholars to with the purpose of decoding its complexity. They do this by defining each word separately. "Therapeutic refers to the science and the art of healing, of or pertaining to the treatment or beneficial act (Miller and Keane, 1972; Potter and Perry, 1989). Similarly, Rogers (1961) refers to the helping relationship "which is one that promotes growth and development and improved coping with life for other person". Furthermore, some scholars have defined "communication" as having definitions that emphasise either the message or the meaning. Mohan et al. (1992) posit that communication is "the ordered transfer of meaning: social interaction through messages: reciprocal creation of meaning: sharing of information, ideas or attitudes between or among people". Similarly, De Vito (1991) posits that communication is whereby one or more people send or receive messages that have a potential of being disturbed by noise and occur within a "context, have some effect and provide some opportunity."

Sibiya [13] sums up the purposes of communication as to inquire, inform, persuade, entertain, request and investigate. Sibiya posits that a single message is capable of having more than one of the following purposes:


#### *Counseling and Therapy*

Sibiya argues that it is possible that these three major types of messages can be combined into different ways to form an interaction or conversation. In the case of nurses, their communication with their patients is consciously and purposely meant to be therapeutic. Families can also adopt this approach and focus of conversation (verbal communication) as a therapeutic strategy for effective communication. Families that adopt this type of therapeutic communication stand a chance of cementing relations among family members. In addition, young members of the family learn to trust. Trust is critical for families who sometimes find themselves spatially located in the global village. Trust makes them open up when they are overwhelmed by the challenges of globalisation. Therapeutic communication tends to mend rifts in terms of conflict and play a proactive role in averting conflict.

### **15. Conclusion**

This chapter has explained in detail what verbal communication is, its many facets and forms and how the message often carries thoughts and emotions which proves that it is in fact more than simply the translation of information. Verbal communication is important to clarify misunderstandings between any two parties as well as creating trust, validation and empathy, therefore highlighting the advantages and importance of verbal communication for the creation of attentiveness in children and thereby building a safe environment where children can openly discuss and share their thoughts and emotions.

### **Author details**

Zoleka Ntshuntshe\*, Nokuzola Gqeba and Malinge Gqeba University of Fort Hare, East London, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: zntshuntshe@ufh.ac.za

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**109**

communication

*Verbal Communication in Counselling and Therapy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92316*

[1] Sadri HA, Flammia M. Intercultural Communication: A New Approach to International Relations and Global Challenges. The Continuum International Publishing Company; 2011 & Child. 2006. Available from: www. living.thebump.com/effects-lackcommunication-between-parent-child-

[11] Hall K. What is validation and Why Do I Need to Know? Psych Central. 2012a. Available from: http://blogs.psychcentral.com/ emotionally-sensitive/2012/02/

[12] Hall K. Validation of experience. Psychology Central. 2012b. Available from: http://blogs.psychcentral. com/emotionallysensitive/2012/02/

[13] Sibiya NM. Effective communication in nursing. International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences. 2018;**8**:1-7

17771-html

levels-of-validation

levels-of-validation.

[2] Van Ruler B. Communication theory: An underrated pillar on which strategic communication rests. International Journal of Strategic. 2018;**12**(4):367-381

[3] Glare PG, editor. Oxford Latin Dictionary. London, UK: Oxford

communication" an essential tool for organization growth and sustainability. Nigerian Journal of Management Research. 2008;**3**(1):93-99

[5] Rosenberg KE. Communication, An Introduction. London, UK: Sage; 2000

International Journal of Humanities and

International Encyclopedia of the Social

[6] Kelvin-Iloafu EL. The role of effective communication in strategic management of organisations.

Social Science. 2016;**6**(12):93-99

[7] Donnolley IH, Gibson I, Vance Rich IM. Fundamentals of Management. Texas: Business Publication Inc.; 1984

[8] Krauss RM. The psychology of verbal communication. In: Smelser N, Balters P, editors.

and Behavioral Science. 2002

[9] Krauss RM, Fussell SR. Social psychological models of interpersonal communication. In: Higgins ET, Kruglanski A, editors. Social Psychology: A Handbook of Basic Principles. New York: Guilford; 1996. pp. 655-701. Available from: https:// www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/

[10] Mokeyane NK. The Effect of Lack of Communication between Parent

University Press; 1968

**References**

[4] Ezezue BO. "Effective

*Verbal Communication in Counselling and Therapy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92316*

#### **References**

*Counseling and Therapy*

**15. Conclusion**

Sibiya argues that it is possible that these three major types of messages can be combined into different ways to form an interaction or conversation. In the case of nurses, their communication with their patients is consciously and purposely meant to be therapeutic. Families can also adopt this approach and focus of conversation (verbal communication) as a therapeutic strategy for effective communication. Families that adopt this type of therapeutic communication stand a chance of cementing relations among family members. In addition, young members of the family learn to trust. Trust is critical for families who sometimes find themselves spatially located in the global village. Trust makes them open up when they are overwhelmed by the challenges of globalisation. Therapeutic communication tends to mend rifts in terms of conflict and play a proactive role in averting conflict.

This chapter has explained in detail what verbal communication is, its many facets and forms and how the message often carries thoughts and emotions which proves that it is in fact more than simply the translation of information. Verbal communication is important to clarify misunderstandings between any two parties as well as creating trust, validation and empathy, therefore highlighting the advantages and importance of verbal communication for the creation of attentiveness in children and thereby building a safe environment where children

**108**

**Author details**

Zoleka Ntshuntshe\*, Nokuzola Gqeba and Malinge Gqeba University of Fort Hare, East London, South Africa

can openly discuss and share their thoughts and emotions.

\*Address all correspondence to: zntshuntshe@ufh.ac.za

provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

[1] Sadri HA, Flammia M. Intercultural Communication: A New Approach to International Relations and Global Challenges. The Continuum International Publishing Company; 2011

[2] Van Ruler B. Communication theory: An underrated pillar on which strategic communication rests. International Journal of Strategic. 2018;**12**(4):367-381

[3] Glare PG, editor. Oxford Latin Dictionary. London, UK: Oxford University Press; 1968

[4] Ezezue BO. "Effective communication" an essential tool for organization growth and sustainability. Nigerian Journal of Management Research. 2008;**3**(1):93-99

[5] Rosenberg KE. Communication, An Introduction. London, UK: Sage; 2000

[6] Kelvin-Iloafu EL. The role of effective communication in strategic management of organisations. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 2016;**6**(12):93-99

[7] Donnolley IH, Gibson I, Vance Rich IM. Fundamentals of Management. Texas: Business Publication Inc.; 1984

[8] Krauss RM. The psychology of verbal communication. In: Smelser N, Balters P, editors. International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Science. 2002

[9] Krauss RM, Fussell SR. Social psychological models of interpersonal communication. In: Higgins ET, Kruglanski A, editors. Social Psychology: A Handbook of Basic Principles. New York: Guilford; 1996. pp. 655-701. Available from: https:// www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ communication

[10] Mokeyane NK. The Effect of Lack of Communication between Parent

& Child. 2006. Available from: www. living.thebump.com/effects-lackcommunication-between-parent-child-17771-html

[11] Hall K. What is validation and Why Do I Need to Know? Psych Central. 2012a. Available from: http://blogs.psychcentral.com/ emotionally-sensitive/2012/02/ levels-of-validation

[12] Hall K. Validation of experience. Psychology Central. 2012b. Available from: http://blogs.psychcentral. com/emotionallysensitive/2012/02/ levels-of-validation.

[13] Sibiya NM. Effective communication in nursing. International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences. 2018;**8**:1-7

### *Edited by Simon George Taukeni*

This book, *Counselling and Therapy*, aims to equip students, life skills teachers, counselors, psychologists, academics, and other health practitioners with the most practical counselling and therapy basic skills, different counselling approaches, and problem-based techniques to address psychosocial problems. In this edition of *Counselling and Therapy* the following contents were covered:

	- Counselling principles and theories
		- Gender-based violence
		- Self-efficacy and self-esteem

Published in London, UK © 2020 IntechOpen © v\_alex / iStock

Counseling and Therapy

Counseling and Therapy

*Edited by Simon George Taukeni*