**7.8 Jhum cultivation**

Jhum or jhoom cultivation or slash and burn cultivation is a common practice of cultivation among tribal populations of northeast India and also in some hilly districts of Bangladesh. This practice of cultivation is linked with malaria transmission [37]. Besides using LLINs, it is important to find the main breeding habitats of vector species mainly *An. dirus* s.l. during the dry season. Control of such vector species can be obtained with the application of larvivorous fish mainly in wells which act as the ecological niche [1]. Further research may find a new way of intervention strategies.

## **7.9 Intervention with endectocide**

Use of endectocide namely ivermectin in mass drug administration program is a potential intervention strategy to reduce residual transmission of malaria. This drug is used in elimination of human lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis programs. This old drug was developed from a natural substance by Satoshi Omura from Kitasato Institute, Japan and was further developed by William Campbell from Merck Lab originally for use in veterinary health program. But its use in onchocerciasis program was recognized for Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 2015. This is used as a potential tool in vector control program when anti-mosquito activities were recognized. Twenty-three projects under Malaria Elimination Science Alliance (MESA) are underway and their results will be available by 2020 that will be able to take a decision on the future use of endectocides in malaria control operations [38]. Besides the mentioned diseases, recent publication has given an overview on the use of ivermectin for various neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) that include ascariasis, trichuriasis, strongyloidiasis, loiasis (human *Loa loa*) and mansonelliasis [39]. However, adverse effects of ivermectin on local environment have been reported. Certain effects on dung beetles *Caccobius jessoensis, Copris ochus* and *Co. acutidens* have been reported in Japan [40].

## **7.10 Improved method of mosquito culture**

It is important to grow fit and healthy mosquitoes under laboratory conditions for anyone working on them. Various methods of culturing of several species of mosquitoes are available. Most of malaria research is linked with several species *Anopheles* mosquitoes. Of them *An. stephensi* is widely used for its easy adaptation under laboratory conditions. Routine procedures were followed to colonize this species [41–43]. But some modifications in the routine methods gave a significant result in mass rearing of *An. stephensi* [44]:


**45**

*New Ways to Tackle Malaria*

onwards.

Limited, India).

tions for all steps.

cidal mode of operations [24].

**8. Discussion**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89467*

mosquito cages for emergence in to adults.

vi.Subsequently a special larval food (Brewer's yeast and dog food at 70:30 ratio) were given daily for a specific amount depending on the stage of the larvae. Special scoop measuring 5–10 gm larval food in each tray depending on the larval age was provided. Pedigree brand dog food (chicken and vegetable mixed) were powered in a small grinder and mixed with Brewer's yeast. This formulation was different from earlier report. Pupae were visible from day 8

vii.All pupae were harvested that developed up to day 12, and rest larvae were discarded following proper procedure. The pupae were bleached with freshly prepared 1% sodium hypochlorite solution for 1 minute, and placed in

viii.The adult mosquitoes were provided with a mixture of 8% sucrose, 2% glucose mixed with 3% multivitamin kid syrup (Polybion® L, Merck

ix.Strict operational procedures were followed for maintaining sterile condi-

The very decision to go for malaria elimination with the existing tools and intervention strategies was very challenging. Many initiatives have been undertaken. The President's Malaria Initiative (PMI) in 2005 to Malaria Elimination Research Alliance—India (MERA—India) in 2019 are all to accelerate the process of malaria elimination in all the high burden areas especially in Africa, Mekong Delta region and India, respectively [1]. A special initiative by the WHO in 2016, 21 endemic countries was identified for malaria elimination by 2020 i.e. E-2020 initiative [1]. In this direction zero malaria cases were reported from China and El Salvador in 2017. In 2018, Paraguay was certified as malaria free by the WHO. In 2019, Algeria achieved this goal. Three countries—the Islamic Republic of Iran, Malaysia and Timor-Leste—achieved zero malaria cases in 2018. In 2016, Sri Lanka achieved zero malaria certification, but in 2018 local transmission was reported from a case imported from India. But the local authorities immediately took action. Such quick

x.This modified protocol would be very useful for mosquito research.

public health response is required to maintain no transmission threat [45].

Vector control operations mainly rely on insecticide sprays. In most situations the spray operations are carried out by the local contract workers not properly trained; the spray equipments also not maintained properly; pressure not maintained while spraying; patchy and low coverage spraying; late supply of materials that force to defer the spray schedule; lack of supervision, low quality materials, improper storing warehouse, etc. All these confounding factors are responsible for continuation of transmission. Vector behavior also changes for prolonged insecti-

Assessment of two important parameters—human blood index (HBI) and entomological inoculation rate (EIR) of important local vectors enable workers to develop an effective vector management. The global map of HBI of important malaria vectors revealed the highest index exists in African countries [26]. This indicates low ratio between human and animal populations forcing the vector mosquitoes feeding on human host. Emphasis on encouraging the local community to

*Vector-Borne Diseases - Recent Developments in Epidemiology and Control*

intervention strategies.

**7.9 Intervention with endectocide**

*acutidens* have been reported in Japan [40].

**7.10 Improved method of mosquito culture**

result in mass rearing of *An. stephensi* [44]:

was maintained.

i.Larval and adult rooms were maintained separately.

trays (Polylab®, India, 375 × 300 × 75 mm3

disposable small straight straw pipes.

species can be obtained with the application of larvivorous fish mainly in wells which act as the ecological niche [1]. Further research may find a new way of

Use of endectocide namely ivermectin in mass drug administration program is a potential intervention strategy to reduce residual transmission of malaria. This drug is used in elimination of human lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis programs. This old drug was developed from a natural substance by Satoshi Omura from Kitasato Institute, Japan and was further developed by William Campbell from Merck Lab originally for use in veterinary health program. But its use in onchocerciasis program was recognized for Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 2015. This is used as a potential tool in vector control program when anti-mosquito activities were recognized. Twenty-three projects under Malaria Elimination Science Alliance (MESA) are underway and their results will be available by 2020 that will be able to take a decision on the future use of endectocides in malaria control operations [38]. Besides the mentioned diseases, recent publication has given an overview on the use of ivermectin for various neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) that include ascariasis, trichuriasis, strongyloidiasis, loiasis (human *Loa loa*) and mansonelliasis [39]. However, adverse effects of ivermectin on local environment have been reported. Certain effects on dung beetles *Caccobius jessoensis, Copris ochus* and *Co.* 

It is important to grow fit and healthy mosquitoes under laboratory conditions for anyone working on them. Various methods of culturing of several species of mosquitoes are available. Most of malaria research is linked with several species *Anopheles* mosquitoes. Of them *An. stephensi* is widely used for its easy adaptation under laboratory conditions. Routine procedures were followed to colonize this species [41–43]. But some modifications in the routine methods gave a significant

ii.For larval room RH was maintained at 45–50%, while temperature at 28°C.

iii.The adult room was maintained 12 hour dark and light periods; temperature at 28°C, and RH at 70–75%. Strict monitoring of temperature and humidity

v.First instar larvae were emerged within 24 hours after bleaching. No food was given in the next 24 hours of hatching. Brewer's yeast powder dissolved in RO

water was added in the tray water (300 ml) for the next 2 days.

) within a triangle made from

iv.The eggs laid by adult females in containers were bleached with freshly prepared 1% sodium hypochlorite solution for 1 minute under controlled pressure in a vacuum pump. For all purposes reverse osmosis (RO) water was used in the laboratory and pH of the water maintained around 7.00. About 250 bleached eggs were placed in especially designed white polypropylene

**44**

	- ix.Strict operational procedures were followed for maintaining sterile conditions for all steps.
	- x.This modified protocol would be very useful for mosquito research.
