Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western Himalayas

Khafsa Malik, Mushtaq Ahmad, Muhammad Zafar, Shazia Sultana, Athar Tariq and Neelam Rashid

### Abstract

In this research study, we have scientifically assessed medicinal species and herbal preparations used by inhabitants of Northern Pakistan to treat joint pain, hypertension, skin diseases and glottis infections. The aim of the study is to document and highlight the ethnopharmacological significance and compare the uses of medicinal herbs for curing prevalent ailments in Northern Pakistan. Ethnomedicinal data were collected from 180 informants using semi-structured interviews and group meetings. A total of 80 plant species in 54 families were reported for the treatment of various health conditions. Heliotropium lasiocarpum, Geranium wallichianum, Parkinsonia aculeata, Rubia cordifolia and Salvadora persica were the favored plants for curing these diseases. Highest RFC was recorded for Neolitsea chinensis (0.956), Rubia cordifolia (0.928). The similarity of the informer's knowledge about used medicines was found in Aesculus indica and Abies pindrow with high UV. Cuscuta reflexa and Lawsonia inermis had 98–99% fidelity level for management of joint pain, skin diseases, glottis infection and hypertension respectively. In Northern Pakistan, a rich diversity of medicinal plants was used in curing various diseases. The results of this study help us in screening of herbal plants for further phytochemical and pharmacological study which leads to discovery of natural drug and development with global interest for cure of various ailments.

Keywords: herbaceous diversity, ethnomedicinal, diseases, Northern Pakistan, herbal preparation, frequency of citation

### 1. Introduction

#### 1.1 Ethnobotany: concept and significance

Ethnomedicinal literature put emphasis on the relation between the indigenous communities and the usage of plants [1]. Plants are important for all biomes and the working of all social societies [2]. Traditional herbal drugs have been effective as a remedy for wide variety of diseases [3]. Traditional medicinal species and plant derivative treatments are extensively utilized in old medicinal systems worldwide,

and the therapeutic use of plant species is becoming gradually popular in modern society as natural alternatives to synthetic medications [4]. Ethnomedicinal assessment of medicinal species is essential for preserving security and valuable for incipient plant medicines [5]. Many people of the rural areas retain indigenous knowledge of therapeutic plant species [6] and such plant material still exists because it is transferred from generation to generation [7]. Thus, the race of human generally relies on plant species and their needs are increasing with passage of time [8].

has been carried out on areas of Northern Pakistan in relation to special emphasis on

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western…

hypertension diseases, skin infections, glottis problems and musculoskeletal disorders. Further, this is the first ever report on these prevalent disorders from

This study has been planned with the objective to document the folkloric knowledge of commonly used therapeutic species from different regions of Northern Pakistan, to save the medicinal knowledge. The current work focused to quantitatively calculate consensus of plants usage for treatment of diseases. This study also aims to form a baseline data for future comprehensive research on

The Northern part of Pakistan in Western Himalayas is situated among world's largest peaks and high heaps i.e., Himalaya ranges, Alai Ranges, Karakorum, Kunlun, Tien Shan and Hindu Kush [34]. The Himalaya ranges have of world largest peak i.e. Mount Everest and K2 present in this range and the lesser Himalayas Mountains are located on 2000–3000 m elevation. Its topography diverges from desiccated rocky areas in north to forest and green plains in the south. Northern part of Pakistan has rich floral variety particularly of therapeutic plant species [35]. The areas included in the research work were Bannu, Swat, Mahnshera, Dir, Abbottabad, Naran, Khaghan, Hazara division, and other tribal areas of northern parts (Figure 1). It is located at 72°35- to 73°31- east latitude and 33°50- to 34°23 north latitudes. It shares border with FATA (Federal Administered Tribal Areas) in the Western South part, in Northern side Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Gilgit Baltistan in north east while the Punjab in south east. Northern areas of Pakistan are home of

documented to be 1.7°C, while average highest temperature to be 32.41°C in June. These Northern areas have also very severe winter with heavy rainfall [33]. The chief tribes of the area are Marwat, Shinwari, Afridi, Mohmand, Abbassies, Tareen, Khattak, Mashwani, Jadoon, Tanolis, Awans, Yusufzai, Sardars, Qureshis and

. Mean lowest temperature in January was

Northern Pakistan.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

bioactive constituents.

the largest peaks these covers 72,496 km<sup>2</sup>

2. Methodology

2.1 Study sites

Figure 1.

39

Dominant families of medicinal plants.

1.3 Objectives

#### 1.2 Medicinal plants used at global level

The usage of medicinal plant species is common, as they have little side effects, less price, easily accessible, consistent by numerous beliefs and traditional performs [9]. Native utilization of medicinal species becomes unavoidable in giving as a source of food and drugs for health care for the rural communities and low income class. The ethnic system of old herbal drugs rely on the utilization of medicinal flora by the people of native populations and has been experienced for spans [10]. These medicinal plants were commonly used by local inhabitants and were of great value so that lot of people was engaged in the trade of essential medicinal species throughout the world [11]. Medicinal herbs gained attention due to elevation in prices of allopathic drugs for the wellbeing, biomedical benefits and accessibility and maintenance of personal health, [12]. So, conservation and sustainability of traditional medicinal system is needed [13].

World Health Organization (WHO) stated that, in developing nations around 80% of the population of the world dependent on indigenous herbal drugs (THD) for treating various diseases. Internationally, 422,000 flowering species are stated [10]. Out of these, around 50,000 plant species are used as medicinal plants and only 5000 species have separated phytochemically to examine their active chemical compounds [14]. In developed nations, 25% of medications are based on plant species and their derivatives [14]. Consequently pharmaceutical companies have made a huge amount of clinical agents, still traditional knowledge of herbal medications and phytotherapies are running in different areas of the globe. The importance of the indigenous traditional medicinal system was highlighted by the WHO that the most of population the rural communities of the emerging states is still relies on the medications for healthcare [15].

Pakistan has about 6000 medicinal plant species out of which 600 are considered to be significant from medicinal point of view [16]. These medicinal herbs are recommended by the local healers, akhuns and hakims who give health care tips within the rural areas. Around 80% of the rural people of Pakistan depend on Unani medicinal system, derived from medicinal species directly or their products [17]. The rich biodiversity of Pakistan has nine major ecological amplitudes in which the areas of Northern Pakistan are blessed with a unique biodiversity [4]. Variety of economically essential medicinal plant species for indigenous communities is fairly rich in Northern Pakistan [18]. Therapeutic species have remained utilized as a base of herbal medicinal treatment since human civilization in these areas [19]. Because of diverse climatic conditions and unique phytogeography, the area has a high variety of aromatic and medicinal plant species [20]. People living in hilly areas of Pakistan utilized medicinal species for numerous diseases and they also reliant on herbal products for their shelter, fuel, food, health, and further needs [21].Field of ethnobotany has been presented currently in Pakistan in comparison to other nations however in the recent era much effort was performed in this research study by several scientists in various regions of country [17, 19, 22–33]. Although, a lot of work has been done on medicinal species in several areas in Pakistan, yet, no study

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

has been carried out on areas of Northern Pakistan in relation to special emphasis on hypertension diseases, skin infections, glottis problems and musculoskeletal disorders. Further, this is the first ever report on these prevalent disorders from Northern Pakistan.

#### 1.3 Objectives

and the therapeutic use of plant species is becoming gradually popular in modern society as natural alternatives to synthetic medications [4]. Ethnomedicinal assessment of medicinal species is essential for preserving security and valuable for incipient plant medicines [5]. Many people of the rural areas retain indigenous knowledge of therapeutic plant species [6] and such plant material still exists because it is transferred from generation to generation [7]. Thus, the race of human generally relies on plant species and their needs are increasing with passage

The usage of medicinal plant species is common, as they have little side effects, less price, easily accessible, consistent by numerous beliefs and traditional performs [9]. Native utilization of medicinal species becomes unavoidable in giving as a source of food and drugs for health care for the rural communities and low income class. The ethnic system of old herbal drugs rely on the utilization of medicinal flora by the people of native populations and has been experienced for spans [10]. These medicinal plants were commonly used by local inhabitants and were of great value so that lot of people was engaged in the trade of essential medicinal species throughout the world [11]. Medicinal herbs gained attention due to elevation in prices of allopathic drugs for the wellbeing, biomedical benefits and accessibility and maintenance of personal health, [12]. So, conservation and sustainability of

World Health Organization (WHO) stated that, in developing nations around 80% of the population of the world dependent on indigenous herbal drugs (THD) for treating various diseases. Internationally, 422,000 flowering species are stated [10]. Out of these, around 50,000 plant species are used as medicinal plants and only 5000 species have separated phytochemically to examine their active chemical compounds [14]. In developed nations, 25% of medications are based on plant species and their derivatives [14]. Consequently pharmaceutical companies have made a huge amount of clinical agents, still traditional knowledge of herbal medications and phytotherapies are running in different areas of the globe. The importance of the indigenous traditional medicinal system was highlighted by the WHO that the most of population the rural communities of the emerging states is still

Pakistan has about 6000 medicinal plant species out of which 600 are considered to be significant from medicinal point of view [16]. These medicinal herbs are recommended by the local healers, akhuns and hakims who give health care tips within the rural areas. Around 80% of the rural people of Pakistan depend on Unani medicinal system, derived from medicinal species directly or their products [17]. The rich biodiversity of Pakistan has nine major ecological amplitudes in which the areas of Northern Pakistan are blessed with a unique biodiversity [4]. Variety of economically essential medicinal plant species for indigenous communities is fairly rich in Northern Pakistan [18]. Therapeutic species have remained utilized as a base of herbal medicinal treatment since human civilization in these areas [19]. Because of diverse climatic conditions and unique phytogeography, the area has a high variety of aromatic and medicinal plant species [20]. People living in hilly areas of Pakistan utilized medicinal species for numerous diseases and they also reliant on herbal products for their shelter, fuel, food, health, and further needs [21].Field of ethnobotany has been presented currently in Pakistan in comparison to other nations however in the recent era much effort was performed in this research study by several scientists in various regions of country [17, 19, 22–33]. Although, a lot of work has been done on medicinal species in several areas in Pakistan, yet, no study

of time [8].

38

1.2 Medicinal plants used at global level

Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

traditional medicinal system is needed [13].

relies on the medications for healthcare [15].

This study has been planned with the objective to document the folkloric knowledge of commonly used therapeutic species from different regions of Northern Pakistan, to save the medicinal knowledge. The current work focused to quantitatively calculate consensus of plants usage for treatment of diseases. This study also aims to form a baseline data for future comprehensive research on bioactive constituents.

#### 2. Methodology

#### 2.1 Study sites

The Northern part of Pakistan in Western Himalayas is situated among world's largest peaks and high heaps i.e., Himalaya ranges, Alai Ranges, Karakorum, Kunlun, Tien Shan and Hindu Kush [34]. The Himalaya ranges have of world largest peak i.e. Mount Everest and K2 present in this range and the lesser Himalayas Mountains are located on 2000–3000 m elevation. Its topography diverges from desiccated rocky areas in north to forest and green plains in the south. Northern part of Pakistan has rich floral variety particularly of therapeutic plant species [35]. The areas included in the research work were Bannu, Swat, Mahnshera, Dir, Abbottabad, Naran, Khaghan, Hazara division, and other tribal areas of northern parts (Figure 1). It is located at 72°35- to 73°31- east latitude and 33°50- to 34°23 north latitudes. It shares border with FATA (Federal Administered Tribal Areas) in the Western South part, in Northern side Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Gilgit Baltistan in north east while the Punjab in south east. Northern areas of Pakistan are home of the largest peaks these covers 72,496 km<sup>2</sup> . Mean lowest temperature in January was documented to be 1.7°C, while average highest temperature to be 32.41°C in June. These Northern areas have also very severe winter with heavy rainfall [33]. The chief tribes of the area are Marwat, Shinwari, Afridi, Mohmand, Abbassies, Tareen, Khattak, Mashwani, Jadoon, Tanolis, Awans, Yusufzai, Sardars, Qureshis and

Figure 1. Dominant families of medicinal plants.

Orakzai [30]. Majority of people speaks Pushto other local languages are Potohari, Gujrati and Hindko.

2.4.3 Family importance value (FIV)

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

FL is measured by following formula:

3.1 Socio-demographic profile of informants

practitioners, rest of all information is stated in (Table 1).

because of their easy attainability and availability.

work.

41

2.4.4 Fidelity level (FL)

3. Results and discussion

3.2 Medicinal plant diversity

FIV of the plant species being evaluated by using formula as under [40].

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western…

where "Fc" is the numeral value of respondents stating the use of the family and N denotes to the total numeral value of respondents contributing in the research

where "Np" is the numeral value of participants who defined medicinal plants as a remedy for particular ailments while "N" is the total number of informants [41].

Demographic information of the participants was taken from semi structured questionnaires. A total of 180 respondents were questioned in this field survey. Of the 180 informants, 113 were Indigenous people and the rest (67) were local health

Present research stated 80 medicinal plants used to treat some prevalent diseases

The recorded medicinal species and medicinal uses along with local name, part used, preparations and mode of utilization had been documented in Table 2. The plant family that have higher number of medicinal specie was Lamiaceae (7 species) followed by (4 species) of Papaveraceae, (3 species) of Malvaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae and Brassicaceae, (2 species) Acanthaceae, Pinaceae, Myrtaceae, Rubiaceae, Lythraceae, Plantaginaceae, Cactaceae and Capparaceae, (1 species)

Papilionaceae, Poaceae, Oleaceae, Fabaceae, Salvadoraceae, Solanaceae, Rutaceae, Meliaceae and rest of the families presented one medicinal plant (Figure 1).

Lamiaceae documented higher diversity of medicinal species followed by Asteraceae and Solanaceae; Lamiaceae also indicated greater diversity of medicinal flora plants [42]. Lamiaceae a diverse family with mostly herbaceous plants producing volatile aroma over all aerial parts, has been described as dominant plant family by [43]. In

ethnobotanical studies of lesser Himalayas the high percentage of medicinal

Ranunculaceae, Berberidaceae, Saxifragaceae, Umbelliferae, Moraceae,

in Northern Pakistan (Table 2). These medicinal plants were distributed in 54 families. They show diversity in growth and presented by all growth forms with high proportion of herbs (54%), shrubs (30%) and trees (16%) (Table 3). The main cause for herbs dominancy in the research area may be the easily accessibility resultant from bulk growing in wild area. The native respondent described that most of the hakims and healers commonly use herbs for treatment of ailments

FIV ¼ FC=N � 100 (3)

FL %ð Þ¼ Np=N � 100 (4)

### 2.2 Ethnobotanical data collection

This work was mainly focused on communities exploiting conventional plant resources for treatment of hypertension, glottis disorders, skin infection, joint pain and throat diseases. The people living in Northern Pakistan have information on the usage of natural resources. The field work was performed for 6 months (from March to September, 2016). Semi-structured interviews were taken from 180 informants having traditional curing methods against variety of ailments after receiving their prior consent. The data about medicinal uses of these plants was collected from local informers and healers and medicinal practionists. Questionnaire forms was comprised of two sections; first section involves the demographic information of participants and the other section contains data about plants vernacular name, part used and mode of administration used against these diseases. Further evaluation of data obtained during field study was done by using quantitative indices.

#### 2.3 Plant collection and preservation

The medicinal plants exploited for different ailments in the Northern Pakistan were first collected and vouchers were constituted for identification at Herbarium of Quaid -i- Azam University Islamabad Pakistan (ISL). Correct scientific families and names were confirmed by database of KEW medicinal plant name services (mpns: http://www.kew.org/mpns) and flora of Pakistan [36]. Each plant sample contains vital parts such as stems, seeds, roots, bark, fruits, flowers and leaves, whole plants was generally collected for small herbaceous plant specimen.

#### 2.4 Quantitative analysis of ethnobotanical data

#### 2.4.1 Use value citations (UV)

UV was assessed by means of standard procedure of [24].

$$\mathbf{U}\mathbf{V} = \mathbf{u}/\mathbf{n} \tag{1}$$

"u" denoted the total respondent citing different usages of a medicinal species. Use value is usually larger at close to (1) incase numeral of usage is higher and UV of plant noticeably lowers if it is close to (0). Use values do not deliver data for only one or numerous uses of plants.

#### 2.4.2 Relative frequency of citation (RFC)

The computation of RFC was done by using formula:

$$\text{RFC} = \text{Fc/N} \tag{2}$$

The number of respondents stated by "Fc" that specified about therapeutic use related to herbal medicinal plants whereas "N" stands for numeral total value related to the respondents [37–39].

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

2.4.3 Family importance value (FIV)

FIV of the plant species being evaluated by using formula as under [40].

$$\text{FIV} = \text{FC/N} \times \text{100} \tag{3}$$

where "Fc" is the numeral value of respondents stating the use of the family and N denotes to the total numeral value of respondents contributing in the research work.

#### 2.4.4 Fidelity level (FL)

Orakzai [30]. Majority of people speaks Pushto other local languages are Potohari,

This work was mainly focused on communities exploiting conventional plant resources for treatment of hypertension, glottis disorders, skin infection, joint pain and throat diseases. The people living in Northern Pakistan have information on the usage of natural resources. The field work was performed for 6 months (from March to September, 2016). Semi-structured interviews were taken from 180 informants having traditional curing methods against variety of ailments after receiving their prior consent. The data about medicinal uses of these plants was collected from local informers and healers and medicinal practionists. Questionnaire forms was comprised of two sections; first section involves the demographic information of participants and the other section contains data about plants vernacular name, part used and mode of administration used against these diseases. Further evaluation of data obtained during field study was done by using quantita-

The medicinal plants exploited for different ailments in the Northern Pakistan were first collected and vouchers were constituted for identification at Herbarium of Quaid -i- Azam University Islamabad Pakistan (ISL). Correct scientific families and names were confirmed by database of KEW medicinal plant name services (mpns: http://www.kew.org/mpns) and flora of Pakistan [36]. Each plant sample contains vital parts such as stems, seeds, roots, bark, fruits, flowers and leaves, whole plants was generally collected for small herbaceous plant specimen.

"u" denoted the total respondent citing different usages of a medicinal species. Use value is usually larger at close to (1) incase numeral of usage is higher and UV of plant noticeably lowers if it is close to (0). Use values do not deliver data for only

The number of respondents stated by "Fc" that specified about therapeutic use

related to herbal medicinal plants whereas "N" stands for numeral total value

UV ¼ u=n (1)

RFC ¼ Fc=N (2)

Gujrati and Hindko.

tive indices.

2.2 Ethnobotanical data collection

Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

2.3 Plant collection and preservation

2.4.1 Use value citations (UV)

one or numerous uses of plants.

2.4.2 Relative frequency of citation (RFC)

related to the respondents [37–39].

40

2.4 Quantitative analysis of ethnobotanical data

UV was assessed by means of standard procedure of [24].

The computation of RFC was done by using formula:

FL is measured by following formula:

$$\text{FL } (\%) = \text{Np/N} \times \text{100} \tag{4}$$

where "Np" is the numeral value of participants who defined medicinal plants as a remedy for particular ailments while "N" is the total number of informants [41].

#### 3. Results and discussion

#### 3.1 Socio-demographic profile of informants

Demographic information of the participants was taken from semi structured questionnaires. A total of 180 respondents were questioned in this field survey. Of the 180 informants, 113 were Indigenous people and the rest (67) were local health practitioners, rest of all information is stated in (Table 1).

#### 3.2 Medicinal plant diversity

Present research stated 80 medicinal plants used to treat some prevalent diseases in Northern Pakistan (Table 2). These medicinal plants were distributed in 54 families. They show diversity in growth and presented by all growth forms with high proportion of herbs (54%), shrubs (30%) and trees (16%) (Table 3). The main cause for herbs dominancy in the research area may be the easily accessibility resultant from bulk growing in wild area. The native respondent described that most of the hakims and healers commonly use herbs for treatment of ailments because of their easy attainability and availability.

The recorded medicinal species and medicinal uses along with local name, part used, preparations and mode of utilization had been documented in Table 2. The plant family that have higher number of medicinal specie was Lamiaceae (7 species) followed by (4 species) of Papaveraceae, (3 species) of Malvaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae and Brassicaceae, (2 species) Acanthaceae, Pinaceae, Myrtaceae, Rubiaceae, Lythraceae, Plantaginaceae, Cactaceae and Capparaceae, (1 species) Ranunculaceae, Berberidaceae, Saxifragaceae, Umbelliferae, Moraceae, Papilionaceae, Poaceae, Oleaceae, Fabaceae, Salvadoraceae, Solanaceae, Rutaceae, Meliaceae and rest of the families presented one medicinal plant (Figure 1). Lamiaceae documented higher diversity of medicinal species followed by Asteraceae and Solanaceae; Lamiaceae also indicated greater diversity of medicinal flora plants [42]. Lamiaceae a diverse family with mostly herbaceous plants producing volatile aroma over all aerial parts, has been described as dominant plant family by [43]. In ethnobotanical studies of lesser Himalayas the high percentage of medicinal


Table 1.

Demographic data of informants of Western Himalayas.

plants in the families' Papaveraceae, Moraceae and Fabaceae has previously been stated by [44].

#### 3.3 Plant parts used as a medicine

In this ethnobotanical study, the part of plant most frequently utilized is was leaves (41%), and seeds and roots (10%) (Table 4). Leaves were used as main part of plant, it has been stated within different ethnomedicinal research of Thailand, India, Bangladesh, Colombia, Pakistan, and China [45–51]. Leaves are the dominantly used plant part because it is easily attainable plant part and requires small effort to collect as compared to other plant parts [43]. Moreover, other important fact of leave utilization is important for conservation and maintenances of plant because collection of other plant parts and roots may kill the plant or endangered the specie [52]. Bulk use of whole plant, fruits, seeds, roots and bark in herbal medicinal preparations may results in decreasing population of plants in nature [53].

While fruits (9%), whole plant (7%), stem and aerial part (6%), bark (4%), flower (3%), shoots and rhizomes (2%) were also frequently used (Table 4). Fruits, Sr.

43

Taxonomic

no/families

names/voucher

Local name

 Life

Part used

 Mode of

Diseases

Recipes

FC RFC UR UV 25 0.139 1 0.040 80.00

 FL

category

utilization

form

no

1.

Abelmoschus

Moench KN

> 2.

Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.

Don) Royle KN

> 3.

4.

Aconitum

chasmanthum Stapf ex

Mori,

Herbs

 Rhizome

 Decoctions

 Measles and

The rhizomes of the plant is boiled in water

42 0.233 2 0.048 76.19

mumps

and decoction is made, are given for weeks to

cure diseases

Bishmoulo

Holmes KN 1019/

Ranunculaceae

5. 6. 7.

Aesculus indica (Wall. ex

Bankh khore Trees

 Leave

 Extracts

 Whooping and

Leaves extract are used to treat whooping and

cough

cough

Cambess.) Hook. OP KN 1014/

Hippocastanaceae

8. 9. 10.

Barleria cristata L. KN 1020/

Janglhi pool Shrubs Roots and

stem

Acanthaceae

Argemone mexicana Linn KN

Kandiarhi

 Herbs Aerial part

 Decoction

Dislocate pain

Infusion and decoction of aerial part of plant

48 0.267 2 0.042 70.83 62 0.344 1 0.016 85.48

is suggested for 5 days

and infusion

Poultices

 Rheumatic pain 25 g of stem and roots are powdered and mix

with water and make paste that is used as

poultice to treat rheumatism

and joint pain

1019/Papaveraceae

Ajuga bracteosa Benth. AK KN

Kahri bhooti Herbs

 Whole

Decoction

Rheumatism

20 g of whole plant is boiled in water and

10 0.056 2 0.200 80.00

> decoction is made this is given to treat body

pain

plants

and infusion

and body pain

1017/Lamiaceae

Adiantum venustum D. Don KN

Pata, kakwa

 Herbs

 Leave

 Paste

 Healing of

The 50 g of leaves are dried and make paste

wound

for healing wounds

1013/Pteridaceae

Acorus calamus Linn KN 1010/

Wajh

 Herbs

 Root

 Infusions

Hypertension

 20-30 g of root infusion are given to relief

hypertension

 until it is controlled

110 0.611 1 0.009 92.73

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western…

144 0.800 1 0.007 84.72 22 0.122 2 0.091 81.82

Acoraceae

Achyranthes

 aspera L. KN 1017/

Put kandha

 Herbs

 Leave

 Juices

 Rheumatism

 The 20 g fresh leave juice is used for

treatment of rheumatism

 after every meal for

month

Amaranthaceae

1015/Pinaceae

Kachal/Achal

 Trees Leave and

shoot

Decoctions

 Throat and

Leave decoction of are given for 3–4 weeks

28 0.156 2 0.071 78.57 18 0.100 1 0.056 55.56

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

for treatment of throat diseases

cough infection

1011/Malvaceae

 esculentus (L.)

Bhindi

 Herbs

 Seed

 Teas

 pimple

 Plants seeds are boil in water and make tea which is usage in treatment of pimples for

2 weeks


#### Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

plants in the families' Papaveraceae, Moraceae and Fabaceae has previously been

Serial number Variables Categories No of person Percentages 1. Gender Female 84 47

2. Age group 37–47 12 7

Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

3. Occupation Retired 48 27

4. Education Primary level 52 29

5. Informant category Indigenous people 113 63

6. Residence Rural 41 23

7. Marital status Married 83 46

Male 96 53

47–57 36 20 57–67 49 27 67–77 53 29 77> 30 17

Unemployed 24 13 Employed 38 21 Housewife's 50 28 Others 20 11

Secondary level 31 17 Tertiary level 20 11 Others 19 10 Uneducated 58 33

Local health practitioners 67 37

Urban 139 77

Un-married 97 54

In this ethnobotanical study, the part of plant most frequently utilized is was leaves (41%), and seeds and roots (10%) (Table 4). Leaves were used as main part of plant, it has been stated within different ethnomedicinal research of Thailand, India, Bangladesh, Colombia, Pakistan, and China [45–51]. Leaves are the dominantly used plant part because it is easily attainable plant part and requires small effort to collect as compared to other plant parts [43]. Moreover, other important fact of leave utilization is important for conservation and maintenances of plant because collection of other plant parts and roots may kill the plant or endangered the specie [52]. Bulk use of whole plant, fruits, seeds, roots and bark in herbal medicinal preparations may results in decreasing population of plants in

While fruits (9%), whole plant (7%), stem and aerial part (6%), bark (4%), flower (3%), shoots and rhizomes (2%) were also frequently used (Table 4). Fruits,

stated by [44].

Table 1.

nature [53].

42

3.3 Plant parts used as a medicine

Demographic data of informants of Western Himalayas.


Sr.

45

Taxonomic

no/families

names/voucher

Local name

 Life

Part used

 Mode of

Diseases

Recipes

FC RFC UR UV

111 0.617 1 0.009 99.10 83 0.461 1 0.012 96.39

 FL

category

utilization

form

Aftimhoon

 Herbs

 Leave

 Decoctions

Hypertension

 10-20 g of leave decoction is used for

hypertension

 for 3 weeks

no

22. 23. 24.

Descurainia

Prantl KN

> 25.

26. Eruca sativa (L.) Cav. KN 1048/

27. 28. 29. 30.

Ficus virgata Reinw. ex Blume

KN

> 31.

Fumaria officinalis L.KN 1057/

Papaveraceae

1055/Moraceae

Anjheer

Trees

 Fruit

 Raw

Hypertension

 Fruits are eaten orally for treatment of

diseases

100 0.556 1 0.010 89.00 48 0.267 1 0.021 60.42

Zardh

Shahtaraha

 Herbs Aerial part

 Juices and

Hypertension

 45 g of dried leaves are used for making

decoction and juice. 1 cup is used for

hypertension

Extracts

Ferula asafoetida L. KN 1053/

Hinhg

 Herbs

 Rhizomes

 Decoction s

 Coughs

 A rhizomes of the plant is boiled in water and

decoction is made taken 2 cups daily for

cough

Umbelliferae

Euphorbia helioscopia L. KN

1051/Euphorbiaceae

Eucalyptus globulus Labill. KN

Lachi,

Trees

 Leave &

Decoctions

 Sore throat

 25 g of eaves decoction is used twice a day

after every meal

28 0.156 1 0.036 71.43 21 0.117 1 0.048 66.67 18 0.100 1 0.056 66.67

Stem

Sufaida

Catt milk

 Herbs

 Leave

 powder

 Healing of

Dried 40 g of leaves are powdered and mix

wounds

with water and taken orally for 4–5 days

1049/Myrtaceae

Brassicaceae

Jambhoo

 Herbs

 Shoot &

Pastes and

Rheumatic

2 cups of hot water is taken and add 2

disorders

teaspoons of grinded plant mixed well and

used thrice a day for treatment. Seeds paste is

used for Rheumatism

seed

decoctions

Equisetum arvense L. KN 1045/

Equisetaceae

1043/Brassicaceae

 sophia (L.) Webb ex

Burriborhy

 Herbs

 Whole

Decoctions

 Cough and

30 g of leave decoctions is used for a 2 week

12 0.067 2 0.167 83.33

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

to cure throat infection

throat infection

plants

Herbs Aerial parts

 Extracts

Hypertension

 70 g of aerial parts are required for extraction

that is used for

hypertension

 for 20 days 109 0.606 1 0.009 90.83

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western…

102 0.567 1 0.010 89.22

Daphne mucronata Royle. KN

Daphnee

Shrubs Leave bark

Decoctions

Rheumatisms

 Powder of aerial parts and bark is taken after

each meal for treatment of rheumatic disorders. Leaves are dried mix with water

and taken for 4–5 days. Aerial parts are

cooked and used for cure of diseases

plants

& aerial

cooked and

part

Powders

1042/Thymelaeaceae

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb KN 1040/

Convolvulaceae


#### Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

Sr.

44

Taxonomic

no/families

names/voucher

Local name

 Life

Part used

 Mode of

Diseases

Recipes

FC RFC UR UV 20 0.111 1 0.050 65.00 36 0.200 2 0.056 69.44

 FL

category

utilization

form

Shrubs

 Flower

 Infusions

Hypertension

 Infusion of dry flower is taken to relieve

hypertension

no

11. 12. 13.

Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb

Batweyaha

 Herbs

 Bark

 Pastes

 Wound healing

 Paste of Bark is used to heal up wounds

 16 0.089 1 0.063 75.00 33 0.183 1 0.030 90.91

Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

KN

> 14.

Bryophyllum

Oken KN

> 15.

16.

Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze

Chaieh

 Shrubs

 Leave

 Teas

 Throat infection

50 g of leaves are boiled in water to make tea

which is used for 2 weeks for cough and

throat infections

and Cough

KN

> 17.

Capparis decidua

Edgew. KN

> 18.

19. 20.

Commiphora

KN

> 21.

Cuminum cyminum L. KN 1038/

Zhira

 Herbs

 Fruit

 Infusions

 Cough

 80 g of fruits of the plants are dipped whole

40 0.222 1 0.025 55.00

> night in water and make infusion given twice

a day for 2 weeks

Apiaceae

1036/Burseraceae

 stocksiana (Engl.).

Chandrhu

 Shrubs Leave and

root

Poultice

pain and bone

joints for treatment of rheumatic disorders

until its cure

fracture

Paste and

Backache Joint

Leaves paste and poultice are applied on

76 0.422 3 0.039 88.16

Commelina diffusa Burm. f KN

1034/Commelinaceae

Capparis spinosa L. KN 1032/

Kabhar

 Shrubs Herbs

 Whole

Juices

Hypertension

 30–35 g of whole plants are crushed to attain

juice which is better for

hypertension

3 weeks

 for

62 0.344 1 0.016 79.03

plants

 Seed

 Powders

Hypertension

 Powder of the seeds is taken with water 3

times a day to cure

hypertension

56 0.311 1 0.018 60.71

Capparaceae

1030/Capparaceae

(Forssk.)

Keehra

 Trees

 Seed

 Decoctions

 Healing of

Seeds decoction used 3 cups daily for

21 0.117 1 0.048 71.43

> treatment of disease

wound

1029/Camelliaceae

Buxus papillosa KN 1028/

Angaroo

 Shrubs

 Leave

 Oils

 Skin problem

 Oil of leaves are applied on skin to treat skin

problem

Buxaceae

1027/Crassulaceae

 pinnatum (Lam.)

Zakam e

Herbs

 Leave

 Decoction s

Hypertension

 15 g of leaves are boiled in water and

decoction is made, 1 cup of decoction is used

once a day for

hypertension

22 0.122 1 0.045 86.36

32 0.178 2 0.063 90.63

Hayhat

1026/Saxifragaceae

Berberis lycium Royle KN 1024/

ZiarLargay

 Shrubs

 Leave

 Decoction s Sore throat and throat infection

2 cups of decoction is taken twice a day for

week for curing throat infections

&

Berberidaceae

Begonia reniformis Bedd. KN

1021/Begoniaceae


Sr.

47

Taxonomic

no/families

names/voucher

Local name

 Life

Part used

 Mode of

Diseases

Recipes

FC RFC UR UV

 FL

category

utilization

Decoction s

Hypertension

 40 g of dried leaves and roots extract and

decoction are used in

month thrice a day

hypertension

 for 1

52 0.289 1 0.019 92.31

form

no

43. 44. 45.

Lagenaria siceraria (Molin)

KN

> 46.

47. 48.

Laphangium

Tzvelev KN

> 49.

Malvastrum

(L.) Garcke KN 1087/

Malvaceae

50. 51. Musa acuminata Colla KN 1090/

52. 53.

Myrtus communis L. KN 1094/

Myrtaceae

Myrsine africana L. KN 1092/

Gughal

Manrhoo

 Trees

 Fruit

 Decoctions

Muscle pain

 25 g of fruit decoction is taken for muscle

disorder for 2 weeks, twice a day

and boils

 Shrubs

 Leave

 Decoctions

 Skin problems

 Leaves were especially used against cough,

cold, flue and skin diseases

Myrsinaceae

Musaceae

Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. KN

Jangli

Herbs Flower and

Extracts

Hypertension

 50 g of leaves extract o is used to cure

hypertension

75 0.417 1 0.013 81.33

Podhina

Kelha

 Trees Fruits and

stem

Decoctions

Hypertension

 Stems, fruits and flowers decoctions are

effective in relieving from

hypertension

39 0.217 1 0.026 76.92 67 0.372 1 0.015 70.15

51 0.283 1 0.020 90.20

leave

1089/Lamiaceae

coromandelianum

Dhamnii

Herbs Leave and

Powders

 Muscular pain 3–5 rhizomes of the plants are taken, powder them tea can be made by addition of 2–6 g of

powder in 3 cups of water. This is used for

cure of muscular diseases

bhooti

rhizomes

1086/Asteraceae

 affine (D.Don)

Janglii

Herbs

 Leaves

 Decoctions

 Throat and

10-20 g of leaves decoction is use for throat

infection twice a day for 2 weeks

cough infection

dodhal

Lawsonia inermis KN 1085/

Mehndi

 Shrubs

 Leaves

 Infusions

 Boils and skin

burn

water and are applied for 5–6 days

Lythraceae

Lavandula angustifolia Mill KN

Khushbudhar

 Shrub

 Leave

 Infusions &

Hypertension

 20 g of leaves are taken and dipped in water

for 2 days, its infusion is

Dried and crushed leaves are dissolved in

antihypertensive

140 0.778 2 0.014 98.57 49 0.272 2 0.041 59.18

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western…

52 0.289 1 0.019 88.46

62 0.344 1 0.016 69.35

decoction

1084/Lamiaceae

1082/Cucurbitaceae

Justicia adhatoda L.KN 1079/

Behkare

 Shrubs

Herb

 Fruit,

 Raw

 Muscle and

Fruit is eaten directly for curing a diseases

> rheumatic pain

 Leave

 Raw

 Wound healing

 Leaves are directly applied on wounds for

healing

25 0.139 1 0.040 72.00

 19 0.106 2 0.105 68.42

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

Acanthaceae

Juglans regia L. KN 1076/

Akhroot

 Trees Aerial part,

leave and

stem

Juglandaceae


Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

Sr.

46

Taxonomic

no/families

names/voucher

Local name

 Life

Part used

 Mode of

Diseases

Recipes

FC RFC UR UV

 17 0.094 4 0.235 52.94

 FL

category

utilization

form

no

32. 33.

Geranium

ex sweet KN

> 34.

35.

Grewia optiva J. R. Drumm. ex

Burret KN

> 36.

Gymnosporia

Loes.KN

> 37.

Heliotropium

KN

> 38.

39. 40.

Heracleum candicans Wall. ex

Kadupanhra

 Herbs

 Whole

Juices

 Rheumatic pain Whole plant is grinded to make juice and this

juice is taken 2 glasses a day

plants

DC. KN

> 41.

Impatiens edgeworthii Hook. f

Buntilh

 Herbs

 Whole

Pastes

 Skin burns

 Paste of the plant is applied externally for

burns

plants

KN 42. Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.)

KN

1075/Lamiaceae

Sperkaye

 Shrubs

 Leave

 Powders

 Wound healings

15 g of leaves powder is used 2 times a day

after each meal

and skin problem

1074/Balsaminaceae

1072/Apiaceae

Hordeum vulgare L. KN 1070/

Jahoo

 Herbs

 Seed

 Decoctions

 Whooping

Seeds decoction are used to cure cough, 2

cough

cups of decoctions taken daily twice a day

Poaceae

Hippophae rhamnoides L. KN

Trees

 Fruit and

Decoctions

 Skin problem

 Fruits decoction are used for skin problems

 132 0.733 1 0.008 95.45 28 0.156 1 0.036 67.86 76 0.422 1 0.013 85.53 30 0.167 1 0.033 93.33 122 0.678 2 0.016 93.44

seed

1069/Elaeagnaceae

1067/Boraginaceae

 lasiocarpum Fisch

Chulai

 Herbs

 Whole

Decoction s

Hypertension

 35 g of whole plant is boiled in water and

decoction is made that is used for

hypertension

plants

1064/Celastraceae

 senegalensis (Lam.)

Shrubs Leave and

Decoctions

Hypertension

 Decoctions of roots and leaves are used for

cure of

hypertension

73 0.406 1 0.014 93.15

135 0.750 1 0.007 89.63

root

1062/Malvaceae

Tamhar

 Shrubs Leave and

bark

and powders

Decoctions

Rheumatism

Paste of leaves are apply on bones & plant decoction are used for treatment of diseases

and bone dislocation

Glycyrrhiza

 glabra L. KN 1060/

Malhathii

 Herbs

 Root

 Decoction s Sore throats

 Roots of plants are boil in water then used as

decoction for treating sore throat infections

Papilionaceae

wallichianum D. Don

Herbs

 Root

 Extracts

Hypertension

 50 ml of extract of 80 g of dried roots is use

for

hypertension

150 0.833 1 0.007 92.00

23 0.128 1 0.043 78.26 99 0.550 2 0.020 76.77

Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

1059/Geraniaceae

Galium abaujense Borbás KN

Khrrhatanii

 Herbs

 Leave

 Poultices

 Wound healing

Poultice of leaves is applied on wounds

> and skin

problem

1058/Rubiaceae

Sr.

49

Taxonomic

no/families

names/voucher

Local name

 Life

Part used

 Mode of

Diseases

Recipes

FC RFC UR UV 97 0.539 1 0.010 81.44 18 0.100 1 0.056 50.00

 FL

category

utilization

form

no

66. 67. 68. 69.

Rhododendron

KN

> 70.

71.

Rydingia limbata (Benth.)

Ghawarejha

 Shrubs

 Leave

 Extracts

 Skin problems

 30 ml of extracts of leaves are taken orally

117 0.650 1 0.009 86.32

> against mouth ulcers and skin diseases

Scheen & V. A. Albert KN 1127/

Lamiaceae

72. 73. 74. 75. 76.

Trachyspermum

Sprague KN

 ammi (L.)

Ajwaain

 Herbs

 Seed

 Decoctions

 Throat infection

50 g of seed decoction is used for 3 weeks for

> and cough

throat infections

139 0.772 2 0.014 88.49

1136/Apiaceae

Tagete serecta L. KN 1134/

Satveerga

 Herbs

 Leave

 Poultices

 Muscular pain

Hot oil is mixed in leaves and applied on used

on swelling body parts

& swelling of

body

Asteraceae

Sisymbrium

 irio L.KN 1131/

Janglii sarso Herbs

 Leave

 Infusions

 Throat infection

50 ml of infusion of leaves is effective against

> & cough

> throat and cough ailment

Brassicaceae

Senecio

chrysanthemoides

1129/Asteraceae

 DC KN

Salvadora persica L. KN 1128//

Piilu

 Shrubs Stems and

leave

Herbs

 Leave

 Oils

 Skin problems

 Oil of 60 g of leaves are used for treatment

Poultices

 Rheumatic

Leaves of plants are heated and tied in cloth

138 0.767 1 0.007 72.46

 102 0.567 1 0.010 87.25

30 0.167 2 0.067 76.67 153 0.850 2 0.013 95.42

diseases

and applied over pain areas

Salvadoraceae

Rubia cordifolia L. KN 1124/

Majithe

 Herbs

 Whole

Decoction s

Joint pains

 40 g of roots are powdered and make paste

167 0.928 1 0.006 79.64

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western…

that are applied at joints for 2 weeks

plants and

and Pastes

root

Rubiaceae

1122/Ericaceae

 arboreum Sm.

Rantool

 Trees

 Leave

 Powders

 Rheumatic

13 g of leaves are dried and powder are taken

124 0.689 1 0.008 95.16

disorder

against chronic rheumatic disorders for

2 weeks

Rhazya stricta Decne. KN 1120/

Harmaal,

Shrubs

 Leave

 Infusions

 Sore throats

 65 g of leaves are dipped in water whole night

28 0.156 1 0.036 64.29

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

and infusion is made that is used to cure sore

throat

venna

Apocynaceae

Prunus persica (L.) Batch KN

Aruu

 Trees Leave and

fruit

Decoctions

 Skin problem

 20 g of dry leaves are taken boiled in water,

decoction is made that is given for week for

skin problems

1118/Rosaceae

Plantago major L. KN 1117/

Barthange

 Herbs

 Leave

 Decoctions

Hypertension

 Leaves decoction is taken for 3 week to cure

hypertension

Plantaginaceae


Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

Sr.

48

Taxonomic

no/families

names/voucher

Local name

 Life

Part used

 Mode of

Diseases

Recipes

FC RFC UR UV 172 0.956 1 0.006 97.09

 FL

category

utilization

form

no

54. 55. 56. 57. 58.

Oenothera rosea L0Hér. ex Aiton

Jungligulahb

 Herbs

 Whole

Infusions

 Whooping

Leaves are dipped in water for 2 days than

infusion is used for cough for a week

Cough

plants

KN

> 59.

Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata

Ghawarejha

 Shrubs

 Seed and

Teas

 Skin problem

 70 g of dried leaves of plants are boiled and

tea is used orally for mouth ulcer and skin

diseases for 1 month

leave

(Wall. & G. Don) Cif KN 1104/

Oleaceae

60.

Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.)

Haw. KN

> 61.

Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill

Zahqam

 Shrubs

 Fruit

 Raw

 Muscular pain

 Raw fruits are taken daily to treat muscle

pain

KN

> 62.

63. 64. 65.

Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle. ex

Kutakhi

Herbs

 Root

 Raw

 Skin burns

 It is beneficial in the treatment of burning

sensation

40 0.222 1 0.025 50.00

safed

Benth KN

1114/Plantaginaceae

Parkinsonia

 aculeata L. KN

Janglii baabar Shrubs Leave, seed

and root

Oils

 Joint pain and

body swelling

1112/Fabaceae

Papaver somniferum L.KN 1110/

Post

 Herbs

 Fruit

 Teas

 Whooping,

Fruits are boil in water to make tea and 2 cups

cough

of tea are taken thrice a day for cough Seeds oil of plants are used for joints pain 163 0.906 2 0.012 85.28

Papaveraceae

Pinus sylvestris L. KN 1108/

Snobher

 Trees

 Leave

 Extracts

Hypertension

 Few grams of leaves extract is good for curing

disease for 3 weeks

Pinaceae

11071/Cactaceae

1106/Cactaceae

Zuqham

 Shrubs

 Fruit

 Juices

 Cough and

Juice of 90 g of fruit is good in throat

infection

32 0.178 2 0.063 56.25 117 0.650 1 0.009 96.58 56 0.311 1 0.018 76.79 43 0.239 1 0.023 65.12

throat infection

1101/Onagraceae

Ocimum basilicum L. KN 1100/

JangliTulsi

 Herb

 Leave

 Infusions

Hypertension

 Leaves infusion in 1 l water is prepared and

taken two times/day as needed until

improvement

 occurs 20 0.111 1 0.050 50.00 32 0.178 1 0.031 84.38

Lamiaceae

Nerium oleander L. KN 1099/

Kaneer

 Shrubs

 Leave

 Extracts

Hypertension

 30 g of leave extracts are mixed with oil are

used for

hypertension

54 0.300 1 0.019 75.93 81 0.450 1 0.012 81.48

Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

Apocynaceae

Nepeta praetervisa Rech. f. KN

Simsok

 Herbs

 Leave

 Teas

 Cough and

Leaves are boil in water, make tea which is

32 0.178 2 0.063 53.13

> used for throat infection

> throat infection

1098/Lamiaceae

Neolitsea chinensis Chun KN

Maiddasak

 Trees

 Shoot &

Powders and

Muscular

Paste of the 39 g of bark and shoot are apply

problem

over muscles for several days until pain is

cure

bark

pastes

1096/Lauraceae


Table 2. Medicinal plants use for some prevalent diseases in Northern Pakistan.

leaves and stem were the key source of herbal medicines in the research study area. In earlier described studies from various parts of the Pakistan whole plant, flower and fruit therapy is very common and it is present among the top of the plant parts usage [54]. Rhizomes, roots and fleshy parts of the plant species have a high amount

S/No Life form Percentage (%) 1. Herbs 54 2. Shrubs 30 3. Trees 16

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western…

S/No Part used Percentage (%) 1. Leaves 41 2. Seeds 10 3. Roots 10 4. Fruits 9 5. Whole plant 7 6. Stem 6 7. Aerial parts 6 8. Bark 4 9. Flowers 3 10. Rhizomes 2 11. Shoots 2

Medicinal species utilized and administrated in herbal medicines in numerous forms in the area. The common preparation methods were categorized into decoction (33%), powder (14%), paste and extracts (11%), infusion (1o%). Juice (5%), tea (7%), poultice (3%), raw (2%) and Oil and cooked (2%) (Table 5). There are several routes of administration, such as, topical use and oral ingestion for the treatment of different diseases (Table 2). Local traditional healers use ingestion to cure most diseases, but topical use is an important route of intake to cure diseases such as skin disorders, glottis diseases, joint pain, hypertension, wounds, and body pain, weakness and poisonous bites [54]. The particular parts of plants and definite quantity of dosages taken for ailments control mainly depends on patients physical health [35].Some individuals use, orange peel, sugar, lemon, banana pulp, tobacco leaf, black pepper and camphor, as adjuvant with various

Large number of the plant drugs (74%) was made from fresh part of plants neither the dry parts of plants. In this study it was observed that there are ambiguities in taking exact quantities of medicines between the respondents due to

of bio-active compounds [55].

Plant part used as medicines.

diluents.

51

Table 3.

Table 4.

Life form of medicinal plant.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

3.4 Types of herbal preparations

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932


Table 3.

Life form of medicinal plant.


Table 4. Plant part used as medicines.

leaves and stem were the key source of herbal medicines in the research study area. In earlier described studies from various parts of the Pakistan whole plant, flower and fruit therapy is very common and it is present among the top of the plant parts usage [54]. Rhizomes, roots and fleshy parts of the plant species have a high amount of bio-active compounds [55].

#### 3.4 Types of herbal preparations

Medicinal species utilized and administrated in herbal medicines in numerous forms in the area. The common preparation methods were categorized into decoction (33%), powder (14%), paste and extracts (11%), infusion (1o%). Juice (5%), tea (7%), poultice (3%), raw (2%) and Oil and cooked (2%) (Table 5). There are several routes of administration, such as, topical use and oral ingestion for the treatment of different diseases (Table 2). Local traditional healers use ingestion to cure most diseases, but topical use is an important route of intake to cure diseases such as skin disorders, glottis diseases, joint pain, hypertension, wounds, and body pain, weakness and poisonous bites [54]. The particular parts of plants and definite quantity of dosages taken for ailments control mainly depends on patients physical health [35].Some individuals use, orange peel, sugar, lemon, banana pulp, tobacco leaf, black pepper and camphor, as adjuvant with various diluents.

Large number of the plant drugs (74%) was made from fresh part of plants neither the dry parts of plants. In this study it was observed that there are ambiguities in taking exact quantities of medicines between the respondents due to

Sr.

50

Taxonomic

no/families

names/voucher

Local name

 Life

Part used

 Mode of

Diseases

Recipes

FC RFC UR UV 129 0.717 2 0.016 86.05 109 0.606 2 0.018 96.33

 FL

category

utilization

form

no

77. 78. 79.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Aksaan

 Herbs

 Leave &

Pastes and

Joint pains

 Root of plant are taken, rinse with water,

112 0.622 1 0.009 87.50

> dried and crushed to make powder then it is

given in lessen amount for joint disorders.

Paste of leaves is used to cure pain

root

powders

KN

> 80.

Table 2. Medicinal

 plants use for some prevalent diseases in Northern Pakistan.

Zanthoxylum

 armatum DC. KN

Trees

 Seed

 Decoctions

 Sore throat

 18 g of seeds decoction are given for 3 week

to treat sore throat

132 0.733 1 0.008 75.00

Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

1142/Rutaceae

1139/Solanaceae

Verbascum thapsus L. KN 1138/

Scrophulariaceae

Urtica dioica L. KN 1137/

Bichoo

Herbs

 Root

 Decoctions

 Cough and

30-40 g of root are boiled in water and make

decoction that is used for throat infection Aerial plants are grinded and dissolved in

water and make infusion that is taken for 3–

4 days

throat infection

bhooti

Gadikhand

 Herbs Aerial part

 Infusions

 Pimples and

skin problems

Urticaceae


#### Table 5.

Mode of utilization of medicinal plant.

variation of person's experiences and difference in ethnical information of the respondents.

> respondents describing the usage of this medicinal species [19]. It was followed by Lawsonia inermis (0.778), Zanthoxylum armatum (0.733), Utica dioica (0.717), Opuntia ficus-indica (0.65), Rhododendron arboretum (0.689), Geranium

S/No Mode of preparation Percentage (%) 1. Hypertension 22 2. Cough 15 3. Throat infection 11 4. Sore throat 6 5. Wound healing 8 6. Rheumatism 11 7. Joint pain 4 8. Swelling of body 2 9. Muscular pain 2 10. Body pain 1 11. Skin problem 12 12. Skin burn 3 13. Boils 1 14. Pimples 2

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western…

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

wallichianum (0.833), Hippophae rhamnoides (0.73), Cuscuta reflexa (0.617) and Ficus virgate (0.556). Another cause of why medicinal plant stated repeatedly because of; (1) the trust of people on medicinal plant and old age relationship of the easily accessible medicinal species with people and (2) the comparatively high price

Mostly local health practitioners in study area used these species to cure diseases from other communities. The current research showed that the use value varies from 0.094 to 0.006 (Table 2). Plant species recorded with high use values were Aesculus indica, Abies pindrow, Opuntia dillenii, Nepeta praetervisa, Begonia reniformis and Berberis lyceum. These plants were commonly found in people's homes, the decoction, tea, extract made from leaves was found very effective in hypertension, joint pain and glottis infection. Thus it should be recommended that medicinal plants have maximum UV values, would be further studied for phytochemical and pharmacological evaluation for developing medicinal system of herbal drugs [58]. Neolitsea chinensis (Use value 0.006) revealed least UVs because they were not abundant in the research area. Used value was less in some conditions due to the lower information of the informants about the medicinal plants, that may be

To find the plant that is most chosen by the respondents for the cure of specific

disease is fidelity level. FL in the present study varied from 50 to 99%. Cuscutareflexa (99%), Lawsonia inermis (98%), Daphne mucronata (96%),

of synthetic drugs and non-approach to the systems of medicine [41].

3.6.2 Use value of medicinal plants

Table 6.

Categories of disease.

of exotic source [59].

3.6.3 Fidelity level (FL)

53

#### 3.5 Use of phototherapies

This ethnobotanical survey showed indigenous people utilized therapeutic plant species most often for the cure of hypertension (20 reports) followed by cough (14 reports), skin problem (11 reports), rheumatism (10 reports). This survey specified fact that indigenous communities used medicinal plants frequently exploited in skin diseases, respiratory disorders, cough, throat infections, joint pain and hypertension specified that the plant of this zone have versatile medicinal usages against disease [56].The other noticeable diseases were throat infections (10 reports), wound healing (7 reports), Sore throat (5 reports), joint pain (4 reports), skin burn (3 reports). Though, skin problems were followed by pimples and swelling of body (2 reports) and boils and body pain (1 report) (Tables 2 and 6). Recent studies shown that maximum of local populations were dependent on a diversity of native plant species to treat several diseases as the modern health services were out of reached. It was noticed in throughout the field study that old information of indigenous therapeutic species is about to vanishing upcoming age groups belonging to research region. This is because of absence of attention by modern cultures, as they thought herbal medicines are less useful in comparison to allopathic medicines. Despite the fact when these elder persons die than these conventional medicinal practices might be quickly disappeared [57].

#### 3.6 Quantitative analysis

#### 3.6.1 Relative frequency of citation

For examining the ethnobotanical knowledge quantitative analysis was recorded in this study. Most stated plant species identified by a large number of respondents for medicinal purposes. Maximum RFC was documented for Neolitsea chinensis (0.956), Rubia cordifolia (0.928), Parkinsonia aculeate (0.906) and Tagetes erecta (0.850) (Table 2). These findings are related to the fact that a large number of respondents cited the plant species and RFC directly related to the number of

S/No Mode of preparation Percentage (%) 1. Hypertension 22 2. Cough 15 3. Throat infection 11 4. Sore throat 6 5. Wound healing 8 6. Rheumatism 11 7. Joint pain 4 8. Swelling of body 2 9. Muscular pain 2 10. Body pain 1 11. Skin problem 12 12. Skin burn 3 13. Boils 1 14. Pimples 2

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

#### Table 6.

variation of person's experiences and difference in ethnical information of the

S/No Mode of preparation Percentage (%) 1. Poultice 3 2. Decoction 33 3. Infusion 10 4. Powder 14 5. Paste 11 6. Extract 11 7. Juice 5 8. Tea 7 9. Oil 2 10. Raw 2 11. Cooked 2

Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

This ethnobotanical survey showed indigenous people utilized therapeutic plant species most often for the cure of hypertension (20 reports) followed by cough (14 reports), skin problem (11 reports), rheumatism (10 reports). This survey specified fact that indigenous communities used medicinal plants frequently exploited in skin diseases, respiratory disorders, cough, throat infections, joint pain and hypertension specified that the plant of this zone have versatile medicinal usages against disease [56].The other noticeable diseases were throat infections (10 reports), wound healing (7 reports), Sore throat (5 reports), joint pain (4 reports), skin burn (3 reports). Though, skin problems were followed by pimples and swelling of body (2 reports) and boils and body pain (1 report) (Tables 2 and 6). Recent studies shown that maximum of local populations were dependent on a diversity of native plant species to treat several diseases as the modern health services were out of reached. It was noticed in throughout the field study that old information of indigenous therapeutic species is about to vanishing upcoming age groups belonging to research region. This is because of absence of attention by modern cultures, as they thought herbal medicines are less useful in comparison to allopathic medicines. Despite the fact when these elder persons die than these conventional medicinal practices might

For examining the ethnobotanical knowledge quantitative analysis was recorded in this study. Most stated plant species identified by a large number of respondents for medicinal purposes. Maximum RFC was documented for Neolitsea chinensis (0.956), Rubia cordifolia (0.928), Parkinsonia aculeate (0.906) and Tagetes erecta (0.850) (Table 2). These findings are related to the fact that a large number of respondents cited the plant species and RFC directly related to the number of

respondents.

Table 5.

3.5 Use of phototherapies

Mode of utilization of medicinal plant.

be quickly disappeared [57].

3.6 Quantitative analysis

52

3.6.1 Relative frequency of citation

Categories of disease.

respondents describing the usage of this medicinal species [19]. It was followed by Lawsonia inermis (0.778), Zanthoxylum armatum (0.733), Utica dioica (0.717), Opuntia ficus-indica (0.65), Rhododendron arboretum (0.689), Geranium wallichianum (0.833), Hippophae rhamnoides (0.73), Cuscuta reflexa (0.617) and Ficus virgate (0.556). Another cause of why medicinal plant stated repeatedly because of; (1) the trust of people on medicinal plant and old age relationship of the easily accessible medicinal species with people and (2) the comparatively high price of synthetic drugs and non-approach to the systems of medicine [41].

#### 3.6.2 Use value of medicinal plants

Mostly local health practitioners in study area used these species to cure diseases from other communities. The current research showed that the use value varies from 0.094 to 0.006 (Table 2). Plant species recorded with high use values were Aesculus indica, Abies pindrow, Opuntia dillenii, Nepeta praetervisa, Begonia reniformis and Berberis lyceum. These plants were commonly found in people's homes, the decoction, tea, extract made from leaves was found very effective in hypertension, joint pain and glottis infection. Thus it should be recommended that medicinal plants have maximum UV values, would be further studied for phytochemical and pharmacological evaluation for developing medicinal system of herbal drugs [58]. Neolitsea chinensis (Use value 0.006) revealed least UVs because they were not abundant in the research area. Used value was less in some conditions due to the lower information of the informants about the medicinal plants, that may be of exotic source [59].

#### 3.6.3 Fidelity level (FL)

To find the plant that is most chosen by the respondents for the cure of specific disease is fidelity level. FL in the present study varied from 50 to 99%. Cuscutareflexa (99%), Lawsonia inermis (98%), Daphne mucronata (96%),

this ethnobotanical study suggested that the studied species of far-off valley should be further assessed for appropriate research and pharmacological activities to validate their present traditional usage that may help as the primary means to produce plant-derived prescriptions. Future study on the security and usefulness of medicinal herbs, along with ecological and traditional management works, which are required intended for the maintainable development of herbal drugs in the

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western…

The authors are thankful to all key medicinal plant practitioners and informants for sharing their valuable knowledge on medicinal flora. Special thanks to the higher education Commission of Pakistan HEC for financial support of this project.

Northern Pakistan.

Abbreviations

ISL Islamabad UV used value

FL fidelity level

55

WHO World Health Organization THD traditional herbal drugs

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

FC frequency of citation

FATA federal administered tribal areas

RFC relative frequency of citation FIV family importance value

Acknowledgements

Figure 2. Family importance value of medicinal plants.

Hippophae rhamnoides (95%), Impatiens edgeworthii, Isodon rugosus and Gymnosporia senegalensis (93%), Geranium wallichianum and Acorus calamus (92%) Bryophyllum pinnatum, Camellia sinensis and Eruca sativa (90%), Heliotropium lasiocarpum, Equisetum arvense and Ficus virgata (89%), Commiphora stocksiana and Malvastrum coromandelianum (88%), Withania somnifera (87%), Buxus papillosa(86%), Heracleum candicans and Barleria cristata (85%), Adiantum venustum (84%), Descurainia sophia (83%), Mentha longifolia and Aesculus indica (81%), Abelmoschus esculentus and Ajuga bracteosa (80%) had high fidelity levels for the treatment of muscular pain, skin infections, dermatological diseases and hypertension (Table 2). High FL values of medicinal plant shows the selection of plant by respondents to cure particular disease [60, 61]. These plants might be confirmed as significant medicinal species by further evaluation and assessment by pharmaceutical, phytochemical and biological actions [62]. The species with least FL cannot be ignored as it causes the next generation to control the risk of gradually decreasing medicinal knowledge [63].

#### 3.6.4 Family importance value (FIV) of medicinal flora

The evaluation of family importance value of plant species revealed that Lamiaceae was most prevailing group of plants having FIV of (142.50) then Asteraceae (86.1), Apiaceae (72.50), Rubiaceae (52.22), Malvaceae (50.56), Geraniaceae (42.22) and Elaeagnaceae (37.22) etc. Lower values of FIV were calculated for Saxifragaceae (5.00), Amaranthaceae, Rosaceae and Umbelliferae (5.56), Cucurbitaceae (5.83), Euphorbiaceae (6.39), Hippocastanaceae and Buxaceae (6.67), Fabaceae (6.94) and Poaceae (8.33) (Figure 2). The ethnobotanical study revealed by [35] showed that maximum FIV was observed by family Asclepiadaceae (FIV 18.5) then Punicaceae (FIV 17.9) whereas minimum value was observes by Myrtaceae (FIV 2.3). All these findings are dissimilar from current research as the numerical ethnomedicinal facts varies because of change in geo-climate and vegetation of the region [19].

### 4. Conclusion

The ethnobotanical data revealed that the conventional knowledge of therapeutic plants in the Northern Pakistan is mostly sustained by elders, and this knowledge was transferred from their forefathers. This study revealed that the most frequently exploited plants were present in Lamiaceae and Papaveraceae, The common method of utilization was decoction. Numerical indices of FC, UV, RFC, FL, and FIV reveal that a greater variety of medicinal species is still utilized between the native inhabitants as treatment of various ailments in the study site. Particularly,

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

this ethnobotanical study suggested that the studied species of far-off valley should be further assessed for appropriate research and pharmacological activities to validate their present traditional usage that may help as the primary means to produce plant-derived prescriptions. Future study on the security and usefulness of medicinal herbs, along with ecological and traditional management works, which are required intended for the maintainable development of herbal drugs in the Northern Pakistan.

### Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to all key medicinal plant practitioners and informants for sharing their valuable knowledge on medicinal flora. Special thanks to the higher education Commission of Pakistan HEC for financial support of this project.

### Abbreviations

Hippophae rhamnoides (95%), Impatiens edgeworthii, Isodon rugosus and Gymnosporia senegalensis (93%), Geranium wallichianum and Acorus calamus (92%) Bryophyllum pinnatum, Camellia sinensis and Eruca sativa (90%), Heliotropium lasiocarpum, Equisetum arvense and Ficus virgata (89%), Commiphora stocksiana and Malvastrum

coromandelianum (88%), Withania somnifera (87%), Buxus papillosa(86%), Heracleum candicans and Barleria cristata (85%), Adiantum venustum (84%), Descurainia sophia (83%), Mentha longifolia and Aesculus indica (81%), Abelmoschus esculentus and Ajuga bracteosa (80%) had high fidelity levels for the treatment of muscular pain, skin infections, dermatological diseases and hypertension (Table 2). High FL values of medicinal plant shows the selection of plant by respondents to cure particular disease [60, 61]. These plants might be confirmed as significant medicinal species by further evaluation and assessment by pharmaceutical, phytochemical and biological actions [62]. The species with least FL cannot be ignored as it causes the next generation to control the risk of gradually decreasing medicinal

The evaluation of family importance value of plant species revealed that Lamiaceae was most prevailing group of plants having FIV of (142.50) then Asteraceae (86.1), Apiaceae (72.50), Rubiaceae (52.22), Malvaceae (50.56),

Geraniaceae (42.22) and Elaeagnaceae (37.22) etc. Lower values of FIV were calculated for Saxifragaceae (5.00), Amaranthaceae, Rosaceae and Umbelliferae (5.56), Cucurbitaceae (5.83), Euphorbiaceae (6.39), Hippocastanaceae and Buxaceae (6.67), Fabaceae (6.94) and Poaceae (8.33) (Figure 2). The ethnobotanical study revealed by [35] showed that maximum FIV was observed by family Asclepiadaceae (FIV 18.5) then Punicaceae (FIV 17.9) whereas minimum value was observes by Myrtaceae (FIV 2.3). All these findings are dissimilar from current research as the numerical ethnomedicinal facts varies because of change in geo-climate and vege-

The ethnobotanical data revealed that the conventional knowledge of therapeutic plants in the Northern Pakistan is mostly sustained by elders, and this knowledge was transferred from their forefathers. This study revealed that the most frequently

exploited plants were present in Lamiaceae and Papaveraceae, The common method of utilization was decoction. Numerical indices of FC, UV, RFC, FL, and FIV reveal that a greater variety of medicinal species is still utilized between the native inhabitants as treatment of various ailments in the study site. Particularly,

3.6.4 Family importance value (FIV) of medicinal flora

knowledge [63].

Figure 2.

Family importance value of medicinal plants.

Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

tation of the region [19].

4. Conclusion

54


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57

### Author details

Khafsa Malik1,2,3, Mushtaq Ahmad1 \*, Muhammad Zafar<sup>1</sup> , Shazia Sultana<sup>1</sup> , Athar Tariq<sup>4</sup> and Neelam Rashid1,5

1 Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan

2 Government Post graduate College Women, UOG (University of Gujrat) Sub-Campus Rawalpindi, Pakistan

3 Rawalpindi Women University, Pakistan

4 Califorinia Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento, California, United States

5 Department of Botany, Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST), Mirpur, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

\*Address all correspondence to: mushtaqflora@hotmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

### References

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[2] Smita R, Sangeeta R, Kumar SS, Soumya S, Deepak P. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Semiliguda of Koraput District, Odisha, India. Research Journal of Recent Sciences. 2012;2277:2502

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[14] Ali H, Sannai J, Sher H, Rashid A. Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of swat, Pakistan. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 2011;5(18):4676-4687

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Author details

United States

56

Khafsa Malik1,2,3, Mushtaq Ahmad1

Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

Athar Tariq<sup>4</sup> and Neelam Rashid1,5

Sub-Campus Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Mirpur, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

provided the original work is properly cited.

3 Rawalpindi Women University, Pakistan

\*, Muhammad Zafar<sup>1</sup>

1 Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan

2 Government Post graduate College Women, UOG (University of Gujrat)

4 Califorinia Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento, California,

\*Address all correspondence to: mushtaqflora@hotmail.com

5 Department of Botany, Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST),

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

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[46] Kadir MF, Sayeed MSB, Setu NI, Mostafa A, Mia M. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used by traditional health practitioners in Thanchi, Bandarban Hill tracts, Bangladesh. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2014; 155(1):495-508

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[50] Tabuti JR, Kukunda CB, Waako PJ. Medicinal plants used by traditional medicine practitioners in the treatment of tuberculosis and related ailments in Uganda. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2010;127(1):130-136

[51] Upadhyay B, Dhaker AK, Kumar A. Ethnomedicinal and ethnopharmacostatistical studies of eastern Rajasthan, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2010;129(1):64-86

[52] Kadir MF, Sayeed MSB, Mia M. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used by indigenous and tribal people in Rangamati, Bangladesh. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2012; 144(3):627-637

Ethnopharmacology. 2010;130(3):

[60] Rajakumar N, Shivanna M. Ethnomedicinal application of plants in the eastern region of Shimoga district, Karnataka, India. Journal of

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western…

Ethnopharmacology. 2009;126(1):64-73

[62] Ugulu I, Baslar S, Yorek N, Dogan Y. The investigation and quantitative ethnobotanical evaluation of medicinal plants used around Izmir province, Turkey. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 2009;3(5):345-367

[63] Shinwari S, Qureshi R, Baydoun E. Ethnobotanical study of Kohat pass (Pakistan). Pakistan Journal of Botany.

[61] Islam MK, Saha S, Mahmud I, Mohamad K, Awang K, Uddin SJ, et al. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by tribal and native people of Madhupur forest area, Bangladesh. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2014;

485-504

151(2):921-930

2011;43(SI):135-139

61

[53] Ghimire SK, Gimenez O, Pradel R, McKey D, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y. Demographic variation and population viability in a threatened Himalayan medicinal and aromatic herb Nardostachys grandiflora: Matrix modelling of harvesting effects in two contrasting habitats. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2008;45(1): 41-51

[54] Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Tabassum A. Ethnomedicinal survey of plants from district Sialkot, Pakistan. Journal of Applied Pharmacology. 2011; 3:212-220

[55] Munir M, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Seema N, Ahmed SN, Tariq K, et al. Foliar epidermal anatomy of some ethnobotanically important species of wild edible fruits of northern Pakistan. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 2011;5(24):5873-5880

[56] Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of swat, North Pakistan. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2013; 9(1):25

[57] Khan SW, Khatoon S. Ethnobotanical studies on some useful herbs of Haramosh and Bugrote valleys in Gilgit, northern areas of Pakistan. Pakistan. Journal of Botany. 2008; 40(1):43

[58] Qureshi R, Bhatti GR, Memon RA. Ethnomedicinal uses of herbs from northern part of Nara desert. Pakistan. Pak J Bot. 2010;42(2):839-851

[59] Rokaya MB, Münzbergová Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. Journal of Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases in Northern Pakistan of Western… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89932

Ethnopharmacology. 2010;130(3): 485-504

[45] Singh H, Husain T, Agnihotri P, Pande P, Khatoon S. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in sacred

Medicinal Plants - Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

tribal people in Rangamati, Bangladesh. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2012;

[53] Ghimire SK, Gimenez O, Pradel R, McKey D, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y.

Journal of Applied Ecology. 2008;45(1):

Tabassum A. Ethnomedicinal survey of plants from district Sialkot, Pakistan. Journal of Applied Pharmacology. 2011;

[55] Munir M, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Seema N, Ahmed SN, Tariq K, et al. Foliar epidermal anatomy of some ethnobotanically important species of wild edible fruits of northern Pakistan. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research.

[56] Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier E. Diversity and use of ethno-medicinal plants in the region of swat, North Pakistan. Journal of

Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2013;

Ethnobotanical studies on some useful herbs of Haramosh and Bugrote valleys in Gilgit, northern areas of Pakistan. Pakistan. Journal of Botany. 2008;

[58] Qureshi R, Bhatti GR, Memon RA. Ethnomedicinal uses of herbs from northern part of Nara desert. Pakistan.

Pak J Bot. 2010;42(2):839-851

[59] Rokaya MB, Münzbergová Z, Timsina B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla district of western Nepal. Journal of

2011;5(24):5873-5880

[57] Khan SW, Khatoon S.

[54] Mahmood A, Mahmood A,

population viability in a threatened Himalayan medicinal and aromatic herb Nardostachys grandiflora: Matrix modelling of harvesting effects in two contrasting habitats.

Demographic variation and

144(3):627-637

41-51

3:212-220

9(1):25

40(1):43

[46] Kadir MF, Sayeed MSB, Setu NI,

Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used by traditional health practitioners in Thanchi, Bandarban Hill tracts, Bangladesh. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2014;

[47] Ismail M, Ibrar M, Iqbal Z, Hussain J, Hussain H, Ahmed M, et al. Chemical constituents and antioxidant activity of Geranium wallichianum. Records of Natural Products. 2009;

[48] Ibrar M, Hussain F. Ethnobotanical studies of plants of Charkotli hills, Batkhela district, Malakand, Pakistan. Frontiers of Biology in China. 2009;

[49] Teklehaymanot T. Ethnobotanical study of knowledge and medicinal plants use by the people in Dek Island in

Ethnopharmacology. 2009;124(1):69-78

[50] Tabuti JR, Kukunda CB, Waako PJ. Medicinal plants used by traditional medicine practitioners in the treatment of tuberculosis and related ailments in Uganda. Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

[51] Upadhyay B, Dhaker AK, Kumar A. Ethnomedicinal and ethnopharmacostatistical studies of eastern Rajasthan, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

[52] Kadir MF, Sayeed MSB, Mia M. Ethnopharmacological survey of

medicinal plants used by indigenous and

groves of Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2014;154(1):

98-108

Mostafa A, Mia M.

155(1):495-508

3(4):193

4(4):539

Ethiopia. Journal of

2010;127(1):130-136

2010;129(1):64-86

60

[60] Rajakumar N, Shivanna M. Ethnomedicinal application of plants in the eastern region of Shimoga district, Karnataka, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2009;126(1):64-73

[61] Islam MK, Saha S, Mahmud I, Mohamad K, Awang K, Uddin SJ, et al. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by tribal and native people of Madhupur forest area, Bangladesh. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2014; 151(2):921-930

[62] Ugulu I, Baslar S, Yorek N, Dogan Y. The investigation and quantitative ethnobotanical evaluation of medicinal plants used around Izmir province, Turkey. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 2009;3(5):345-367

[63] Shinwari S, Qureshi R, Baydoun E. Ethnobotanical study of Kohat pass (Pakistan). Pakistan Journal of Botany. 2011;43(SI):135-139

**63**

tion from TB infection.

LMWA, TB

**Chapter 4**

**Abstract**

Tuberculosis

*and Sutiman Bambang Sumitro*

Bioinorganic Chemistry and

Medicine to Treatment of

Computational Study of Herbal

*Sri Widyarti, Mudyawati Kamaruddin, Sherry Aristyani,* 

Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the leading infectious diseases in the world. The disease is commonly caused by *Mycobacterium tuberculosis* (Mtb) bacteria which are capable of rapidly spreading through droplet transmission. In developing countries, poverty and malnutrition cause immunodeficiency which is considered as the main risk factor for the incidence of TB. Treatment of TB has been proven to be difficult because treatment options are very limited and found to be expensive specifically in developing countries. Moreover, the existence of extensively drug-resistant TB phenomena is frequently happening in these countries because of mishandling treatments used for this disease. In Indonesia, the traditional herbal medicine, namely, jamu, has been utilized since a long time ago to treat diseases including TB. The present study by using computational methods found that there are many active compounds that can bound and influence proteins responsible for TB pathogenesis. Besides, these compounds have the potency to modulate the host immune system. The current chapter discussed the possible interaction of the antioxidant compounds with the chelating potential to form a complex with transitional metal as the central atom. In the perspective of bioinorganic chemistry, this complex has a scavenging activity which is expected to have a role in overcoming energy management of the host cell during infection pathogenesis. It is important to involve bioinorganic chemistry in energy management during infection, correlated with impairing of niacin metabolism of the host cell in which the host cell mitochondria cannot competitively gain free radicals during infection. This phenomenon is the main reason to propose herbal medicine as a source of niacin and provide a proper environment for gastrointestinal commensal microbiota to treat and govern protec-

**Keywords:** bioinorganic chemistry, gastrointestinal microbiota, herbal medicine,

*Meity Elvina, Saraswati Subagjo, Tintrim Rahayu* 

### **Chapter 4**
