**5.5 Revision of infrastructure**

270 Studies on Water Management Issues

Industrial water consumption may also be reduced by developing less water using technologies as well as in-plant control measures. Clean technologies should be preferred

Domestic uses may be decreased by encouraging public to use water-saving home appliances, through water pricing, legal sanctions and raising public awareness. In the big cities in developing countries, water loss through leakages in the water distribution lines constitutes a significant amount. Thus, it must be aimed to decrease water losses below 10%

In cases of severe water scarcity, reducing water consumption may not be a remedy and

Desalination of seawater or brackish water is considered as an important option of producing freshwater. Recent technologies and advances in the sector allow producing freshwater at affordable costs when higher amounts are intended. However, water withdrawals for desalination purposes may alter the well-being the related ecosystem. Thus, it is necessary to take into account the environmental impacts that might occur due to the planned water withdrawals. Also brine that is produced in desalination process should be

Another alternative source is reuse of treated wastewater. It is known that treated wastewater may be used for irrigating green land, parks and gardens in big cities. It can also be used for irrigating agricultural land if the national standards are satisfied in terms of irrigation water quality. Industries can also utilize treated wastewater in their processes providing that the quality of the goods manufactured remain unchanged (Asano et al.,

Aquifers can be thought as storages where water loss through evaporation is relatively low. Thus, recharge of groundwater aquifers with treated wastewater is applied in different countries such as Israel and Spain (Esteban & Miguel, 2008; Salgot, 2008). However, it should be underlined that advanced treatment is necessary to protect the aquifers from

Another option is ecological sanitation (ECOSAN) practices. By such applications generated wastewater is separated into three streams at the source (yellow water, grey water and black water) that may be recycled after applying simpler treatment techniques. For example treated grey water may be used for irrigation and for recharge of aquifers. However, in most of the cases existing and usually old fashioned infrastructure is not compatible with ECOSAN. Reuse and/or disposal of each wastewater stream should be carefully planned. For example, yellow water could be used instead of fertilizer but if not desalinated salinity

Szwed et al., (2010) states that water transfer from an area of relative abundance to an area of scarcity may smooth the spatial water variability. It is applied in many arid and semi-arid regions. Three points are important in water transfer: Feasibility regarding engineering works,

in human urine can harm the crops and the soil (Beler-Baykal et al., 2011).

thus searching for alternative water resources may become crucial.

due to their optimized water consumption.

by renewing the old pipelines.

properly disposed.

2007).

pollution.

**5.3 Inter-basin water transfer** 

**5.2 Alternative water resources** 

Changes in water quality in water resources will necessitate revision of existing waterrelated infrastructure. New components of the infrastructure should be designed according to possible extremes that would occur. Resilience of the infrastructure should also be enhanced.

Water treatment systems must be designed and operated according to drinking water standards under raw water inflow with varying water quality. On the other hand, different wastewater treatment options that seem not feasible today may be available in a world with higher annual average temperature. One example is the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) process that is used to treat municipal wastewater in warmer countries such as India currently. Such technologies that are more cost-efficient could be applied in higher latitudes once further meteorological conditions change due to climate change.

Managing the Effects of the Climate Change on Water Resources and Watershed Ecology 273

Karakaya, N. and Gonenc, I.E. 2005. Interbasin water transfer, Proceedings of 2nd National Water Resources Engineering Symposium, Izmir, Turkey (in Turkish). Kavvas, M.L., Chen, Z.Q., Anderson, M.L., Ohara, N., Yoon, J.Y. 2009. A Hydroclimate

Kundzewicz, Z.W., Mata, L.J., Arnell, N.W., Döll, P., Jimenez, B., Miller, K., Oki, T., Şen, Z.

Mirza, M.M.Q., Warrick, R.A. and Ericksen, N.J. 2003. The implications of climate change on

Nasr, A., M. Bruen, P. Jordan, R.Moles, G. Kiely, P. Byrne and B. O'Regan, 2004. Physically-

Pope, V.D.; Gallani, M.L., Rowntree, P.R., and Stratton, R.A., 2000. The impact of new

Rosenzweig, C., G. Casassa, D.J. Karoly, A. Imeson, C. Liu, A. Menzel, S. Rawlins, T.L. Root,

Saleh, A., Du., B. 2004. Evaluation of SWAT and HSPF within basins program for the upper north bosque river watershed in central Texas. *Transactions of ASAE*, 47, 1039 Salgot, M. 2008. Water reclamation, recycling and reuse: Implementation issues. *Desalination*,

Singh, J., Knapp, V.H, and Demissie, M. (2004). *Hydrologic Modeling of the Iroquois River* 

Szwed, M., Karg, G., Pińskwar, I., Radziejewski, M., Graczyk, D., Kędziora, A., Kundzewicz,

human health sectors in Poland, *Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci.,* 10, 1725–1737. Therrien, R., McLaren, R.G., Sudicky, E.A., Panday, S.M. (2010). *HydroGeoSphere A Three-*

Van Dam, J.C., P. Groenendijk, R.F.A. Hendriks and J.G. Kroes, 2008. Advances of modeling water flow in variably saturated soils with SWAP. *Vadose Zone J.,* 7(2), p. 640.

*Watershed Using HSPF and SWAT*. Illinois State Water Survey Contract Report 2004-

Z.W., 2010. Climate change and its effect on agriculture, water resources and

*dimensional Numerical Model Describing Fully-integrated Subsurface and Surface Flow* 

and data requirements. *National Hydrology Seminar-2004*, Ireland

Karpuzcu, Mirat D. Gürol, Senem Bayar, Istanbul.

10.

*Change*, 57, 287–318.

*Climate Dynamics* 16 (2–3): 123–146.

Schnoor, 1996. Environmental Modeling, Wiley & Sons

Simonovich, S. 2009 Managing Water Resources Unesco Publishing

*and Solute Transport*. Groundwater Simulations Group

Cambridge, UK, 79-131.

218, 190-197.

08.

Model of the Tigris-Euphrates Watershed for the Study of Water Balances, in Proceedings of Conference on Transboundary Waters and Turkey, Editors: Mehmet

and Shiklomanov, I. 2008. The implications of projected climate change for freshwater resources and their management, *Hydrological Sciences Journal*, 53, 1, 3-

floods of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers in Bangladesh. *Climatic* 

based, distributed, catchment modelling for estimating sediment and phosphorus loads to rivers and lakes: issues of model complexity, spatial and temporal scales

physical parameterizations in the Hadley Centre climate model — HadAM3.

B. Seguin, P. Tryjanowski, 2007. Assessment of observed changes and responses in natural and managed systems. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press,

#### **6. References**


Arnold, J.G., Srinivasan, R., Muttiah, R.S. and Williams, J.R., 1998. Large area hydrologic

Asano, T., Burton, F.L., Leverenz, H.L., Tsuchihasti, R. and Tchobanoglous, G. 2007. Water

Barnett, T.P., Adam, J.C., Lettenmaier, D.P. 2005. Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions, *Nature*, 438, 303–309. Beler-Baykal, B., Allar, A.D., Bayram, S. 2011. Nitrogen recovery from source separated

Bicknell, B.R., J.C. Imhoff, J.L. Kittle, Jr., Jobes, T.H. and A.S. Donigian, Jr., 2001. Hydrologic

Collins, M.; Tett, S.F.B., and Cooper, C. 2001. The internal climate variability of HadCM3, a

Döll, P., Flörke, M. 2005. Global-Scale Estimation of Diffuse Groundwater Recharge.

Esteban, I.R. and Miguel, E.O. 2008. Present and future wastewater reuse in Spain.

Forbes, K.A., Kienzle, S.W., Coburn, C.A., Byrne, J.M., Rasmussen, J. 2011. Simulating the

Gassman, P.W., Reyes M.R., Gren C.H. and Arnold, J.G. 2007. The Soil and Water

Gordon, C.; Cooper, C., Senior, C.A., Banks, H., Gregory, J.M., Johns, T.C., Mitchell, J.F.B.,

Hall, N.D., Stuntz, B.B., and Abrams, R.H. 2008. Climate Change and Freshwater Resources,

Im, S., Brannan, K., Mostaghimi, S. and Cho. A. J. (2003). Comparison of SWAT and HSPF

IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working

Water Science and Technology, 63(4), 811-817.

Chapra, S., 2008. Surface Water Quality Modeling, Waveland Press.

University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.

Alberta, Canada, *Climatic Change*, 105, 555–576.

Directions. *Transactions of ASABE*, 50(4), 121.

adjustments. *Climate Dynamics* 16 (2–3): 147–168.

*Natural Resources & Environment*, 22(3), 32-35.

United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Nevada, USA, Paper No: 032175

modeling and assessment part I : Model development. *J. American Water Resour.* 

reuse: Issues, technologies, and application. Metcalf &Eddy/AECOM, McGraw

human urine using clinoptilolite and preliminary results of its use as fertilizer,

Simulation Program – FORTRAN (HSPF), user's manual for version 12.0, USEPA,

version of the Hadley Centre coupled model without flux adjustments. *Climate* 

Frankfurt Hydrology Paper 03, Institute of Physical Geography, Frankfurt

hydrological response to predicted climate change on a watershed in southern

Assessment Tool: Historical Development, Applications and Future Research

and Wood, R.A. 2000. The simulation of SST, sea ice extents and ocean heat transports in a version of the Hadley Centre coupled model without flux

Models for Simulating Hydrologic and Water Quality Responses from an Urbanizing Watershed, *Proceedings of the 2003 ASAE Annual International Meeting*,

Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,

**6. References** 

*Assoc.*, 34(1), 73.

Athens, GA, 30605.

*Dynamics* 17: 61–81

*Desalination*, 218, 105-119.

Hill, USA.


Van Dam, J.C., 2000. Field-scale water flow and solute transport. *SWAP model concepts,* 

Yeh, G., Huang, G., Zhang, F., Cheng, P., Lin, J. 2005. WASH123D: A Numerical Model of

Wageningen, The Netherlands

Subsurface Media, USEPA

*parameter estimation, and case studie*s. PhD-thesis, Wageningen University,

Flow, Thermal Transport, and Salinity, Sediment, and Water Quality Transport in Watershed Systems of 1-D Stream-River Network, 2-D Overland Regime, and 3-D
