*4.3.3 Anti-inflammatory drugs*

In the case of anti-inflammatory drugs, two drugs have presented synergistic effect with antibiotics against *E. coli* and *K. pneumoniae*. The first one is celecoxib which has potentiated the activity of colistin against *E. coli* and *K. pneumoniae* [19]. In turn, betamethasone has presented synergy with ceftazidime and ofloxacin against some isolates of *E. coli* [76]. Similar to *A. baumannii* and *P. aeruginosa*, glatiramer acetate has presented antibacterial effect against reference strains of *E. coli* by disrupting the biofilm formation [42]. Moreover, ebselen has been shown to present antibacterial effect against *E. coli* by reducing their bacterial growth at MICs <128 μM due to the inhibition of TonB [51], and azathioprine has exhibited anti-biofilm activity against *E. coli* through the inhibition of WspR *in vitro* [43]. Finally, GTS-21 in combination with M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor agonist have been shown to reduce the mortality of mice in sepsis model by *E. coli* in 4 and 24 h [38]. At clinical stage, an interventional clinical trial on anti-inflammatory effects of oral administration of GTS-21 on the inflammatory response in 7 patients with endotoxemia by LPS of *E. coli* showed that GTS-21 reduced the levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the plasma of these patients [91, 92].
