**1.1 Movement and hypnosis**

While different theories of hypnosis share the assumption that a hypnotic response is automatic and feels like it is happening by itself [17, 18], they do not necessarily agree on the level of intentionality and cognitive control processes that are involved. For instance, the response expectancy theory claims that expecting a behavior to happen can elicit that particular behavior; therefore, suggestions can be implemented without the involvement of intentional executive systems [19, 20]. However, expectations cannot fully account for the variance in hypnotic responding [21, 22], which is indicative of trait differences in both hypnotizability [23] and in hypnotic depth [24].

In parallel to intentionality and volition, there is a close connection between hypnosis and movement. Hypnosis may help patients to better achieve tasks of motor imagination and alter activity in the motor cortex [5]. In addition, while some argue that eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) and hypnosis are qualitatively different, the two are often used in conjunction in therapy [25–27].

But what is the exact nature of the relationship between movement and hypnosis, and what are the possible mediating electrophysiological mechanisms between inner and outer movements and hypnosis? These are the main questions that will be addressed in this chapter. Specifically, we will discuss the possible underlying neuronal mechanisms mediating both movement and hypnosis, with a specific focus on theta activity. What we term "inner movements" and their relation to theta activity will be discussed in Section 2, focusing on hypnosis, meditation, and perceptual deprivation. This will be followed by external movement practices and their relation to such "inner movement." Consequently, we will embed our discussion within the framework of the Sphere Model of Consciousness [15] giving special attention to the Minimal Self and Narrative Self (for review see [28]). Briefly, the Minimal Self has a short temporal extension and is endowed with a sense of action, property, and first person nonconceptual content, while the Narrative Self involves personal identity and continuity through time and includes conceptual content. The SMC specifies the addition of a third state, called Overcoming of the Self, in which all sense of self disappears. Overcoming of the Self, which is parallel to consciousness without contents, has only recently been the subject of neuroscientific studies [29, 30]. It can further be compared with self-transcendence, absorption, and nondual states [31, 32].

#### **1.2 Electrophysiological measures and hypnosis**

Neural oscillations are divided into different frequency bands: both theta (4–7 Hz) and alpha (8–12 Hz) bands are associated with working memory and attention, while the gamma band (30–70 Hz) is associated with functions that include long-term memory storage and retrieval, as well as perceptual processing [33–35]. An increase in theta activity, quantified as spectral power, both frontally and globally, is a hallmark of hypnotic states [36], trance [37], meditative states [38–40], states of absorption [40], and of hypnotizability ([41]; but see [42] for an opposing view). Importantly, frontal theta activity correlates negatively with

**75**

inferences which, in turn, generate predictions.

*Inner Navigation and Theta Activity: From Movement to Cognition and Hypnosis…*

default mode network (DMN) activity [43], which is typically active during taskfree resting states and is thought to represent neural processing related to mindwandering [44, 45]. Keeping in mind that the DMN activity is automatic and is thus considered nonvoluntary, it is not surprising that electrophysiological studies based

In addition, while hypnosis and hypnotizability are thought to be mediated electrophysiologically by theta activity and behaviorally by relaxation [51, 52], it is still under debate whether all hypnosis is actually autohypnosis (see for a review [53]), since motivation seems to play a central role in the process. For example, being motivated to participate in a hypnotic session and having a positive attitude about it correlates with the success of the hypnotic response and the effectiveness of the hypnotic experience [54]. This suggests that the levels of intentionality and attention could be related to the levels of hypnosis and participant susceptibility. Seemingly paradoxical, there may be a voluntary "letting go" that occurs in the hypnotic process [13, 55] related to *Overcoming of the Self*, which will be discussed

At the electrophysiological level, it has been suggested that slow wave oscillations facilitate responses to suggestion, which in turn may help to explain the known variability in hypnotic responding between individuals [56]. This has been supported by findings of significantly higher levels of baseline theta activity in highly hypnotizable participants relative to those scoring "low" on hypnotizability [36, 57–61] and a tendency for hypnotic inductions to result in increases in theta

Notably, an increase in both theta activity and alpha activity was reported among proficient meditators during meditation ([39], p. 191; [64]) and at rest ([39], p. 190), but not among those assessed for hypnotizability ([65]; note, however, that in their review, these authors only discuss the lack of a systematic relationship with alpha activity). However, the authors clarify that this increase in theta activity among proficient meditators was "the frontal midline theta generated by the anterior cingulate, dorsal, and medial prefrontal cortices" and not the "theta typically seen at the transition from Stage I to Stage II sleep…[which] originates from more widespread source" ([39], p. 202). Thus, some evidence suggests that the notion that a meditative state is essentially a hypnagogic state (the transitional state between wakefulness and sleep) or even sleep itself [66] should be replaced by the notion that a meditative state can be an intentionally prolonged hypnagogic state ([67], pp. 99–100; [68], p. 403; [69], p. 158); this, itself, would be considered to be a trance state [70]. Furthermore, as Holroyd ([71], p. 115) suggests, "a distinction is drawn between low range theta (4–6 Hz) which is associated with reverie and high range theta (5–7 Hz) which, in the frontal cortex area, is associated with loss of executive control." Mitchell, McNaughton, Flanagan, and Kirk ([72], p. 179) also suggest, "The meditation data make it possible that FM [frontal-midline]-theta is a sign that attentional resources are more internally than externally focused." Turning to change in gamma activity in the low range (25–45 Hz) in these states, there is a

<sup>1</sup> Predictive coding suggests that the brain generates hypotheses about the possible causes of forthcoming sensory events and that these hypotheses are compared with incoming sensory information and enables the motor system to "select appropriate responses" before an anticipated event is realized [46]. Similarly, predictive timing can be defined as the "process by which uncertainty about 'when' events are likely to occur is minimized in order to facilitate their processing and detection" [47]. At the neurophysiological level, anticipating sensory events resets the phase of delta and theta activity before the stimulus occurs [47]. Llewellyn [48] argues that REM dreaming has an elaborative role for encoding during sleep, suggesting that REM dreaming constitutes prospective coding because elaborative encoding enables

have focused mostly on theta activity [49, 50].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92755*

activity, especially among highs [36, 62, 63].

on predictive coding models1

further in Section 4.

### *Inner Navigation and Theta Activity: From Movement to Cognition and Hypnosis… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92755*

default mode network (DMN) activity [43], which is typically active during taskfree resting states and is thought to represent neural processing related to mindwandering [44, 45]. Keeping in mind that the DMN activity is automatic and is thus considered nonvoluntary, it is not surprising that electrophysiological studies based on predictive coding models1 have focused mostly on theta activity [49, 50].

In addition, while hypnosis and hypnotizability are thought to be mediated electrophysiologically by theta activity and behaviorally by relaxation [51, 52], it is still under debate whether all hypnosis is actually autohypnosis (see for a review [53]), since motivation seems to play a central role in the process. For example, being motivated to participate in a hypnotic session and having a positive attitude about it correlates with the success of the hypnotic response and the effectiveness of the hypnotic experience [54]. This suggests that the levels of intentionality and attention could be related to the levels of hypnosis and participant susceptibility. Seemingly paradoxical, there may be a voluntary "letting go" that occurs in the hypnotic process [13, 55] related to *Overcoming of the Self*, which will be discussed further in Section 4.

At the electrophysiological level, it has been suggested that slow wave oscillations facilitate responses to suggestion, which in turn may help to explain the known variability in hypnotic responding between individuals [56]. This has been supported by findings of significantly higher levels of baseline theta activity in highly hypnotizable participants relative to those scoring "low" on hypnotizability [36, 57–61] and a tendency for hypnotic inductions to result in increases in theta activity, especially among highs [36, 62, 63].

Notably, an increase in both theta activity and alpha activity was reported among proficient meditators during meditation ([39], p. 191; [64]) and at rest ([39], p. 190), but not among those assessed for hypnotizability ([65]; note, however, that in their review, these authors only discuss the lack of a systematic relationship with alpha activity). However, the authors clarify that this increase in theta activity among proficient meditators was "the frontal midline theta generated by the anterior cingulate, dorsal, and medial prefrontal cortices" and not the "theta typically seen at the transition from Stage I to Stage II sleep…[which] originates from more widespread source" ([39], p. 202). Thus, some evidence suggests that the notion that a meditative state is essentially a hypnagogic state (the transitional state between wakefulness and sleep) or even sleep itself [66] should be replaced by the notion that a meditative state can be an intentionally prolonged hypnagogic state ([67], pp. 99–100; [68], p. 403; [69], p. 158); this, itself, would be considered to be a trance state [70]. Furthermore, as Holroyd ([71], p. 115) suggests, "a distinction is drawn between low range theta (4–6 Hz) which is associated with reverie and high range theta (5–7 Hz) which, in the frontal cortex area, is associated with loss of executive control." Mitchell, McNaughton, Flanagan, and Kirk ([72], p. 179) also suggest, "The meditation data make it possible that FM [frontal-midline]-theta is a sign that attentional resources are more internally than externally focused." Turning to change in gamma activity in the low range (25–45 Hz) in these states, there is a

*Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis*

nociceptive input underlying pain [16].

**1.1 Movement and hypnosis**

The Sphere Model of Consciousness developed by Paoletti [11–15] suggests that every experience of consciousness can be phenomenologically described as a movement within a spherical matrix. As will be illustrated in Section 4, the model provides that intentionality could be a means through which one can move from Narrative to Minimal Self and this, in turn, could allow deeper hypnotizability as well as other phenomena related to hypnosis, such as a reinterpretation of the

While different theories of hypnosis share the assumption that a hypnotic response

is automatic and feels like it is happening by itself [17, 18], they do not necessarily agree on the level of intentionality and cognitive control processes that are involved. For instance, the response expectancy theory claims that expecting a behavior to happen can elicit that particular behavior; therefore, suggestions can be implemented without the involvement of intentional executive systems [19, 20]. However, expectations cannot fully account for the variance in hypnotic responding [21, 22], which is indicative of trait differences in both hypnotizability [23] and in hypnotic depth [24]. In parallel to intentionality and volition, there is a close connection between hypnosis and movement. Hypnosis may help patients to better achieve tasks of motor imagination and alter activity in the motor cortex [5]. In addition, while some argue that eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) and hypnosis are qualitatively different, the two are often used in conjunction in therapy [25–27]. But what is the exact nature of the relationship between movement and hypnosis, and what are the possible mediating electrophysiological mechanisms between inner and outer movements and hypnosis? These are the main questions that will be addressed in this chapter. Specifically, we will discuss the possible underlying neuronal mechanisms mediating both movement and hypnosis, with a specific focus on theta activity. What we term "inner movements" and their relation to theta activity will be discussed in Section 2, focusing on hypnosis, meditation, and perceptual deprivation. This will be followed by external movement practices and their relation to such "inner movement." Consequently, we will embed our discussion within the framework of the Sphere Model of Consciousness [15] giving special attention to the Minimal Self and Narrative Self (for review see [28]). Briefly, the Minimal Self has a short temporal extension and is endowed with a sense of action, property, and first person nonconceptual content, while the Narrative Self involves personal identity and continuity through time and includes conceptual content. The SMC specifies the addition of a third state, called Overcoming of the Self, in which all sense of self disappears. Overcoming of the Self, which is parallel to consciousness without contents, has only recently been the subject of neuroscientific studies [29, 30]. It can further be compared with self-transcendence, absorption, and

**74**

nondual states [31, 32].

**1.2 Electrophysiological measures and hypnosis**

Neural oscillations are divided into different frequency bands: both theta (4–7 Hz) and alpha (8–12 Hz) bands are associated with working memory and attention, while the gamma band (30–70 Hz) is associated with functions that include long-term memory storage and retrieval, as well as perceptual processing [33–35]. An increase in theta activity, quantified as spectral power, both frontally and globally, is a hallmark of hypnotic states [36], trance [37], meditative states [38–40], states of absorption [40], and of hypnotizability ([41]; but see [42] for an opposing view). Importantly, frontal theta activity correlates negatively with

<sup>1</sup> Predictive coding suggests that the brain generates hypotheses about the possible causes of forthcoming sensory events and that these hypotheses are compared with incoming sensory information and enables the motor system to "select appropriate responses" before an anticipated event is realized [46]. Similarly, predictive timing can be defined as the "process by which uncertainty about 'when' events are likely to occur is minimized in order to facilitate their processing and detection" [47]. At the neurophysiological level, anticipating sensory events resets the phase of delta and theta activity before the stimulus occurs [47]. Llewellyn [48] argues that REM dreaming has an elaborative role for encoding during sleep, suggesting that REM dreaming constitutes prospective coding because elaborative encoding enables inferences which, in turn, generate predictions.

decrease in frontal power [73] and an increase in posterior power [38, 73] and/or a decrease in central power [40].<sup>2</sup>

It is noteworthy, then, that an increase in theta activity during hypnotic induction has been found in various studies ([36, 56, 62, 63]; for review, see [78]. From [79]). Frontal theta has been found to increase with working memory load, indicating a role of theta oscillations in working memory maintenance (for review, see [43]). Theta activity increases with increasing task demands and is related to orienting, attention, memory, and affective processing mechanisms [35, 80]. Theta activity is highest at frontal midline electrodes in the resting state, indicating that the frontal theta rhythm is also detectable during rest conditions [81].

While hypnosis has been most closely linked to power in the theta band, reports suggesting changes also in gamma activity have been considered [56]. Jensen et al. [56] proposed a link between theta oscillations and hypnosis, whereby theta oscillations facilitate hypnotic responding. They further speculated that theta-gamma phase-locked oscillations may provide a physiological explanation for hypnosis by suggesting the linking of limbic and neocortical circuits [56]. However, gamma activity is known to be at possible risk of contamination from muscular activity [82] or saccade-related spike potentials (SP) due to eye movements [83].

While acknowledging that theta is associated with a large number of cognitive activities and states (including, among others, attention, orienting, decision-making, feelings of drowsiness, and emotional arousal, as noted above), it is important to emphasize that the most commonly identified roles for theta are those concerned with declarative memory coding and retrieval (for a review, see [78]) and navigation, such as maze navigation [84–86]. In parallel to navigation in the external environment, which is electrophysiologically mediated mostly by theta activity [84–86], we will suggest that:


The following section will introduce several "internal movement" techniques related to both hypnosis and meditation, as well as absorption and theta activity.
