**2.1 Hypnosis and absorption**

Trait absorption has relevance for the study of imagery, hallucinatory or pseudo-hallucinatory experiences of altered states of consciousness, and

**77**

*Inner Navigation and Theta Activity: From Movement to Cognition and Hypnosis…*

elaborate imagination [87–89]. Individuals scoring high on trait absorption will have a markedly different experiential profile compared to those scoring low on trait absorption [89, 90], and these two groups will perform differently on tasks of attentional demand [91, 92]. The overlap between high trait absorption and (1) high hypnotizability [23, 93, 94] and (2) proficiency in meditation [95] may indicate that the correlation between the two is either "significant only when both scales are administered in the same context, thus allowing the subjects to become aware that the experimenter expected to find an association between them" ([96], pp. 849–850; see also [97], but also [98], who do not find such a context effect), or the position we support that "absorbed attention may be an important prerequisite for successful long-term practice of meditation" ([69], p. 188), and that "a deeper state of absorption seems to facilitate the entrance to

The trait-state approach to hypnosis [100] suggests that the *trait* of absorption will interact with situational *context* in producing *state* absorption or a hypnotic state of consciousness. Consider what Kihlstrom ([101], p. 366) terms the "canonical design for hypnosis research," which "involves administering a standard hypnotic induction, or a control procedure, to subjects classified (on the basis of the standardized scales) as low, medium, or high in hypnotizability... Such a design permits assessments of both the correlates of hypnotizability (in the absence of hypnotic induction) and the effects of the induction procedure (independent of hypnotizability). Of particular interest, of course, is the interaction of these factors—i.e., how highly hypnotizable subjects behave following a hypnotic induction, compared to some control condition." Replace hypnotizability with absorption (the two being modestly correlated), and one can see how those scoring high on absorption behave differently from those scoring low on absorption, in much the same manner. Note further, that "Although there is acceptance that there is a general trait of hypnotic susceptibility, as measured by conventionally used standardized scales… susceptibility is also modifiable… Additionally, hypnosis in susceptibles is not a unitary state ([102], p. 62). Hence, the trait-state approach must consider a

Furthermore, one can investigate concomitant electrophysiological changes in theta power in this trait-state interaction. For example, Graffin et al. [103] concluded from their study that "that the high-susceptible individuals displayed a decrease in EEG theta activity from the baseline period immediately preceding the hypnotic induction to that immediately following the induction, whereas the lowsusceptible individuals showed an increase in EEG theta activity. This is consistent with the view that the high- and low-susceptible individuals are indeed in different cortical states prior to and following the hypnotic induction, that is to say, the induction procedure itself would be assumed to differentially affect high- and lowsusceptible individuals." Kihlstrom ([101], p. 367) has a different take on this. He comments: "Graffin et al. interpreted the changes in theta as indicative of heightened concentration among hypnotizable subjects, but the fact that theta activity decreased in hypnotizable subjects and increased in insusceptible subjects suggests that, following the induction of hypnosis, both groups of subjects were actually in very similar cortical states." Either way, what is important here is the interaction of

Given that theta activity can be indicative of either the induction of a hypnagogic-like state of consciousness (which, in the present context, is closely affiliated with both meditation and hypnosis), or of highly concentrated attention [104], such shifts in theta power can be indicative of either of these. Schacter ([104], pp. 74–75) warns us that "It is not yet know whether the two "classes" of psychological events related to theta activity are essentially different processes, or whether

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92755*

a deeper ASC" ([99], pp. 126–127).

dynamic, unfolding, modifiable, interaction.

trait with condition in producing these shifts in theta activity.

<sup>2</sup> It is noteworthy to remember that in many conditions, gamma power is phase-locked to theta activity and that both work in coordination of hippocampal networks during both waking and REM sleep [74, 75]. In addition to gamma, also beta activity is evident during both waking and REM sleep [76]. Gamma activity is further related to sensory perception, problem-solving, and memory and is thought to contribute to "binding" of sensory information (for review see [76]) and problem-solving with insight [77].

#### *Inner Navigation and Theta Activity: From Movement to Cognition and Hypnosis… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92755*

elaborate imagination [87–89]. Individuals scoring high on trait absorption will have a markedly different experiential profile compared to those scoring low on trait absorption [89, 90], and these two groups will perform differently on tasks of attentional demand [91, 92]. The overlap between high trait absorption and (1) high hypnotizability [23, 93, 94] and (2) proficiency in meditation [95] may indicate that the correlation between the two is either "significant only when both scales are administered in the same context, thus allowing the subjects to become aware that the experimenter expected to find an association between them" ([96], pp. 849–850; see also [97], but also [98], who do not find such a context effect), or the position we support that "absorbed attention may be an important prerequisite for successful long-term practice of meditation" ([69], p. 188), and that "a deeper state of absorption seems to facilitate the entrance to a deeper ASC" ([99], pp. 126–127).

The trait-state approach to hypnosis [100] suggests that the *trait* of absorption will interact with situational *context* in producing *state* absorption or a hypnotic state of consciousness. Consider what Kihlstrom ([101], p. 366) terms the "canonical design for hypnosis research," which "involves administering a standard hypnotic induction, or a control procedure, to subjects classified (on the basis of the standardized scales) as low, medium, or high in hypnotizability... Such a design permits assessments of both the correlates of hypnotizability (in the absence of hypnotic induction) and the effects of the induction procedure (independent of hypnotizability). Of particular interest, of course, is the interaction of these factors—i.e., how highly hypnotizable subjects behave following a hypnotic induction, compared to some control condition." Replace hypnotizability with absorption (the two being modestly correlated), and one can see how those scoring high on absorption behave differently from those scoring low on absorption, in much the same manner. Note further, that "Although there is acceptance that there is a general trait of hypnotic susceptibility, as measured by conventionally used standardized scales… susceptibility is also modifiable… Additionally, hypnosis in susceptibles is not a unitary state ([102], p. 62). Hence, the trait-state approach must consider a dynamic, unfolding, modifiable, interaction.

Furthermore, one can investigate concomitant electrophysiological changes in theta power in this trait-state interaction. For example, Graffin et al. [103] concluded from their study that "that the high-susceptible individuals displayed a decrease in EEG theta activity from the baseline period immediately preceding the hypnotic induction to that immediately following the induction, whereas the lowsusceptible individuals showed an increase in EEG theta activity. This is consistent with the view that the high- and low-susceptible individuals are indeed in different cortical states prior to and following the hypnotic induction, that is to say, the induction procedure itself would be assumed to differentially affect high- and lowsusceptible individuals." Kihlstrom ([101], p. 367) has a different take on this. He comments: "Graffin et al. interpreted the changes in theta as indicative of heightened concentration among hypnotizable subjects, but the fact that theta activity decreased in hypnotizable subjects and increased in insusceptible subjects suggests that, following the induction of hypnosis, both groups of subjects were actually in very similar cortical states." Either way, what is important here is the interaction of trait with condition in producing these shifts in theta activity.

Given that theta activity can be indicative of either the induction of a hypnagogic-like state of consciousness (which, in the present context, is closely affiliated with both meditation and hypnosis), or of highly concentrated attention [104], such shifts in theta power can be indicative of either of these. Schacter ([104], pp. 74–75) warns us that "It is not yet know whether the two "classes" of psychological events related to theta activity are essentially different processes, or whether

*Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis*

decrease in central power [40].<sup>2</sup>

[84–86], we will suggest that:

greater intentionality and attention [15].

tal navigation.

space [82].

**2. Inner movement**

**2.1 Hypnosis and absorption**

decrease in frontal power [73] and an increase in posterior power [38, 73] and/or a

While hypnosis has been most closely linked to power in the theta band, reports suggesting changes also in gamma activity have been considered [56]. Jensen et al. [56] proposed a link between theta oscillations and hypnosis, whereby theta oscillations facilitate hypnotic responding. They further speculated that theta-gamma phase-locked oscillations may provide a physiological explanation for hypnosis by suggesting the linking of limbic and neocortical circuits [56]. However, gamma activity is known to be at possible risk of contamination from muscular activity [82]

While acknowledging that theta is associated with a large number of cognitive activities and states (including, among others, attention, orienting, decision-making, feelings of drowsiness, and emotional arousal, as noted above), it is important to emphasize that the most commonly identified roles for theta are those concerned with declarative memory coding and retrieval (for a review, see [78]) and navigation, such as maze navigation [84–86]. In parallel to navigation in the external environment, which is electrophysiologically mediated mostly by theta activity

1.Hypnosis and other "internal movement" paradigms may be regarded as men-

3.Internal movement paradigms, such as hypnosis and meditation, are electrophysiologically mediated, among other bands, by theta activity and require

The following section will introduce several "internal movement" techniques related to both hypnosis and meditation, as well as absorption and theta activity.

Trait absorption has relevance for the study of imagery, hallucinatory or pseudo-hallucinatory experiences of altered states of consciousness, and

<sup>2</sup> It is noteworthy to remember that in many conditions, gamma power is phase-locked to theta activity and that both work in coordination of hippocampal networks during both waking and REM sleep [74, 75]. In addition to gamma, also beta activity is evident during both waking and REM sleep [76]. Gamma activity is further related to sensory perception, problem-solving, and memory and is thought to contribute to

"binding" of sensory information (for review see [76]) and problem-solving with insight [77].

2.Hypnosis can be compared with external movement and navigation in

It is noteworthy, then, that an increase in theta activity during hypnotic induction has been found in various studies ([36, 56, 62, 63]; for review, see [78]. From [79]). Frontal theta has been found to increase with working memory load, indicating a role of theta oscillations in working memory maintenance (for review, see [43]). Theta activity increases with increasing task demands and is related to orienting, attention, memory, and affective processing mechanisms [35, 80]. Theta activity is highest at frontal midline electrodes in the resting state, indicating that

the frontal theta rhythm is also detectable during rest conditions [81].

or saccade-related spike potentials (SP) due to eye movements [83].

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they are different aspects of the same process ... This is a critical problem for future research. …we might question whether it is plausible to accept that theta activity observed during zazen concentration in experienced meditators indexes psychological processes that are similar to those observed in college-age volunteers when concentrating on a mental arithmetic problem." Thus, even though, as White, et al. ([105], p. 98) have noted, the "correlation between baseline theta and hypnotizability has been described as a robust finding in the literature, proposed to result from attentional differences between high and low susceptibility groups," without a close analysis of how such theta activity is related to the actual performance of those scoring low or high on absorption, we will remain with the problem underlined by Schacter [104]. What is promising is that "findings showing differences between highs and lows in both the *patterns* of associations between EEG-assessed bandwidth activity and subjects' phenomenological experience of hypnosis … and in the brain *areas* (source locations) associated with theta and beta activity…." ([56], p. 44).

Speaking of beta, it was further found that the hypnotic depth and increased imagery and exceptionality of the hypnotic experience in highly suggestible individuals were related to fast frequencies, including beta and gamma, while the lows exhibited negative correlations between imagery on the one hand and theta and beta on the other [106].

In this context, it should also be kept in mind that beta oscillatory activity is likely to have a functional role in response selection, resembling attentional modulation of alpha activity [107]. Beta modulation was found also following "animal hypnosis," also known as "tonic immobility" or "immobility reflex".

The modulation depended on type of induction and session number [108, 109], supporting previous evidence that beta power has also been implicated in broader cognitive processes [107] in addition to movement and response inhibition [107].
