**2. The integrative theory of hypnosis**

The phenomenon of animal hypnosis, identified in all higher vertebrates and, therefore, genetically determined [1, 2], as a rule, is not evaluated by modern hypnologists as a homolog of human hypnosis. The belonging of humans to mammals gives no chance for selective "loss" of basic, genetically determined protective mechanisms of hypnosis. If the ability of hypnotization in humans is genetically determined, how one can be fundamentally non-hypnable? In this logic, situational hypnability/non-hypnability is the result of the interaction of cultural and personal representations about hypnosis with the perception of actual hypnotization, personal request for hypnotization, but not the implementation of some primary, essential level of hypnability. What is the point of populational and longitudinal studies of hypnability and creation of great amount of appropriate psychometric tools for its estimation? What is measured in reality, hypnability or suggestibility? Where is the analysis of the results of clinical practice in which the vast majority of

It should be noted that the general trend for searching of interrelations between genetic factors and brain activities, especially in cases of mental disorders [3, 4], is accepted by modern hypnology [5, 6]. In the logic of the cognitive hypnosis paradigm, the relationship of the dopamine-related catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) [5] and the serotonin-related 5-HTTLPR polymorphisms to measuring hypnotizability was studied [6]. The study of connections between genotype and the

hypnotizability, determined both by questionnaires, outside hypnosis, and in combination with real hypnosis [7] concretizes interrelations of dopaminergic and serotonergic genotypes and the subjective different experiences in hypnosis. From the standpoint of clinical hypnotherapy, which demonstrates efficiency in the treatment of anxiety and affective disorders [8], the fact of cross-association of the Val158Met catechol-O-methyltransferase genetic polymorphism simultaneously with (1) anxiety disorders (ADs) [9] and (2) hypnotizability [6] becomes significant. The long-term process of accumulation of genetic data associated with the phenomenon of human hypnosis in the future can lead to a comparison of human and animal hypnosis. The search for the genetic basis of universal protective

hypnosis reaction in humans and animals has not yet been realized.

wakefulness and (2) situationally determined (animal) hypnosis.

acquires a fundamental therapeutic value in human hypnosis [12].

**42**

The brain of all higher vertebrates operates in the fundamental circadian cycle of the steady states (modes) of sleep and wakefulness. The phenomenon of animal hypnosis represents a protective adaptation to the behavioral situations of an insoluble impasse [10, 11], which includes a holistic systemic pattern associated with immobilization (catalepsy); decrease or cessation of pain sensitivity; and situationally determined duration. Sleep and wakefulness form a category of circadian-conditioned, fundamental, stable states, whereas the phenomenon of hypnosis belongs a qualitatively different category of behaviorally situationally developing state that ends when the situation is resolved successfully. Such a logic allows us to distinguish between two basic genetically determined categories or classes of states in the activity of the brain: (1) circadian-conditioned sleep and

Russian neurophysiologists Bogdanov and Galashina [1, 2, 12] in the study of animal hypnosis in rabbits had revealed that the single case of animal hypnosis has long-term (1 month) neurobiological action; is followed by functional regress of neuronal activity in the networks, with reorganizational transduction of pathways of coded information, and restoration of neuronal activity after hypnosis; and stimulates and optimizes the learning in a previously actualized area of the behavior. So, experimental data indicate a powerful neurobiological effect of animal hypnosis, and increasing the effectiveness of learning in a previously actualized area

Being a homolog of animal hypnosis, human hypnosis extensively and variably implements a genetically defined neurophysiological pattern of adaptive response

hypnotherapist's patients are hypnable?

*Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis*

#### **2.1 History of development and components**

In the 1970s to 1980s, the author conducted an extensive research on the characteristics of reproduction and the impact of hypnosis-induced colors and images in the interest of their utilization in hypnotherapy of anxiety disorders [10, 11].

In the 1970s, Russian hypnology was based on Pavlov's theory of hypnosis, and the phenomenology of hypnosis was completely studied [10]. In an attempt to use color suggestion for additional directed (sedative, activating, based on the psychology of color) effects, the author began to use regular suggestion of blue color for the therapy of anxiety disorders. Like the Western colleagues, the author believed in the direct implementation of the "correct" hypnotic suggestion and expected that in deep hypnosis, patients would directly realize the suggestion of concrete blue color. Results of the suggestion, "To see the blue color, to see it constantly," turned out to be much more complicated (see **Figures 1**–**4**): (1) "vision" of color occurred not only in deep but also in medium hypnosis, i.e., in most patients; and (2) in addition to blue, other chromatic and achromatic colors and visual images were realized. Since the identified phenomenology of realization of color suggestion was not previously known, the author began its independent study, which lasted 10 years. Four voluminous studies were conducted:


For each study, special questionnaires were developed. Results obtained in the 1970s and 1980s were published in two author's monographs, given in the reference; therefore, this chapter contains only the main, valid results.

The experience obtained in the study of the hypnotic reproduction of color sensations and images is probably unique in its focus on the identification, fixation,

#### **Figure 1.**

*The post-hypnotic drawings of hypnotized subjects, reflecting the reproduction of induced blue color: "To see, to represent, to feel the blue color." Illustrations from the author's monograph.*

"banal" suggestion or spontaneous trance characteristics during hypnotherapy. Therefore, the phenomena described by the author fall out of sight of modern

*Patterns of reproduction of color and image in dependence of hypnosis depth. Posthypnotic drawings of subjects. Note: picture's systematization was based on independent estimation of hypnosis depth during hypnosis session.*

*The phenomenon of the achromatic transformation of induced blue color. Posthypnotic drawings of subjects.*

*The Integrative Theory of Hypnosis in the Light of Clinical Hypnotherapy*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92761*

As a result of our research, a new systematization of the reproduction of suggested colors was obtained. It included (1) patterns of reproduction of the induced color and image in different depths of hypnosis; (2) the description and interpretation of a phenomenon of chromatic transformation of the induced color; and (3) the description and interpretation of a phenomenon of achromatic trans-

We described the spatial and temporal differences in the reproduction of color and image in medium and deep hypnosis. In medium hypnosis induced colors and images are reproduced two-dimensionally (flat) and wavelike damped. In deep hypnosis induced colors and images are reproduced three-dimensionally and stable over time. The hypnosis maximum depth is characterized by "effect of presence," when hypnotized find himself "in the reality of image"—the image becomes sen-

The phenomenon of chromatic transformation of the induced color manifested in the reproduction of another color instead induced (e.g., red, yellow, green—on induction of blue). The study pointed to the connection of this phenomenon with infantilism—as personality characteristics of a hypnotized subject: (1) age-related

(adolescents) and (2) disorder-related (dissociative disorders).

researchers of color suggestions in hypnosis [13, 14].

formation of the induced color.

sory multimodal.

**45**

**Figure 4.**

**Figure 3.**

#### **Figure 2.**

*The phenomenon of the chromatic transformation of hypnotically induced color. Posthypnotic drawings of subjects.*

and detailed analysis of the spontaneous variability of the hypnotized response to suggestions in hypnosis. The study is focused not on assessing the effective achievement of a particular suggested result but on spontaneous responses to

*The Integrative Theory of Hypnosis in the Light of Clinical Hypnotherapy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92761*

**Figure 3.**

*The phenomenon of the achromatic transformation of induced blue color. Posthypnotic drawings of subjects.*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Patterns of reproduction of color and image in dependence of hypnosis depth. Posthypnotic drawings of subjects. Note: picture's systematization was based on independent estimation of hypnosis depth during hypnosis session.*

"banal" suggestion or spontaneous trance characteristics during hypnotherapy. Therefore, the phenomena described by the author fall out of sight of modern researchers of color suggestions in hypnosis [13, 14].

As a result of our research, a new systematization of the reproduction of suggested colors was obtained. It included (1) patterns of reproduction of the induced color and image in different depths of hypnosis; (2) the description and interpretation of a phenomenon of chromatic transformation of the induced color; and (3) the description and interpretation of a phenomenon of achromatic transformation of the induced color.

We described the spatial and temporal differences in the reproduction of color and image in medium and deep hypnosis. In medium hypnosis induced colors and images are reproduced two-dimensionally (flat) and wavelike damped. In deep hypnosis induced colors and images are reproduced three-dimensionally and stable over time. The hypnosis maximum depth is characterized by "effect of presence," when hypnotized find himself "in the reality of image"—the image becomes sensory multimodal.

The phenomenon of chromatic transformation of the induced color manifested in the reproduction of another color instead induced (e.g., red, yellow, green—on induction of blue). The study pointed to the connection of this phenomenon with infantilism—as personality characteristics of a hypnotized subject: (1) age-related (adolescents) and (2) disorder-related (dissociative disorders).

and detailed analysis of the spontaneous variability of the hypnotized response to suggestions in hypnosis. The study is focused not on assessing the effective achievement of a particular suggested result but on spontaneous responses to

*The phenomenon of the chromatic transformation of hypnotically induced color. Posthypnotic drawings of*

*The post-hypnotic drawings of hypnotized subjects, reflecting the reproduction of induced blue color: "To see, to*

*represent, to feel the blue color." Illustrations from the author's monograph.*

**Figure 1.**

*Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis*

**Figure 2.**

*subjects.*

**44**

The phenomenon of achromatic transformation of the induced color manifests in decolorization of induced colors (into black, gray). According to our findings, the phenomenon of achromatic transformation of reproduced colors in hypnosis intensely increased in cases of brain organic disorders, which lead to the idea of its connection with low level of brain activation. The experimental verification confirmed the hypothesis. We received a change in the initial reproduction of blue color by psychopharmacological increase (imipramine) and decrease (chlorpromazine) of the level of activity of the reticular formation of the brain. A single use of imipramine (25 mg 1 h before a hypnotic session) validly improved color reproduction, and a single use of chlorpromazine (25 mg 1 h before a hypnotic session) caused a total achromatic transformation in all subjects.

generation of activity are realized by morphologically different structures within

*The Integrative Theory of Hypnosis in the Light of Clinical Hypnotherapy*

Deepening of hypnosis from wakefulness to somnambulism is based on the growth of opportunities for brain activation; deep hypnosis opportunities for brain

Hypnosis development in right-handers is associated with a regressive transfer of the left hemisphere regulatory activity to the right hemispheric functioning mode. In comparison with the ontogenetic shift of hemispheric specialization, this is a reversed process of the whole brain function reorganization to right hemispheric principle. This conclusion was published in 1996 [10]. A year later, in 1997, the authoritative American hypnotist published a review with the characteristic title [17]: "Relateralizing hypnosis: or, have we been barking up the wrong hemisphere?" Subsequent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) research showed [18, 19] high levels of activity in areas responsible for visualizing scenes (the occipital lobes) and for analyzing verbally presented scenarios (the left temporal lobe), a heightened activity in the prefrontal cortex, and a higher connectivity between different brain regions in highly hypnotizable people. In hypnosis, a perception of color, real or hallucinated, led to the activation of the fusiform area with

Functional regression of thinking processes promotes prevalence of figurative thinking and activates attributive projectivity of thinking. Hypnotic reproduction of sensations and images involves attributive projectivity and reflects entirely personal traits and states and body functioning; this opens a way for projective transformations of problems and symptoms of psychogenic and somatic disorders. In the waking state, phenomenal models of the world and the self, stored in the subject's memory, are superimposed on the current perception of the external world and the perception of self. In hypnosis subject's phenomenal models of the world and the self are superimposed, projected on the limited self-perception, which leads to the

the activating system of the brain.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92761*

logical and bodily condition.

**2.3 Biological component**

organism.

**47**

protein, bilirubin, and cholesterol exchange; etc.

specific suggestions) change of pain sensations.

branes, cells, organs, and tissues, slowing down their aging.

activation are comparable to the waking state.

more clear effects in the left cerebral hemisphere than the right.

formation of limited (intra-perceptual) hypnotic reality and expanded

(intra-/extra-perceptual) hypnotic reality. All the phenomenal content of consciousness of the subject in hypnosis deeply and fully reflected his current psycho-

Hypnotization generates hypnogenic stress. Hypnotherapy activates the systemic readaptation processes that are reflected in changes in neurohormonal and neurotransmitter secretions; activities of the immunological system; activation of

Hypnotherapy activates protein metabolism and activity of several enzyme systems of the organism. Hypnotherapy has a positive influence on the metabolism of bilirubin. The activation of cholesterol metabolism, characterized by a significant reduction of its concentration in the blood, has a significant clinical importance. The observed decrease of cholesterol concentration in blood, normalizing its metabolism in the process of hypnotherapy, means the restoration of activity of cell mem-

The stressful nature of hypnosis limits its therapeutic application, in that exces-

Hypnosis in clinical situations enables the possibility of a spontaneous (without

sive intensity of hypnogenic stress may result in the maladaptation. Prolonged hypnotherapy may actually decrease and exhaust adaptable resources of an

The obtained results allowed us in the 1980s to 1990s to develop the secondaryphenomenological approach of the study of hypnosis [10, 11]. It is based on the following: (1) Identification of patterns of reproduction of induced colors and images depending on the hypnosis depth, age, healthy subjects, and anxiety and organic disorders. (2) Comparison of hypnotic visual phenomenological patterns with neurophysiological models of brain activation system, visual afterimages, age dynamics of hemispheric asymmetry, and construction of the neurophysiological model of hypnosis. (3) Comparison of modern data of hypnosis neurophysiology.

The secondary-phenomenological approach allowed us to move from the systemic phenomenological description of visual hypnosis to its neurophysiological modeling.

The secondary-phenomenological approach to the study of hypnosis is fundamentally close and presents the precursor of the methodology of studying neuronal correlates of consciousness developed in modern psychology of consciousness [15], in which the implementation of consciousness patterns is related to the neurophysiological activity of the brain that provides them.

In the 1980s to 1990s, we have investigated the biological mechanisms of hypnotherapy and hypnosis phenomenon of spontaneous nociception [10, 11]. The study of the biological mechanisms of hypnotherapy was based on results of systemic clinical research of blood system in dynamics of hypnotherapy of anxiety and organic disorders.

The study was based on a fourfold analysis of 29 blood components (clinical, biochemical, immunological): (1) at the beginning of therapy, before and after a hypnotherapy session and (2) at the end of therapy, before and after a hypnotherapy session. The groups of the study include 113 patients with anxiety disorders of neurotic (78 subjects) and organic (35 subjects) genesis. The description of the biological mechanisms of hypnotherapy was based on the valid data of statistical analyzes (parametric, nonparametric, factorial).

The last 30 years, we have conducted research on therapy and hypnotherapy communication mechanisms. These studies formed the basis for the description of the communicative component of hypnotherapy [14].

Studies have allowed us to develop the integrative theory of hypnosis, represented by neurophysiological, biological, and communicative components [10, 11, 16].

#### **2.2 Neurophysiological component**

The development of hypnosis is achieved through the creation of primary (for man and animal) or secondary (symbolical) hypnogenic situations which restricts the ability to make decisions and/or its behavioral expressions. Hypnosis development results in a qualitative reorganization of the brain activation system functioning from distribution to generation of activity. The functions of distribution and

### *The Integrative Theory of Hypnosis in the Light of Clinical Hypnotherapy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92761*

generation of activity are realized by morphologically different structures within the activating system of the brain.

Deepening of hypnosis from wakefulness to somnambulism is based on the growth of opportunities for brain activation; deep hypnosis opportunities for brain activation are comparable to the waking state.

Hypnosis development in right-handers is associated with a regressive transfer of the left hemisphere regulatory activity to the right hemispheric functioning mode. In comparison with the ontogenetic shift of hemispheric specialization, this is a reversed process of the whole brain function reorganization to right hemispheric principle. This conclusion was published in 1996 [10]. A year later, in 1997, the authoritative American hypnotist published a review with the characteristic title [17]: "Relateralizing hypnosis: or, have we been barking up the wrong hemisphere?"

Subsequent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) research showed [18, 19] high levels of activity in areas responsible for visualizing scenes (the occipital lobes) and for analyzing verbally presented scenarios (the left temporal lobe), a heightened activity in the prefrontal cortex, and a higher connectivity between different brain regions in highly hypnotizable people. In hypnosis, a perception of color, real or hallucinated, led to the activation of the fusiform area with more clear effects in the left cerebral hemisphere than the right.

Functional regression of thinking processes promotes prevalence of figurative thinking and activates attributive projectivity of thinking. Hypnotic reproduction of sensations and images involves attributive projectivity and reflects entirely personal traits and states and body functioning; this opens a way for projective transformations of problems and symptoms of psychogenic and somatic disorders. In the waking state, phenomenal models of the world and the self, stored in the subject's memory, are superimposed on the current perception of the external world and the perception of self. In hypnosis subject's phenomenal models of the world and the self are superimposed, projected on the limited self-perception, which leads to the formation of limited (intra-perceptual) hypnotic reality and expanded (intra-/extra-perceptual) hypnotic reality. All the phenomenal content of consciousness of the subject in hypnosis deeply and fully reflected his current psychological and bodily condition.

#### **2.3 Biological component**

Hypnotization generates hypnogenic stress. Hypnotherapy activates the systemic readaptation processes that are reflected in changes in neurohormonal and neurotransmitter secretions; activities of the immunological system; activation of protein, bilirubin, and cholesterol exchange; etc.

Hypnotherapy activates protein metabolism and activity of several enzyme systems of the organism. Hypnotherapy has a positive influence on the metabolism of bilirubin. The activation of cholesterol metabolism, characterized by a significant reduction of its concentration in the blood, has a significant clinical importance. The observed decrease of cholesterol concentration in blood, normalizing its metabolism in the process of hypnotherapy, means the restoration of activity of cell membranes, cells, organs, and tissues, slowing down their aging.

The stressful nature of hypnosis limits its therapeutic application, in that excessive intensity of hypnogenic stress may result in the maladaptation. Prolonged hypnotherapy may actually decrease and exhaust adaptable resources of an organism.

Hypnosis in clinical situations enables the possibility of a spontaneous (without specific suggestions) change of pain sensations.

The phenomenon of achromatic transformation of the induced color manifests in decolorization of induced colors (into black, gray). According to our findings, the phenomenon of achromatic transformation of reproduced colors in hypnosis intensely increased in cases of brain organic disorders, which lead to the idea of its connection with low level of brain activation. The experimental verification confirmed the hypothesis. We received a change in the initial reproduction of blue color by psychopharmacological increase (imipramine) and decrease (chlorpromazine) of the level of activity of the reticular formation of the brain. A single use of imipramine (25 mg 1 h before a hypnotic session) validly improved color reproduction, and a single use of chlorpromazine (25 mg 1 h before a hypnotic session)

The obtained results allowed us in the 1980s to 1990s to develop the secondaryphenomenological approach of the study of hypnosis [10, 11]. It is based on the following: (1) Identification of patterns of reproduction of induced colors and images depending on the hypnosis depth, age, healthy subjects, and anxiety and organic disorders. (2) Comparison of hypnotic visual phenomenological patterns with neurophysiological models of brain activation system, visual afterimages, age dynamics of hemispheric asymmetry, and construction of the neurophysiological model of hypnosis. (3) Comparison of modern data of hypnosis neurophysiology. The secondary-phenomenological approach allowed us to move from the systemic phenomenological description of visual hypnosis to its neurophysiological

The secondary-phenomenological approach to the study of hypnosis is fundamentally close and presents the precursor of the methodology of studying neuronal correlates of consciousness developed in modern psychology of consciousness [15], in which the implementation of consciousness patterns is related to the neurophys-

In the 1980s to 1990s, we have investigated the biological mechanisms of hypnotherapy and hypnosis phenomenon of spontaneous nociception [10, 11]. The study of the biological mechanisms of hypnotherapy was based on results of systemic clinical research of blood system in dynamics of hypnotherapy of anxiety

The study was based on a fourfold analysis of 29 blood components (clinical, biochemical, immunological): (1) at the beginning of therapy, before and after a hypnotherapy session and (2) at the end of therapy, before and after a hypnotherapy session. The groups of the study include 113 patients with anxiety disorders of neurotic (78 subjects) and organic (35 subjects) genesis. The description of the biological mechanisms of hypnotherapy was based on the valid data of statistical

The last 30 years, we have conducted research on therapy and hypnotherapy communication mechanisms. These studies formed the basis for the description of

The development of hypnosis is achieved through the creation of primary (for man and animal) or secondary (symbolical) hypnogenic situations which restricts the ability to make decisions and/or its behavioral expressions. Hypnosis development results in a qualitative reorganization of the brain activation system functioning from distribution to generation of activity. The functions of distribution and

Studies have allowed us to develop the integrative theory of hypnosis, represented by neurophysiological, biological, and communicative components

caused a total achromatic transformation in all subjects.

iological activity of the brain that provides them.

analyzes (parametric, nonparametric, factorial).

**2.2 Neurophysiological component**

the communicative component of hypnotherapy [14].

modeling.

and organic disorders.

*Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis*

[10, 11, 16].

**46**

### *Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis*

In the 1980s during the course of group hypnotherapy in a therapeutic clinic, based on the universal hypnotherapy (UH) technique [10, 11, 17], which has no analgesic suggestions (see below), the author was faced with cases of spontaneous relief of acute (traumatic) pain after the session and opposite cases of the causeless appearance and amplification of patients' bodily pain during a hypnotherapeutic session, with its subsequent reduction in chronic disorders. Repeated cases of spontaneous modulation in hypnosis of pain in cases of acute and chronic pathological processes required explanation; therefore, using a special questionnaire, all such cases were studied. Over the 5 years of observation, the hypnotherapeutic dynamics of pain in acute traumas (15 patients) and in chronic pathological processes (mainly neurointoxications—167 patients) was studied. This study was clinicalphenomenological; the dynamics of the severity of pain were correlated with the results of other objectivizing methods of clinical research and the conclusions of relevant specialists. Data ware obtained on patients who received accidental injuries or dental care (bone fractures, sprains, tooth extraction) during an intensive shortterm hypnotherapy of anxiety disorders (10–12 1-h sessions 3–5 times a week). The phenomenon of spontaneous hypnotic nociception became an unexpected, but regularly repeated, finding. Therefore, the question is not in the existence of the phenomenon of spontaneous hypnotic nociception but in the scientific understanding of its mechanisms.

Chronic pathological processes are characterized by two-stage dynamics, including consistently associated progressive and regressive stages. The progressive stage of the dynamics of nociceptive sensations is observed at the beginning of hypnotherapy. At this stage, the strengthening or the appearance of nociceptive sensations in the area of localization of chronic pathological process occurs. On the regressive stage, the weakening or disappearance of nociceptive sensations caused

*The Integrative Theory of Hypnosis in the Light of Clinical Hypnotherapy*

The dynamics of the hypnotic nociception in acute and chronic pathological processes turns on spontaneously and has a positive therapeutic vector, being determined by the hypnogenic mechanism of readaptation. It can be strengthened

Hypnotization and hypnotherapy can be considered as a goal-oriented commu-

Directive hypnosis is a product of the European nineteenth century, with its class-hierarchical communicative style. Therefore, its communicative, being dominantly authoritarian, is based on the idea of direct "guiding" of "hypnable" patient

Non-directive hypnosis appeared in the 1970s, during the cultural heyday of individual rights and freedoms, with a manipulative management style in society. Its communicative style (Erickson's model) is based on the verbal, non-directive, and manipulative management of the patient, taking into account his or her nonverbal reactions, which uses non-directive adjustment and management, and on the idea of finding an adequate use of the resources of the wise unconscious, which uses

The communicative style of universal hypnotherapy is built on a biopsychosocial paradigm; takes into account and rebuilds relevant cultural representations about hypnosis in the interests of therapy; uses primary positive cognitive-behavioral models and biological mechanisms of hypnotherapy; actively applies the non-verbal component of communicative interaction during hypnotherapy; attracts and potentiates the patient's recovery activity during the session and the entire course of hypnotherapy; and contributes to the formation of semantic therapeutic, aimed at

A real hypno-communication is inevitably wider and deeper than the prescribed

methodological frameworks. But the communicative style forms a therapeutic "core" that determines the initial selectivity, process, and the results of hypnotherapy. **Table 1** compares the communicative styles of directive, non-directive hypno-

thematic metaphors and descriptions, as tools for accessing resources.

nication—the communicative process. The hypnotic communicative process includes two basic components: cultural and interpersonal. The cultural component determines the varying boundaries, volumes, dynamics, and potential effectiveness of hypnotherapy while the interpersonal its specific implementation. The cultural and interpersonal components of hypnotherapy interact typologically, since culture defines historically determined patterns—communication styles that actualize the style sets of cultural and interpersonal components. Communicative styles, formed in the space of everyday communication, are then transferred to hypnotherapy, acquiring specialized features. The historical evolution of cultural communicative styles will generate the evolution of communicative styles of hypnotherapy. However, "within" hypnotherapy, a change in communicative styles will be perceived as an independent, personified process. The evolution of hypno-communication develops from classical and directive to non-directive hypnosis. In Russia, the style

by a chronic pathological process occurs.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92761*

of universal hypnotherapy [29, 30] further appeared.

by the hypnotherapist to a positive therapeutic result.

active recovery and improvement.

sis and universal hypnotherapy.

**49**

by specific hypnotic suggestions.

**2.4 Communicative component**

The author's explanation of the phenomenon of spontaneous hypnotic nociception was based on the model of the structure and function of the nociceptive and vegetative regulation systems [20], according to which the pain impulse on the way from the pathological zone to the cerebral cortex can be damped by the damping system of the brain at three levels (spinal cord, thalamus, cerebral cortex), with the parallel activation of the hierarchical system of vegetative regulation of the pathological zone; this model satisfactorily explains the phenomenon of spontaneous hypnotic nociception [10, 11].

Western hypnology in the last 70 years in its development has paid a considerable attention to the research and practice of suggestive hypnotic analgesia. Researchers in experiment and practice have always been interested in only directed hypnosuggestive analgesia and its mechanisms, which essentially brought the phenomenon of spontaneous hypnotic nociception beyond the scope of any analysis.

It should be noted that studies of hypnotic analgesia have become the cornerstone in the development of modern hypnology, since after a long discussion they have led to the recognition that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness [21–26]. Brain mechanisms underlying the modulation of pain perception under hypnotic conditions involve cortical as well as subcortical areas including anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortices, basal ganglia, and thalami [21]. It is demonstrated that hypnotic analgesia is characterized by a loss of coherence between the brain areas, reflecting "an alteration or even a breakdown of communication between the subunits of the brain" [20, 23, 24, 26]. Recently, in addition to experimental neurophysiological studies of the differences in the brain mechanisms of pain perception by high and low hypnotizable [27], analogous genetic studies have appeared [28]. Due to these studies, it became known that hypnotic assessment may predict lower responsiveness to opioids, and inefficient opioid system may be a distinctive characteristic of highs [29], and modulation of hypnotic pain responses is connected with differential recruitment of right prefrontal regions, which are involved in selective attention and inhibitory control [27].

Returning to the phenomenology of spontaneous nociceptive sensations in hypnotherapy, we need to note that it is characterized by the following features.

Acute pathological processes are characterized by one-step regressive dynamics of hypnotic nociception.

### *The Integrative Theory of Hypnosis in the Light of Clinical Hypnotherapy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92761*

Chronic pathological processes are characterized by two-stage dynamics, including consistently associated progressive and regressive stages. The progressive stage of the dynamics of nociceptive sensations is observed at the beginning of hypnotherapy. At this stage, the strengthening or the appearance of nociceptive sensations in the area of localization of chronic pathological process occurs. On the regressive stage, the weakening or disappearance of nociceptive sensations caused by a chronic pathological process occurs.

The dynamics of the hypnotic nociception in acute and chronic pathological processes turns on spontaneously and has a positive therapeutic vector, being determined by the hypnogenic mechanism of readaptation. It can be strengthened by specific hypnotic suggestions.
