**1. Introduction**

200 Urban Development

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Istanbul is one of the most attractive metropolis of Europe today*. Cultural capital of Europe in 2010*, the city is invaded by millions of tourists and ten thousands of business people every year. Istanbul is the primate city of a very self-confident Turko-Islamic state which is inhabited by nearly as many people as the population of Germany. The city is Turkey's keystone to Europe – that is more important as the commonly mentioned link between the continents. Recently Istanbul's position within Europe has been cemented by being chosen as Europe's capital of culture 2010. A remarkable exhibition (Istanbul 1910–2010) gave a detailed view to the urban development and structure of the city (catalogue: Bilgin 2010). Just before this, in 2009, the Urban Age Conference took place in Istanbul. Within a publication (Urban Age 2009) joined to that conference some relevant topics for modern Istanbul are mentioned: globalisation and the city's position (Keyder, Sudjic 2009), urban development (Güvenc & Ünlü-Yücesoy, Geniş 2009) and local trends (Aksoy, Sarkis 2009).

The urban development is hard to describe because it is changing very fast: what is constant in Istanbul is its permanent change. The growth of the city and the fragmentation of its core areas are well documented in different publications starting in the 1990s (Heller & Gerdes 1991, Dökmeci & Berköz 1994, Tokateli & Boyaci 1999) and continuing until recently (Ersoy 2009, Güvenc 2010). Seger & Palencsar contributed with a monography 2006.

Our attempt to characterise the metropolis and its development *focuses on its central business districts*. Recognising the urban morphology, several areas with special central functions, CBDs of the past or in action, create the unique diversity of ambience and richness of culture (McAdams 2007).

This article will focus on the following issues:


Istanbul's Backbone - A Chain of Central Business Districts (CBDs) 203

successful stronghold in Medieval times, such as when in the 7th century it resisted the Arabic-Islamic. In that time Constantinople was the *primary global city of arts and culture*,

Fig. 1. Istanbul's backbone – a chain of CBD areas from the historic peninsula via Taksim and Şişli (T, S) to the skyscraper areas of Levent and Maslak (L, M), 2010. A consequent movement of central urban functions towards the spatial hot spots of the city leads to that

When the Ottomans took over the city, a new and very different layer of built culture formed the shape of the city. Form follows function, of course, but form follows in a very unique way *special cultural ideas*. So, the new Ottoman culture transformed Istanbul into a *showpiece of Islamic architecture*, and architecture is a reflection of culture. On the other hand, some remarkable pieces of Byzantine art did remain and were eventually transformed (the Hagia Sophia became a mosque), and other churches were also replaced by mosques. The

chain of CBDs. Draft: M. Seger

especially in relation to the underdeveloped Central Europe.


Each of these central areas is characterised by an individual scenery, founded in the period in appearance and sometimes subject to manifold change later on. In the methodology, to identify urban spaces by different perceptional variables, we use the ideas of *Kevin Lynch*: different areas are also distinguished by their *image*, that means by origin, shape, function and spatial pattern (Lynch 1960). The urban elements (CBDs) which will be presented in this article are identified by their different history, as well as by their special function nowadays. The knowledge for this is based on former investigations (Seger & Palencsar 2006, Seger 2010), catching the urban morphology for special issues as was done for Istanbul in parts before (geographically: Leitner 1981).

The chain of subsequently added CBD structures has two dominant and prominent final points – the *historical core* and the *post-modern skyscraper city*. In between, a continuous line of CBDs and central places form the backbone of the city, as Fig. 1 shows. Walking that line, one moves from Topkapi and the Bazaar area to the Galata bridge, reaching the Istiklal Boulevard and Taksim. Passing the nowadays crowded Şişli (Tesvekiye, Nişantaşi) one arrives at Gayrettepe, Levent and Maslak – the uppermost central areas today. In the following article one can repeat that walk. Chapter 2 illustrates features of the historic centre as the main cultural CBD and the touristic centre nowadays, chapter 3 deals with the modernisation at the end of the 19th century on both sides of the Bosphor and at Pera. Chapter 4 analyses the rise of the city in the decades after WW II. Chapter 5 presents the northern and most innovative part of the chain of CBDs and in chapter 6 the specific urban form of the different CBDs of Istanbul's backbone will be revisted.

#### **2. Historic centre past and present – The backbone's traditional CBD**

The CBD of the monocentric city in former times leads to the Greece, Roman and Ottoman periods of Istanbul. The Greek city of Byzanz got its first imperial function when the Roman emperor *Constantine the Great* decided to chose it as his new capital in 330, naming it *Nova Roma*, and later Constantinople. A huge fortification, the Theodosian wall (379), remains nowadays in the early Byzantine period. The area east of that wall is the so called *Historic Peninsula* – delineated to the north by the Golden Horn Bay and to the south by the Marmara Sea (Photo 1). Due to the Byzantine monuments (e.g. the *Hagia Sophia*) and the later built Ottoman mosques and palaces (e.g. the architecture of *Mimar Sinan*) these areas of the ancient imperial town were chosen as *world cultural heritage sites* in 1985.

The partition of the Roman Empire took place in the year 395, the end of the Empire's western part (with Rome as its capital) happened at the latest by 476. The East-Roman Empire and its capital Constantinople existed until 1453, when the surrounding Ottomans overtook the city. Weak in the last centuries for diverse reasons, Constantinople was a




Each of these central areas is characterised by an individual scenery, founded in the period in appearance and sometimes subject to manifold change later on. In the methodology, to identify urban spaces by different perceptional variables, we use the ideas of *Kevin Lynch*: different areas are also distinguished by their *image*, that means by origin, shape, function and spatial pattern (Lynch 1960). The urban elements (CBDs) which will be presented in this article are identified by their different history, as well as by their special function nowadays. The knowledge for this is based on former investigations (Seger & Palencsar 2006, Seger 2010), catching the urban morphology for special issues as was done for Istanbul in parts

The chain of subsequently added CBD structures has two dominant and prominent final points – the *historical core* and the *post-modern skyscraper city*. In between, a continuous line of CBDs and central places form the backbone of the city, as Fig. 1 shows. Walking that line, one moves from Topkapi and the Bazaar area to the Galata bridge, reaching the Istiklal Boulevard and Taksim. Passing the nowadays crowded Şişli (Tesvekiye, Nişantaşi) one arrives at Gayrettepe, Levent and Maslak – the uppermost central areas today. In the following article one can repeat that walk. Chapter 2 illustrates features of the historic centre as the main cultural CBD and the touristic centre nowadays, chapter 3 deals with the modernisation at the end of the 19th century on both sides of the Bosphor and at Pera. Chapter 4 analyses the rise of the city in the decades after WW II. Chapter 5 presents the northern and most innovative part of the chain of CBDs and in chapter 6 the specific urban

younger CBDs is related to the city´s recent focal points.

form of the different CBDs of Istanbul's backbone will be revisted.

**2. Historic centre past and present – The backbone's traditional CBD** 

the ancient imperial town were chosen as *world cultural heritage sites* in 1985.

The CBD of the monocentric city in former times leads to the Greece, Roman and Ottoman periods of Istanbul. The Greek city of Byzanz got its first imperial function when the Roman emperor *Constantine the Great* decided to chose it as his new capital in 330, naming it *Nova Roma*, and later Constantinople. A huge fortification, the Theodosian wall (379), remains nowadays in the early Byzantine period. The area east of that wall is the so called *Historic Peninsula* – delineated to the north by the Golden Horn Bay and to the south by the Marmara Sea (Photo 1). Due to the Byzantine monuments (e.g. the *Hagia Sophia*) and the later built Ottoman mosques and palaces (e.g. the architecture of *Mimar Sinan*) these areas of

The partition of the Roman Empire took place in the year 395, the end of the Empire's western part (with Rome as its capital) happened at the latest by 476. The East-Roman Empire and its capital Constantinople existed until 1453, when the surrounding Ottomans overtook the city. Weak in the last centuries for diverse reasons, Constantinople was a

CBD areas, the term "backbone" was created.

of important urban spaces: the city's backbone.

before (geographically: Leitner 1981).

successful stronghold in Medieval times, such as when in the 7th century it resisted the Arabic-Islamic. In that time Constantinople was the *primary global city of arts and culture*, especially in relation to the underdeveloped Central Europe.

Fig. 1. Istanbul's backbone – a chain of CBD areas from the historic peninsula via Taksim and Şişli (T, S) to the skyscraper areas of Levent and Maslak (L, M), 2010. A consequent movement of central urban functions towards the spatial hot spots of the city leads to that chain of CBDs. Draft: M. Seger

When the Ottomans took over the city, a new and very different layer of built culture formed the shape of the city. Form follows function, of course, but form follows in a very unique way *special cultural ideas*. So, the new Ottoman culture transformed Istanbul into a *showpiece of Islamic architecture*, and architecture is a reflection of culture. On the other hand, some remarkable pieces of Byzantine art did remain and were eventually transformed (the Hagia Sophia became a mosque), and other churches were also replaced by mosques. The

Istanbul's Backbone - A Chain of Central Business Districts (CBDs) 205

Ottomans (whose former headquarters were at Bursa and Edirne) ruled in Istanbul from 1453 until 1918 and *Istanbul again became a global city*. Not only as the centre of Sunna-Muslims (Osmanic Caliphate 1517–1924) but also because of its military power (besiegement

The change from the Byzantine to the Ottoman period is characterised by a remarkable *continuity of the locations* of urban functions. The acropolis became the sultan's stronghold with barracks and fortifications, and with a palace, the modern museum Topkapi. The main road at the peninsula's ridge is today the same as in Byzantine times, it connects the former emperor's quarters with the market area. This market area was the Roman-Greek *Forum*, where nearby the *Great Bazaar* (Photo 2) was founded. Even the residential areas and the harbour site at the Golden Horn/Chrysoceras/Halic were retained at the same location.

The *traditional CBD* kept its monocentric urban status up to the period of westernisation and modernisation during the 19th century. The sultan left Topkapi to his palace Dolmabahce at the Bosphor and new quarters were taken up at Pera (see chapter 3). The monocentric commercial functions remained until the late 1950s. Starting around 1970, the historic centre was given new *touristic functions* as well as developing shopping facilities – primarily for people from the socialist states in Eastern Europe. A world heritage site from 1985, the traditional core is nowadays a cornerstone of the Turkish identity and a vital part of Istanbul's economy. Revitalisation (Gezici & Kerimoglŭ 2010, Bütüner 2006, Ozus & Dokmeci 2005) and gentrification (Ergun 2004) have accompanied those new functions.

During the 19th century (up to 1900) the city grew rapidly as the following data show: 1826 - 360,000, 1856 - 450,000, 1885 - 874,000 – and 1897 over 1 million inhabitants. In that time Istanbul was inhabitated by a *multi-ethnic society*. Muslims were just in the majority (52%), Armenians and Greeks were 16% each and 4.5% were Jews. Additionally, 13% of the population (1897) were counted as foreigners (not Ottoman citizens), most of them being Europeans from different countries, mostly businessmen. In the decades before 1900 the political and economic relations of the Ottoman Empire to Europe had been reinforced. A *general modernisation* in urban form, mechanisation and industrialisation took place in the capital. Politically, the Ottomans lost their influence in south-eastern Europe (the Balkans), but the European empires had been interested in keeping up relations with the government at Istanbul – for intensive economic reasons. At the same time, and similar to big cities in Europe, town planning and modern urban infrastructure (building technology, electricity, mobility) occurred. A "*European" part of Istanbul* arose at Pera (Photo 3), a plateau north of the Golden Horn, connected with the Galata Bridge by an *underground cableway tunnel*, the first in Europe. The railway connection to Europe was constructed by 1873 and nearby another modern CBD grew up between the railway station *Sirceçi* and the area surrounding

*A bipolar city structure* was a fact in 1900. How did the structures in the traditional centre

At first, the traditional core between Topkapi and the Bazaar area (Fig. 1, 2) was the powerful centre of the *state's administration*: the Ministries of Finance, Interior, External

**3. Fragmented CBDs in 1900: Early modernisation and bipolarity** 

the *Galata bridge* (see Fig. 2, shaped like a dumb-bell).

look like and *why did the city move toward the Pera hills*?

of Vienna 1683), at least up to the 18th century.

Photo 1. Historic peninsula, a world heritage site. Sultan Ahmet-Mosque (front), Hagia Sophia-Museum, Bosphor. Golden Horn left side. View northward to the Bosphor. Source: Keskin Color, 1985 (compare Fig. 1, 2).

Photo 2. Inside the Great Bazaar, a centre of shopping and tourism, 1992 (compare Fig. 2). Up to 1950 a centre of retail and wholesale as well as traditional handicraft.

Photo 1. Historic peninsula, a world heritage site. Sultan Ahmet-Mosque (front), Hagia Sophia-Museum, Bosphor. Golden Horn left side. View northward to the Bosphor. Source:

Photo 2. Inside the Great Bazaar, a centre of shopping and tourism, 1992 (compare Fig. 2).

Up to 1950 a centre of retail and wholesale as well as traditional handicraft.

Keskin Color, 1985 (compare Fig. 1, 2).

Ottomans (whose former headquarters were at Bursa and Edirne) ruled in Istanbul from 1453 until 1918 and *Istanbul again became a global city*. Not only as the centre of Sunna-Muslims (Osmanic Caliphate 1517–1924) but also because of its military power (besiegement of Vienna 1683), at least up to the 18th century.

The change from the Byzantine to the Ottoman period is characterised by a remarkable *continuity of the locations* of urban functions. The acropolis became the sultan's stronghold with barracks and fortifications, and with a palace, the modern museum Topkapi. The main road at the peninsula's ridge is today the same as in Byzantine times, it connects the former emperor's quarters with the market area. This market area was the Roman-Greek *Forum*, where nearby the *Great Bazaar* (Photo 2) was founded. Even the residential areas and the harbour site at the Golden Horn/Chrysoceras/Halic were retained at the same location.

The *traditional CBD* kept its monocentric urban status up to the period of westernisation and modernisation during the 19th century. The sultan left Topkapi to his palace Dolmabahce at the Bosphor and new quarters were taken up at Pera (see chapter 3). The monocentric commercial functions remained until the late 1950s. Starting around 1970, the historic centre was given new *touristic functions* as well as developing shopping facilities – primarily for people from the socialist states in Eastern Europe. A world heritage site from 1985, the traditional core is nowadays a cornerstone of the Turkish identity and a vital part of Istanbul's economy. Revitalisation (Gezici & Kerimoglŭ 2010, Bütüner 2006, Ozus & Dokmeci 2005) and gentrification (Ergun 2004) have accompanied those new functions.
