**2.3 Vulnerable parents/vulnerable families**

Exposure to adverse life events by itself is not enough to trigger a long-term negative outcome or prolonged stress response as many individuals who experience adversity adapt effectively with little life disruption. Attempts to explore the types of stressful life situations that evoke adverse outcomes has produced with meager results due to the recognition that it is not the events alone that influence adaptation and coping [21]. Existing research has attempted to quantify risk and protective factors to predict outcomes; however, this fails to consider how the experience is perceived by the individual which plays a critical role in long-term trajectories [18]. Individual differences in vulnerability have been attributed to pre-existing mental health conditions, lifetime exposure to social stressors, the experience of conflict, financial hardships [11, 18, 21]. Barnyard, Williams and Siegel found that experiences of trauma were related to problems in parenting, with physical and sexual abuse resulting in less optimal parenting behaviors and negative perceptions of parenting abilities [3]. Hagan and colleagues identified that socioeconomic adversity and conflict in the parent–child relationship or parental harshness increased the likelihood of poorer physical health trajectories for children [44]. Further, positive parent–child relationships or parenting environments was seen to buffer against negative outcomes associated with socioeconomic diversity [44].

While adversity has often been looked at in the context of individual events [22], the experience of multiple adversities is common [45], and increases the cumulative risk for negative outcomes. Individuals who experience multiple adverse events throughout their lifetime, report higher levels of personal distress, decrease in functionality, lower reports of life satisfaction, and [22] poorer parenting outcomes [3]. Cumulative stress exposure increases the likelihood of adverse outcomes even when previous stressors are not related to the current adverse event [21, 22] making context and personal factors an intersection that plays a crucial role in adaptation. The ability to counteract adverse events with social supports or periods of reparation can serve as a mediator to stress responses and appears to decrease the potential for negative long-term outcomes [3, 11]. Parents and families that experience repeated exposure to adversity are vulnerable due to a depletion in resources from which to manage stress responses. While risk factors can increase vulnerability for individuals and families, the presence of risk in and of itself is not enough to predict future outcomes. The identification of vulnerabilities and risk factors is beneficial only in so far that it allows for the implementation of mechanisms that can counteract and balance out the risks, thereby creating adaptation strategies that produce healthy outcomes.

#### **2.4 Parenting stress and parenting under scrutiny**

Parents often experience stress related to this role in the face of normative life situations [9]. Parenting stress is a negative psychosocial response to parental obligations and expectations [46] and includes emotional challenges that occur in coping with and managing their children [47]. Abidin identified beliefs about oneself in the parenting role and self-expectations as being influential to the development of parenting stress [2]. In this model, parenting stress is the result of this self-evaluation process and the available resources that support parenting behaviors [2]. Raikes and Thompson found that parents with socioeconomic disadvantage, parenting stress can be mediated by psychological and psychosocial resources such as social support and self-efficacy [11]. Higher levels of self-efficacy were found to be directly correlated to lower levels of parental stress making and moderated the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage for families [11]. Parenting stress has been found to be directly related to child behavior problems, particularly externalizing behaviors [46]. Parental stress appears to occur in a transactional relationship with childhood stress, with each experience having a potential additive effect on the experience of the other [46]. Children of parents who report high levels of stress and anxious or altered perceptions of their parenting behaviors in the face of adversity, such as natural disasters, have greater difficulties following an adverse situation [34]. A factor that is often associated with parenting stress is expectations about childrearing practices and behaviors [13, 14].

When a family experiences adversity, such as socioeconomic disadvantage or caring for a child with a disability, the expectations that they perceive, whether by society or self-imposed, have an additive effect on the emotional stress of the event itself [13]. The expectations of being good parents and being judged should they fail to meet social expectations of parenting responsibilities, play a significant role in adaptation and coping mechanisms available and utilized [13, 14]. The very nature of identifying how parents can contribute to the development of resilience in their children, creates the expectation that this outcome is within their control and the perception of failure should it not occur [48]. Parents of children with disabilities,

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*Parental Self-Efficacy and Parenting through Adversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91735*

particularly invisible disabilities, or mental health issues have reported feeling blame from others and a greater likelihood for the perception that their moral deficits have caused the child's behaviors and problems [13]. While there is a tendency to place blame and pass judgment on parents when the family is going through an adverse situation, the reality is that not all problems that a child or parent experi-

The experience of adverse situations that are outside of one's control contributes to an increase in psychosocial stress and a decrease in feelings of competence and adequacy in the parenting role [32, 40]. This experience intensifies when a parent experiences stigma in their parenting role, which can increase vulnerability for distress and disruptions in parenting behaviors. Stigma, often defined as an experience in which the reactions of others negatively influence one's identity perception [48], can have lasting effects on an individual's ability to cope with adverse situations. Stigma often occurs in indirect ways, yet the impact on the individual experiencing it remains negative. Parents who experience adversity report experiencing stigma that is felt by the actions or inaction of others and also stigma that is enacted upon them [13]. Similarities across studies have found that parents report experiences of blame, avoidance, unwelcome attention, lack of offered support or interest, negative labeling, discrimination, and unhelpful advice [13, 14, 49, 50]. Parental stigma is often not the direct result of parenting behaviors or children's actions but a reflection of societal expectations regarding what parenting behaviors and situations are good or bad, with parenting being judged as a binary construct [13]. Francis found that stigma often resulted in feelings of isolation [13] and stigma has also been found to decrease the likelihood that parents will seek help or social support [14]. While many of these stigma behaviors are often subtle or unintentionally harmful in the case of failure to offer support, the result is often isolation, feelings of rejection and shame, and intense loneliness, which exacerbate existing stressors.

ences are the result of poor parenting or a deficit in parental competence.

**3. Parental self-efficacy, resilience, and parenting in context**

the risks associated with individual parent and child risk factors.

Parental self-efficacy, the belief in one's ability to parent effectively, and the confidence that one can successfully handle the problems that their child may experience, has been associated with adaptive family environments and improved outcomes for children [12, 51]. Parental self-efficacy can have a reciprocal relationship with stress and coping strategies as parents who believe that they can have a positive influence on the development of their child are more likely to utilize adaptive coping strategies to reduce stress reactions [51]. Parents who believe that they have the power to influence children's behaviors and experiences have an increased ability to identify effective parenting strategies, thus creating positive parent/child interactions [5]. Even for parents who grew up in unfavorable circumstances and environments parental self-efficacy has been found to be related to positive parenting practices and parental beliefs that nurturing behaviors will increase positive outcomes for their children [5]. Parental self-efficacy can serve as a buffer against adverse risk factors such as disadvantaged socioeconomic situations and mediate

Self-efficacy, the belief that one's life is within their control, has been found to serve as a mediator between stressful life events and depressive symptoms [52] as well as a protective factor for psychological health. Hastings and Brown found self-efficacy to be a mediator between child behavior problems and anxiety and depression in mothers [53]. Further, the reciprocal relationship between emotional

**3.1 Parental self-efficacy**

#### *Parental Self-Efficacy and Parenting through Adversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91735*

*Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective*

**2.4 Parenting stress and parenting under scrutiny**

about childrearing practices and behaviors [13, 14].

negative outcomes associated with socioeconomic diversity [44].

likelihood of poorer physical health trajectories for children [44]. Further, positive parent–child relationships or parenting environments was seen to buffer against

While adversity has often been looked at in the context of individual events [22], the experience of multiple adversities is common [45], and increases the cumulative risk for negative outcomes. Individuals who experience multiple adverse events throughout their lifetime, report higher levels of personal distress, decrease in functionality, lower reports of life satisfaction, and [22] poorer parenting outcomes [3]. Cumulative stress exposure increases the likelihood of adverse outcomes even when previous stressors are not related to the current adverse event [21, 22] making context and personal factors an intersection that plays a crucial role in adaptation. The ability to counteract adverse events with social supports or periods of reparation can serve as a mediator to stress responses and appears to decrease the potential for negative long-term outcomes [3, 11]. Parents and families that experience repeated exposure to adversity are vulnerable due to a depletion in resources from which to manage stress responses. While risk factors can increase vulnerability for individuals and families, the presence of risk in and of itself is not enough to predict future outcomes. The identification of vulnerabilities and risk factors is beneficial only in so far that it allows for the implementation of mechanisms that can counteract and balance out the risks, thereby creating adaptation strategies that produce healthy

Parents often experience stress related to this role in the face of normative life situations [9]. Parenting stress is a negative psychosocial response to parental obligations and expectations [46] and includes emotional challenges that occur in coping with and managing their children [47]. Abidin identified beliefs about oneself in the parenting role and self-expectations as being influential to the development of parenting stress [2]. In this model, parenting stress is the result of this self-evaluation process and the available resources that support parenting behaviors [2]. Raikes and Thompson found that parents with socioeconomic disadvantage, parenting stress can be mediated by psychological and psychosocial resources such as social support and self-efficacy [11]. Higher levels of self-efficacy were found to be directly correlated to lower levels of parental stress making and moderated the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage for families [11]. Parenting stress has been found to be directly related to child behavior problems, particularly externalizing behaviors [46]. Parental stress appears to occur in a transactional relationship with childhood stress, with each experience having a potential additive effect on the experience of the other [46]. Children of parents who report high levels of stress and anxious or altered perceptions of their parenting behaviors in the face of adversity, such as natural disasters, have greater difficulties following an adverse situation [34]. A factor that is often associated with parenting stress is expectations

When a family experiences adversity, such as socioeconomic disadvantage or caring for a child with a disability, the expectations that they perceive, whether by society or self-imposed, have an additive effect on the emotional stress of the event itself [13]. The expectations of being good parents and being judged should they fail to meet social expectations of parenting responsibilities, play a significant role in adaptation and coping mechanisms available and utilized [13, 14]. The very nature of identifying how parents can contribute to the development of resilience in their children, creates the expectation that this outcome is within their control and the perception of failure should it not occur [48]. Parents of children with disabilities,

**172**

outcomes.

particularly invisible disabilities, or mental health issues have reported feeling blame from others and a greater likelihood for the perception that their moral deficits have caused the child's behaviors and problems [13]. While there is a tendency to place blame and pass judgment on parents when the family is going through an adverse situation, the reality is that not all problems that a child or parent experiences are the result of poor parenting or a deficit in parental competence.

The experience of adverse situations that are outside of one's control contributes to an increase in psychosocial stress and a decrease in feelings of competence and adequacy in the parenting role [32, 40]. This experience intensifies when a parent experiences stigma in their parenting role, which can increase vulnerability for distress and disruptions in parenting behaviors. Stigma, often defined as an experience in which the reactions of others negatively influence one's identity perception [48], can have lasting effects on an individual's ability to cope with adverse situations. Stigma often occurs in indirect ways, yet the impact on the individual experiencing it remains negative. Parents who experience adversity report experiencing stigma that is felt by the actions or inaction of others and also stigma that is enacted upon them [13]. Similarities across studies have found that parents report experiences of blame, avoidance, unwelcome attention, lack of offered support or interest, negative labeling, discrimination, and unhelpful advice [13, 14, 49, 50]. Parental stigma is often not the direct result of parenting behaviors or children's actions but a reflection of societal expectations regarding what parenting behaviors and situations are good or bad, with parenting being judged as a binary construct [13]. Francis found that stigma often resulted in feelings of isolation [13] and stigma has also been found to decrease the likelihood that parents will seek help or social support [14]. While many of these stigma behaviors are often subtle or unintentionally harmful in the case of failure to offer support, the result is often isolation, feelings of rejection and shame, and intense loneliness, which exacerbate existing stressors.
