Preface

Taking an ecocultural perspective means paying attention to the variability of the contexts that shape the life experiences of individuals, without indulging in unnecessary generalizations about what is "typical" or "universal" in parenting behavior. Moving from Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory of child development [1, 2], parenting "is a complex plaiting of neurobiological and environmental influences, and the same is true for child development" [3, p. iv]. The developmental niches, with their physical and social characteristics, educational practices and parental psychologies, shape child development, but are themselves shaped by societal and cultural pressures [4]. However, parenting is not just a cause of a child's development, but also a product of developmental transactions; parent behavior influences child behavior, and in turn, child behavior causes parent responses. As such, from conception [3] to adulthood, a transactional history develops that is unique for every parent-child dyad [5].

The richness of human variability is reflected in the intra- and inter-cultural richness of the variability of parenting, in the forms it takes and in the produced effects either adaptive or maladaptive to societal demands both in parents themselves and in their offspring. This book presents twelve contributions reflecting this rich variability.

Dorn and Rocher Schudlich's chapter highlights the longitudinal associations between interparental conflict and a child's emotional security from infancy to the preschooler developmental period. The emotional security clusters developed as infants, specifically following exposure to interparental conflict, persist during preschool years and continue to mediate associations between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment. Clinical implications of the chapter findings seem especially relevant.

An interesting interaction between nurtured and natural characteristics is the theoretical proposal by Samar M. Alzeer, who reviews literature about sibling structural features and siblings' interactions, their family emotional climate, parental management, and parents' interactions with siblings. The author concludes with an invitation to address research towards exploring the ways in which parents' behaviors and siblings' relationships together affect a child's maladaptive outcomes related to predicting developmental personality traits, primarily into Callous–Unemotional children.

Wellbeing may take the form of a positive response to environmental demands, as when a primary school child is required to read fluently. If the child's reading fluency is a struggle, may the child benefit from a parent's involvement in a reading promotion intervention? Villiger's chapter discusses this topic, presenting data from a Swiss Paired Reading Intervention study. She highlights that "evidence about the effectiveness of reading programs with parents is rather vague" and "discusses beneficial circumstances of parent involvement in reading programs."

From a social constructivist perspective, Brinn argues that the relationship between parents and school professionals could work to equalize learning but

**II**

**Chapter 9 149**

**Chapter 10 167**

**Chapter 11 183** Two Diverse Communities Who Are Refugees Transforming Their Parenting

**Chapter 12 213**

Parenting in the Digital Contexts: Are Parents Ready to Use Automated

Parental Self-Efficacy and Parenting through Adversity

and Self Efficacy Skills through Early Childhood Education

Racist Babies? Resisting Whiteness in Parenting

Vehicles to Transport Children?

*by Deborah Young and Nicole Sager*

*by Yi-Ching Lee*

*by Christian Scannell*

*by Naomi W. Nishi*

also economic gaps of disadvantaged class children. The author underlines how a role renegotiation of both "parent" and "teacher" roles is needed on the basis of three (among several) "crucial factors including Trust between participants, An open-minded and responsive sharing of knowledge and ideas, and an Honest selfreflection on both sides." She does not hide the intrinsic difficulties of this task, but argues with positive exempla that a home–school partnership effort is a challenge that deserves to be played for its intrinsic developmental value. From an ecological point of view, Brinn's proposal is an exemplum of potential dialogue between microsystems.

The next two contributions deal with parent-adolescent relationships. The first, Srivastav and Lal Mathur's chapter, presents the concept of helicopter parenting, a highly intensive form of parenting that affects the developmental outcome of adolescents. Helicopter parents are very intrusive, "providing their children with support and minimal space that may impede the development of problem-solving skills and decision-making skills." Parental anxiety and regret seem to be the principal determinants of this educational style. Culture and gender seem to have a role, too. Psychological consequences of this parenting style may be negative, but also positive, or mixed. Greater life satisfaction and better psychological wellbeing were observed in association with helicopter parenting, but so were poor coping strategies, anxiety, low self-efficacy, lack of trust in peers and alienation from peers. The authors suggest supportive psychological interventions.

Mathibela and Skhosana's chapter addresses the parent-adolescent relationship when the adolescent is substance-dependent, reviewing the characteristics of parent-adolescent communication and the determinants of substance misuse by adolescents. The authors underline the ecological perspective and conclude by stating that "understanding how one's parenting is linked to their child's addiction, and using this knowledge to rebuild a stronger parent-adolescent bond, collaborating with them in the process of healing and recovery" is crucial.

The chapter by Samadi deals with a particularly stressful task for a parent: coping with a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Using a qualitative-quantitative mixed method, the author highlights parents' difficulties of caring for a child with ASD and reports the "special features of parenting that might be rooted in the Iranian culture or special contexts such as limitation of the formal and informal supports and services."

The next two chapters address parental expertise with digital technology. The first, by Benedetto and Ingrassia, presents digital parenting as a "'parental mediation," that is, "the different behaviors parents adopt to regulate children's engagement with internet and digital media," and "reviews empirical researches on different parental mediation practices." Here an explicit transactional point of view on parent-child relationships is adopted.

In the next chapter, Lee asks if parents are ready to transport children via automated vehicles (AV). After an online survey, she critically discusses the scenarios of using AV transportation in the context of children's mobility and argues that "more research is critically needed to guide the development of AV features, safety evaluations, and regulatory policies."

**V**

and parenting practice with multiple effects on parent—child relationships and children's outcomes. The author underlines that "parental self-efficacy and social supports can play mediating [a] role in the experience of adversity and parenting stress" favoring adaptation of vulnerable family systems. Young and Sager's

contribution deals with parenting skills in refugee families. In light of their working

The last chapter by Nishi has a special focus. The author highlights how parenting is the contest of intergenerational transmission of values and how this process happens with subtle adaptations to changed cultural circumstances. Nishi underlines "the draws on literature and narrative inquiry to describe how whiteness is passed down, generation by generation. [She] looks particularly at white, neoliberal, and color

The twelve chapters in this volume testify to the strength of the plurality of methods for approaching the parental skills involved in parent-child relationships as they are shaped from cultural instances. Another strength of the book is its contributions by researchers from four continents, so reflecting their cultural diversity. This offers a wide and concrete perspective of ecocultural influences (practices, routines, roles, norms, class, race, etc.) on children's and families' lives, together with the social conditions and resources (i.e., education or health services) that can support parents' efforts along with children's development in different environments.

> **Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia** Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine,

> > University of Messina,

Italy

evasive families of today to deconstruct these myths."

experience with Palestinian and Afghan refugees, the authors highlight how "unsustainable, short-term approaches that breed dependency, create poor results and can actually leave participants in a worse place than before they participated in the program." Solutions are possible within a Participatory Action Research Approach, that is, "a way for researchers and community members (who become research team members) to work together to define the problem, take action, and evaluate the impact and effectiveness of the interventions," contributing to the "growth of resilient women transforming their parenting and their lives."

The next two chapters deal with parenting in extreme conditions. The chapter by Scannell addresses how life adversities affect parental sense of competence

and parenting practice with multiple effects on parent—child relationships and children's outcomes. The author underlines that "parental self-efficacy and social supports can play mediating [a] role in the experience of adversity and parenting stress" favoring adaptation of vulnerable family systems. Young and Sager's contribution deals with parenting skills in refugee families. In light of their working experience with Palestinian and Afghan refugees, the authors highlight how "unsustainable, short-term approaches that breed dependency, create poor results and can actually leave participants in a worse place than before they participated in the program." Solutions are possible within a Participatory Action Research Approach, that is, "a way for researchers and community members (who become research team members) to work together to define the problem, take action, and evaluate the impact and effectiveness of the interventions," contributing to the "growth of resilient women transforming their parenting and their lives."

The last chapter by Nishi has a special focus. The author highlights how parenting is the contest of intergenerational transmission of values and how this process happens with subtle adaptations to changed cultural circumstances. Nishi underlines "the draws on literature and narrative inquiry to describe how whiteness is passed down, generation by generation. [She] looks particularly at white, neoliberal, and color evasive families of today to deconstruct these myths."

The twelve chapters in this volume testify to the strength of the plurality of methods for approaching the parental skills involved in parent-child relationships as they are shaped from cultural instances. Another strength of the book is its contributions by researchers from four continents, so reflecting their cultural diversity. This offers a wide and concrete perspective of ecocultural influences (practices, routines, roles, norms, class, race, etc.) on children's and families' lives, together with the social conditions and resources (i.e., education or health services) that can support parents' efforts along with children's development in different environments.

> **Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia** Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, Italy

**IV**

microsystems.

supports and services."

parent-child relationships is adopted.

evaluations, and regulatory policies."

also economic gaps of disadvantaged class children. The author underlines how a role renegotiation of both "parent" and "teacher" roles is needed on the basis of three (among several) "crucial factors including Trust between participants, An open-minded and responsive sharing of knowledge and ideas, and an Honest selfreflection on both sides." She does not hide the intrinsic difficulties of this task, but argues with positive exempla that a home–school partnership effort is a challenge that deserves to be played for its intrinsic developmental value. From an ecological point of view, Brinn's proposal is an exemplum of potential dialogue between

The next two contributions deal with parent-adolescent relationships. The first, Srivastav and Lal Mathur's chapter, presents the concept of helicopter parenting, a highly intensive form of parenting that affects the developmental outcome of adolescents. Helicopter parents are very intrusive, "providing their children with support and minimal space that may impede the development of problem-solving skills and decision-making skills." Parental anxiety and regret seem to be the principal determinants of this educational style. Culture and gender seem to have a role, too. Psychological consequences of this parenting style may be negative, but also positive, or mixed. Greater life satisfaction and better psychological wellbeing were observed in association with helicopter parenting, but so were poor coping strategies, anxiety, low self-efficacy, lack of trust in peers and alienation from peers.

Mathibela and Skhosana's chapter addresses the parent-adolescent relationship when the adolescent is substance-dependent, reviewing the characteristics of parent-adolescent communication and the determinants of substance misuse by adolescents. The authors underline the ecological perspective and conclude by stating that "understanding how one's parenting is linked to their child's addiction, and using this knowledge to rebuild a stronger parent-adolescent bond,

collaborating with them in the process of healing and recovery" is crucial.

The chapter by Samadi deals with a particularly stressful task for a parent: coping with a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Using a qualitative-quantitative mixed method, the author highlights parents' difficulties of caring for a child with ASD and reports the "special features of parenting that might be rooted in the Iranian culture or special contexts such as limitation of the formal and informal

The next two chapters address parental expertise with digital technology. The first, by Benedetto and Ingrassia, presents digital parenting as a "'parental mediation," that is, "the different behaviors parents adopt to regulate children's engagement with internet and digital media," and "reviews empirical researches on different parental mediation practices." Here an explicit transactional point of view on

In the next chapter, Lee asks if parents are ready to transport children via automated vehicles (AV). After an online survey, she critically discusses the scenarios of using AV transportation in the context of children's mobility and argues that "more research is critically needed to guide the development of AV features, safety

The next two chapters deal with parenting in extreme conditions. The chapter by Scannell addresses how life adversities affect parental sense of competence

The authors suggest supportive psychological interventions.
