**Abstract**

This review examines the relationship between life adversities, parental well-being, parental self-efficacy, and social support as potential factors mediating parent-child relationships and children's outcomes. Generally, research on adversity has focused on children's experiences and the long-term impact of adversity on development and health trajectories. More recently, a focus on resilience and growth after adversity has received increasing attention. Existing literature has identified how parents can best support their children through adverse events and suggested parenting programs that emphasize skill-building to parent children who have experienced adversity. Yet often overlooked is the critical impact of adverse events on the parent and how this may interfere with the cultivation of an environment of support and increase stigmatization due to unmet parenting expectations. While parenting occurs in context, it is often judged based upon societal expectations of childrearing practices and optimal outcomes with little understanding of the factors that contribute to parenting behaviors. The experience of adversity has the potential to impact parental sense of competence and parenting practices. However, parental self-efficacy and social supports can play mediating role in the experience of adversity and parenting stress. The integration of these contextual factors allows for the development of expectations that are best suited to meet the needs of vulnerable family systems.

**Keywords:** parenting, adversity, parental self-efficacy, resilience, parenting stress, cumulative risk, competence

#### **1. Introduction**

Parenting is a role that is often perceived as having both great rewards and significant demands. The role of a parent requires that an individual has the resources necessary to ensure the well-being of their child(ren) for many years. This includes not only competence in childrearing practices but also the ability to respond to the physical and behavioral cues and the emotional needs of the child(ren). Parenting is best viewed as a multidimensional concept that incorporates parenting behaviors and perceptions of oneself as a parent [1, 2]. Positive parenting practices, such as warmth, acceptance, belonging, and responsiveness are correlated with healthy development and outcomes even in the face of adverse life situations [3–6]. According to Yamaoka and Bard, positive parenting practices can provide a buffer against the negative impact of adversities particularly in early development and the absence of this type of parenting can be viewed as an adversity itself [6]. Success in the parenting role creates an internalized sense of safety and trust for the child,

which is a critical ingredient to the development of self-regulation responses and adjustment throughout the lifespan [7].

The expectations of a parent to effectively manage the day to day demands of childrearing can create a moderate stress reaction even in situations that are considered relatively normative [8, 9]. Abidin's parenting stress model identifies the connection between stress and parenting practices, suggesting that increased parental stress leads to less optimal parenting behaviors [2]. Further, this model highlights the connection between parental appraisal of their experiences in the parenting role and the emergence of parenting stress with parenting stress serving as a motivating force for parent's that have resources to draw upon [2]. The purpose of this chapter is to explore the factors that influence the relationship between adverse experiences and parenting behaviors on parent–child relationships and outcomes for children.

Many parents navigate this stress effectively and find satisfaction and positive regard for this role. Yet parental stress can become exacerbated when parenting is occurring in the face of adverse life situations. Parental stress levels and behaviors are influenced by the level of self-efficacy that a parent experiences in their role [10] and may be mediated by the social supports that occur in context [11]. Parental selfefficacy, the confidence that one can manage effectively the parental role and assist their children in managing problems that occur, has been found to be correlated to adaptive family environments and positive outcomes for children [12]. Parental expectations and the perception of stigma can increase the stress experienced by adverse situations and deplete already taxed resources. In a society that places great emphasis on the quality of childrearing practices, the pressure that is placed upon parents to ensure optimal outcomes for their children is immense, and the way these practices and outcomes are judged can be harsh [13, 14].

While adversity is a routine part of the human experience, the impact that it has on individual and family functioning is quite varied, with much research dedicated to understanding why some individuals adapt more effectively than others. An exploration of parenting in adverse situations, parental self-efficacy, resilience, and parenting in context will allow for the development of supports that can improve outcomes for families and decrease vulnerabilities. Understanding the way parents experience stress in the face of adversity provides insight into the resources that parents can access for parenting practices and behaviors and the impact of adverse events on the parents themselves. When planning interventions and services, this knowledge can aid in recommendations that add value and additional resources in order to decrease individual stress responses and adverse family dynamics. It is essential to understand the factors that influence the ability to maintain healthy trajectories amid stressful life situations as even though the experience of adversity cannot be eradicated, the sensitivity by which we provide support and understand the experiences of parents can be enhanced.

#### **2. Adversity and its impact on parenting**

#### **2.1 The experience of adversity**

Adversity is part of the normal life cycle**,** and very few individuals will live their entire existence without experiencing an adverse life event. The lived experience of adversity is universal in the human experience [15]; however, the impact of these experiences on individuals and families is quite varied. Adversity has been widely defined as experiences that have the potential to disrupt normative functioning and create undesirable life outcomes [16, 17]. In other words, when individuals experience situations that work against their ability to maintain a sense of balance, safety, and security, the ability to maintain a healthy life trajectory may be compromised.

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*Parental Self-Efficacy and Parenting through Adversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91735*

upon all of their resources to cope with and manage stress.

competence and lead to less effective parenting [31, 32].

**2.2 Adversity in the parenting role**

lasting effects [15, 19, 24].

Adversity can occur on the individual and family levels and in many environmental contexts. At the individual level, children directly experience adverse events such as abuse or neglect, mental illness, disability, bullying and homelessness [18]. At the family level, adversity can take the form of family instability/divorce, family discord lack of safety, substance abuse, and parental incarceration [18]. At the contextual level, adversity in childhood is often related to disadvantaged socioeconomic status, poor school systems, violent neighborhoods, and a resulting lack of resources that can negatively influence health trajectories [18]. The concept of adversity is not easy to construct as it can have many sources, as well as varying levels of intensity and duration. Individuals who experience adverse life events are more likely to have poorer health outcomes, decreased quality of life, and increased risk factors for psychological, emotional, and physical effects [9, 18–20]. In order to maintain functioning in the face of adversity, individuals and families must draw

Adversity has often been utilized interchangeably with trauma [21]; however, there is a distinction that is important to draw as not all adverse situations will lead to the experience of trauma. Further, some attempts at the operationalization of resilience have described the absence of pathology [22, 23], such as posttraumatic stress disorder, as a key factor yet this detracts from the multiple levels of coping and reduces the concept to a binary construct [23]. Yet both trauma and adversity have the potential to impact health and social outcomes negatively and to have

Children can experience adversity as early as birth, and some might argue in utero. This experience will continue throughout the lifespan, with estimates from the National Survey of Children's health reporting that 46 percent of children under the age of 18 have experienced an adverse event, and 11 percent have experienced three or more adverse events [25]. Some adverse events are more common than others with disadvantaged socioeconomic status being experienced by 1 in 4 children, and 25 percent of children have experienced parental separation or divorce [25]. While these numbers are significant, the likelihood that an individual will experience an adverse life situation increases exponentially with age. Although there is a connection between the experience of adverse life situations and negative health outcomes, not all individuals who experience adversity have long-lasting adverse effects. Research has attempted to identify the characteristics that allow some individuals to manage adversity more effectively than others as well as the contextual and social factors that contribute to less optimal outcomes in the face of adversity [15, 18–20, 26, 27]. The effects of adversity can be long-lasting and include excessive and prolonged stress responses, making the discovery of mediating factors critical. Under the right circumstances, experience adversity can lead to an increase in resilience in the future; with resilience being defined as the ability to manage and adaptively function in the face of adverse life events [23, 28, 29]. Luthar, a seminal author on resilience, emphasized that the development of resilience emerges from the presence of an adverse life event and the resulting functional adaptation [29]. Resiliency is not necessarily an innate quality, but rather the result of the interaction between life contexts, protective and psychosocial factors [23, 30]. While resiliency is a possible outcome, more often than not, adversity undermines parents' sense of

The vast majority of literature on adversity and children's outcomes focuses on parenting, creating a wealth of knowledge about the environments that contribute best to development in adverse situations and what children need to build resilience

#### *Parental Self-Efficacy and Parenting through Adversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91735*

*Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective*

practices and outcomes are judged can be harsh [13, 14].

**2. Adversity and its impact on parenting**

**2.1 The experience of adversity**

adjustment throughout the lifespan [7].

which is a critical ingredient to the development of self-regulation responses and

The expectations of a parent to effectively manage the day to day demands of childrearing can create a moderate stress reaction even in situations that are considered relatively normative [8, 9]. Abidin's parenting stress model identifies the connection between stress and parenting practices, suggesting that increased parental stress leads to less optimal parenting behaviors [2]. Further, this model highlights the connection between parental appraisal of their experiences in the parenting role and the emergence of parenting stress with parenting stress serving as a motivating force for parent's that have resources to draw upon [2]. The purpose of this chapter is to explore the factors that influence the relationship between adverse experiences and parenting behaviors on parent–child relationships and outcomes for children. Many parents navigate this stress effectively and find satisfaction and positive regard for this role. Yet parental stress can become exacerbated when parenting is occurring in the face of adverse life situations. Parental stress levels and behaviors are influenced by the level of self-efficacy that a parent experiences in their role [10] and may be mediated by the social supports that occur in context [11]. Parental selfefficacy, the confidence that one can manage effectively the parental role and assist their children in managing problems that occur, has been found to be correlated to adaptive family environments and positive outcomes for children [12]. Parental expectations and the perception of stigma can increase the stress experienced by adverse situations and deplete already taxed resources. In a society that places great emphasis on the quality of childrearing practices, the pressure that is placed upon parents to ensure optimal outcomes for their children is immense, and the way these

While adversity is a routine part of the human experience, the impact that it has on individual and family functioning is quite varied, with much research dedicated to understanding why some individuals adapt more effectively than others. An exploration of parenting in adverse situations, parental self-efficacy, resilience, and parenting in context will allow for the development of supports that can improve outcomes for families and decrease vulnerabilities. Understanding the way parents experience stress in the face of adversity provides insight into the resources that parents can access for parenting practices and behaviors and the impact of adverse events on the parents themselves. When planning interventions and services, this knowledge can aid in recommendations that add value and additional resources in order to decrease individual stress responses and adverse family dynamics. It is essential to understand the factors that influence the ability to maintain healthy trajectories amid stressful life situations as even though the experience of adversity cannot be eradicated, the sensitivity by which we provide support and understand the experiences of parents can be enhanced.

Adversity is part of the normal life cycle**,** and very few individuals will live their entire existence without experiencing an adverse life event. The lived experience of adversity is universal in the human experience [15]; however, the impact of these experiences on individuals and families is quite varied. Adversity has been widely defined as experiences that have the potential to disrupt normative functioning and create undesirable life outcomes [16, 17]. In other words, when individuals experience situations that work against their ability to maintain a sense of balance, safety, and security, the ability to maintain a healthy life trajectory may be compromised.

**168**

Adversity can occur on the individual and family levels and in many environmental contexts. At the individual level, children directly experience adverse events such as abuse or neglect, mental illness, disability, bullying and homelessness [18]. At the family level, adversity can take the form of family instability/divorce, family discord lack of safety, substance abuse, and parental incarceration [18]. At the contextual level, adversity in childhood is often related to disadvantaged socioeconomic status, poor school systems, violent neighborhoods, and a resulting lack of resources that can negatively influence health trajectories [18]. The concept of adversity is not easy to construct as it can have many sources, as well as varying levels of intensity and duration. Individuals who experience adverse life events are more likely to have poorer health outcomes, decreased quality of life, and increased risk factors for psychological, emotional, and physical effects [9, 18–20]. In order to maintain functioning in the face of adversity, individuals and families must draw upon all of their resources to cope with and manage stress.

Adversity has often been utilized interchangeably with trauma [21]; however, there is a distinction that is important to draw as not all adverse situations will lead to the experience of trauma. Further, some attempts at the operationalization of resilience have described the absence of pathology [22, 23], such as posttraumatic stress disorder, as a key factor yet this detracts from the multiple levels of coping and reduces the concept to a binary construct [23]. Yet both trauma and adversity have the potential to impact health and social outcomes negatively and to have lasting effects [15, 19, 24].

Children can experience adversity as early as birth, and some might argue in utero. This experience will continue throughout the lifespan, with estimates from the National Survey of Children's health reporting that 46 percent of children under the age of 18 have experienced an adverse event, and 11 percent have experienced three or more adverse events [25]. Some adverse events are more common than others with disadvantaged socioeconomic status being experienced by 1 in 4 children, and 25 percent of children have experienced parental separation or divorce [25]. While these numbers are significant, the likelihood that an individual will experience an adverse life situation increases exponentially with age. Although there is a connection between the experience of adverse life situations and negative health outcomes, not all individuals who experience adversity have long-lasting adverse effects. Research has attempted to identify the characteristics that allow some individuals to manage adversity more effectively than others as well as the contextual and social factors that contribute to less optimal outcomes in the face of adversity [15, 18–20, 26, 27]. The effects of adversity can be long-lasting and include excessive and prolonged stress responses, making the discovery of mediating factors critical. Under the right circumstances, experience adversity can lead to an increase in resilience in the future; with resilience being defined as the ability to manage and adaptively function in the face of adverse life events [23, 28, 29]. Luthar, a seminal author on resilience, emphasized that the development of resilience emerges from the presence of an adverse life event and the resulting functional adaptation [29]. Resiliency is not necessarily an innate quality, but rather the result of the interaction between life contexts, protective and psychosocial factors [23, 30]. While resiliency is a possible outcome, more often than not, adversity undermines parents' sense of competence and lead to less effective parenting [31, 32].

### **2.2 Adversity in the parenting role**

The vast majority of literature on adversity and children's outcomes focuses on parenting, creating a wealth of knowledge about the environments that contribute best to development in adverse situations and what children need to build resilience and stress hardiness [4–7, 17, 32, 33]. Emphasis has been placed on poor parenting practices in the face of adversity as the reason that adverse events have long-term effects, thereby pathologizing parenting behaviors and ignoring the experiences of parents themselves [34]. Further, Herbers, Cutuli, Supkoff, Narayan and Masten cautioned that during periods of adversity it is important not to interpret parent– child behaviors as maladaptive as while they may seem chaotic, it is reflective of a process of re-stabilization [7]. The experience of childhood trauma can make it difficult to form bonds with their children and parents who have not experienced consistent positive parenting in their own upbringing can have difficulties in creating warmth and connectedness in their relationships with their children [5, 35]. This also can influence perception of parenting competence and coping strategies for managing the challenges that occur in the parent–child dynamic [5, 36].

Despite contributions to knowledge regarding the types of parenting behaviors that lend themselves to the development of resilience and adaptation in children, often overlooked are the contexts and experiences of the parents themselves, which is the critical component to influencing outcomes. Benatov, in a study of parents reactions to their child's victimization via bullying, found that parents emotional responses to the event was correlated to the level of adaptive coping responses with guilt leading to more maladaptive responses such as avoidance and sadness contributing to adaptive coping responses and support for the child [37]. Further, the level of perceived adversity was related to parental self-efficacy with high levels of victimization leading to less adaptive coping strategies and undermining selfefficacy for parents [37].

The exploration of parental resources, i.e., material, social and psychological resources, and influential contextual factors, presents a holistic picture of the potential determinants of parenting behaviors and stress responses. Parent/child relationships exist within the context of the environment and with the resources that are available to them at any given time. Belsky's ecological model identified the importance of understanding the multiple levels of psychosocial factors that influence parenting [38]. This model recognizes the influence of parenting on healthy child development and identified three types of determinants of parenting behaviors including parental psychological resources, child characteristics, and contextual factors such as the environment [38]. Adversity often depletes the psychosocial resources that individuals have available to them, and parents who experience cumulative or co-occurring adverse events have fewer social supports and resources available to manage parenting stressors [36].

Adversity experienced in the parenting role creates obstacles that can disrupt parenting abilities, increase frustrations, and parent stress levels. There is a need to explore the psychosocial factors for parents who are experiencing adverse life situations and the way these factors contribute to parenting behaviors. Research has linked adverse childhood experiences to potential health and psychological issues throughout development, and one of the critical factors to consider is the way that adverse life events impact the parent and change the parent/child relationship dynamic [10]. For example, childhood illness, particularly illness that has an uncertain trajectory, has been found to be related to parenting stress which increased parental perception of the vulnerability of their child [39]. This perception of vulnerability can increase the presence parental overprotection behaviors [39] which decrease opportunities for the development of autonomy for the child. Parenting of children who have behavioral issues or developmental disabilities has been correlated to an increase in parenting stress which can increase parents' experiences of emotional dysregulation [40, 41]. Parenting stress can decrease the likelihood that a parent can respond effectively to the behaviors of their child via overreacting, being

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*Parental Self-Efficacy and Parenting through Adversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91735*

ences will expand opportunities to mediate stress responses.

adversity and increase feelings of competence.

**2.3 Vulnerable parents/vulnerable families**

child risk factors [41].

less sensitive to the needs of the child, using less effective coping strategies, and a decreased ability to seek out support resources for their child which in turn increase

Parenting behaviors and practices vary among individuals, regardless of whether or not adversity is present, and not all parents have access to the same resources to support parenting competence. Parents who lack psychosocial and contextual resources to draw upon in adverse situations may not manage these situations as effectively and may experience increased stress fulfilling the obligations of the parenting role. Parents often find themselves in conflicting and mutually demanding roles, creating stress related to which demand to attend to first and how to choose between competing demands. For example, research has found that the experience of severe socioeconomic hardship has the potential to constrain a mother's ability to engage in sensitive childrearing practices, which can lead to personal distress [8]. Adverse life situations and stressors create intense psychological and physiological demands that can interfere with functioning and increase vulnerability to adverse outcomes [8]. Adversity can lead to disruptions in the parent/child relationship when a parent's resources are taxed by the demands of their own dysregulation and stress responses [8]. Adversity can create situations where parents experience a loss of confidence and feelings of uncertainty about how to respond to their child effectively [43]. This may take the form of fear, apprehension, self-doubt, feelings of inadequacy, etc. [43]. The ability to find balance in parenting demands during stressful life situations can mediate the potential negative outcomes associated with

Exposure to adverse life events by itself is not enough to trigger a long-term negative outcome or prolonged stress response as many individuals who experience adversity adapt effectively with little life disruption. Attempts to explore the types of stressful life situations that evoke adverse outcomes has produced with meager results due to the recognition that it is not the events alone that influence adaptation and coping [21]. Existing research has attempted to quantify risk and protective factors to predict outcomes; however, this fails to consider how the experience is perceived by the individual which plays a critical role in long-term trajectories [18]. Individual differences in vulnerability have been attributed to pre-existing mental health conditions, lifetime exposure to social stressors, the experience of conflict, financial hardships [11, 18, 21]. Barnyard, Williams and Siegel found that experiences of trauma were related to problems in parenting, with physical and sexual abuse resulting in less optimal parenting behaviors and negative perceptions of parenting abilities [3]. Hagan and colleagues identified that socioeconomic adversity and conflict in the parent–child relationship or parental harshness increased the

The influence of adverse events on parenting practices is an overlooked and critical component to successful outcomes for children and their families. Glazer and colleagues explored parenting after the loss of a spouse and found that parents not only question their parenting skills in the face of this adversity but also perceived stigma from others regarding their ability to parent effectively [42]. Not only did these parents question their skills to parent, they also expressed a lack of confidence in parenting a child who was also experience a grief reaction [40]. Research suggests that parental responses, particularly adverse reactions, are connected to the level of distress that is experienced by the child [34, 43]. If parental stress responses can increase the risk of a stress response in the child, then attention to parental experi*Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective*

and stress hardiness [4–7, 17, 32, 33]. Emphasis has been placed on poor parenting practices in the face of adversity as the reason that adverse events have long-term effects, thereby pathologizing parenting behaviors and ignoring the experiences of parents themselves [34]. Further, Herbers, Cutuli, Supkoff, Narayan and Masten cautioned that during periods of adversity it is important not to interpret parent– child behaviors as maladaptive as while they may seem chaotic, it is reflective of a process of re-stabilization [7]. The experience of childhood trauma can make it difficult to form bonds with their children and parents who have not experienced consistent positive parenting in their own upbringing can have difficulties in creating warmth and connectedness in their relationships with their children [5, 35]. This also can influence perception of parenting competence and coping strategies for managing the challenges that occur in the parent–child dynamic [5, 36].

Despite contributions to knowledge regarding the types of parenting behaviors that lend themselves to the development of resilience and adaptation in children, often overlooked are the contexts and experiences of the parents themselves, which is the critical component to influencing outcomes. Benatov, in a study of parents reactions to their child's victimization via bullying, found that parents emotional responses to the event was correlated to the level of adaptive coping responses with guilt leading to more maladaptive responses such as avoidance and sadness contributing to adaptive coping responses and support for the child [37]. Further, the level of perceived adversity was related to parental self-efficacy with high levels of victimization leading to less adaptive coping strategies and undermining self-

The exploration of parental resources, i.e., material, social and psychological resources, and influential contextual factors, presents a holistic picture of the potential determinants of parenting behaviors and stress responses. Parent/child relationships exist within the context of the environment and with the resources that are available to them at any given time. Belsky's ecological model identified the importance of understanding the multiple levels of psychosocial factors that influence parenting [38]. This model recognizes the influence of parenting on healthy child development and identified three types of determinants of parenting behaviors including parental psychological resources, child characteristics, and contextual factors such as the environment [38]. Adversity often depletes the psychosocial resources that individuals have available to them, and parents who experience cumulative or co-occurring adverse events have fewer social supports and resources

Adversity experienced in the parenting role creates obstacles that can disrupt parenting abilities, increase frustrations, and parent stress levels. There is a need to explore the psychosocial factors for parents who are experiencing adverse life situations and the way these factors contribute to parenting behaviors. Research has linked adverse childhood experiences to potential health and psychological issues throughout development, and one of the critical factors to consider is the way that adverse life events impact the parent and change the parent/child relationship dynamic [10]. For example, childhood illness, particularly illness that has an uncertain trajectory, has been found to be related to parenting stress which increased parental perception of the vulnerability of their child [39]. This perception of vulnerability can increase the presence parental overprotection behaviors [39] which decrease opportunities for the development of autonomy for the child. Parenting of children who have behavioral issues or developmental disabilities has been correlated to an increase in parenting stress which can increase parents' experiences of emotional dysregulation [40, 41]. Parenting stress can decrease the likelihood that a parent can respond effectively to the behaviors of their child via overreacting, being

**170**

efficacy for parents [37].

available to manage parenting stressors [36].

less sensitive to the needs of the child, using less effective coping strategies, and a decreased ability to seek out support resources for their child which in turn increase child risk factors [41].

The influence of adverse events on parenting practices is an overlooked and critical component to successful outcomes for children and their families. Glazer and colleagues explored parenting after the loss of a spouse and found that parents not only question their parenting skills in the face of this adversity but also perceived stigma from others regarding their ability to parent effectively [42]. Not only did these parents question their skills to parent, they also expressed a lack of confidence in parenting a child who was also experience a grief reaction [40]. Research suggests that parental responses, particularly adverse reactions, are connected to the level of distress that is experienced by the child [34, 43]. If parental stress responses can increase the risk of a stress response in the child, then attention to parental experiences will expand opportunities to mediate stress responses.

Parenting behaviors and practices vary among individuals, regardless of whether or not adversity is present, and not all parents have access to the same resources to support parenting competence. Parents who lack psychosocial and contextual resources to draw upon in adverse situations may not manage these situations as effectively and may experience increased stress fulfilling the obligations of the parenting role. Parents often find themselves in conflicting and mutually demanding roles, creating stress related to which demand to attend to first and how to choose between competing demands. For example, research has found that the experience of severe socioeconomic hardship has the potential to constrain a mother's ability to engage in sensitive childrearing practices, which can lead to personal distress [8]. Adverse life situations and stressors create intense psychological and physiological demands that can interfere with functioning and increase vulnerability to adverse outcomes [8]. Adversity can lead to disruptions in the parent/child relationship when a parent's resources are taxed by the demands of their own dysregulation and stress responses [8]. Adversity can create situations where parents experience a loss of confidence and feelings of uncertainty about how to respond to their child effectively [43]. This may take the form of fear, apprehension, self-doubt, feelings of inadequacy, etc. [43]. The ability to find balance in parenting demands during stressful life situations can mediate the potential negative outcomes associated with adversity and increase feelings of competence.
