**3.1 Parental self-efficacy**

Parental self-efficacy, the belief in one's ability to parent effectively, and the confidence that one can successfully handle the problems that their child may experience, has been associated with adaptive family environments and improved outcomes for children [12, 51]. Parental self-efficacy can have a reciprocal relationship with stress and coping strategies as parents who believe that they can have a positive influence on the development of their child are more likely to utilize adaptive coping strategies to reduce stress reactions [51]. Parents who believe that they have the power to influence children's behaviors and experiences have an increased ability to identify effective parenting strategies, thus creating positive parent/child interactions [5]. Even for parents who grew up in unfavorable circumstances and environments parental self-efficacy has been found to be related to positive parenting practices and parental beliefs that nurturing behaviors will increase positive outcomes for their children [5]. Parental self-efficacy can serve as a buffer against adverse risk factors such as disadvantaged socioeconomic situations and mediate the risks associated with individual parent and child risk factors.

Self-efficacy, the belief that one's life is within their control, has been found to serve as a mediator between stressful life events and depressive symptoms [52] as well as a protective factor for psychological health. Hastings and Brown found self-efficacy to be a mediator between child behavior problems and anxiety and depression in mothers [53]. Further, the reciprocal relationship between emotional states/stress and the perception of coping efficacy are predictive of future parenting outcomes [54]. Environmental stressors and pressures influence the development and maintenance of self-efficacy. Raikes and Thompson identified that adverse events, particularly socioeconomic disadvantage, can impact how one views their personal characteristics and competencies [11]. Self-efficacy also contains expectations regarding the likelihood of being successful at tasks and amid adversity [11], making it vulnerable to contextual factors that are outside of the control of the individual, such as availability of resources or access to health insurance. A negative self-appraisal has been linked to increased mental health issues and decreased perception of competence as a parent [55].

While studies have shown that general parental self-efficacy is associated with positive child outcomes of psychological health and adaptation, little is known about parental self-efficacy in the context of adversity [42]. Parents with high self-efficacy have been found to increased competence and responsiveness to the needs of the child. In contrast, parents with low self-efficacy have been found to have increased difficulty with parenting decisions, feelings of inadequacy, shame, and increased parental stress [51]. The perception of self-efficacy is linked to how a parent perceives their own and their child's experiences of adversity and adaptation.

Parental self-efficacy has been correlated to parental sense of competence, parental psychosocial functioning, and childhood socioemotional adjustment. Particularly interesting is that parental self-efficacy is of significant importance in adverse life situations. However, this is also the time where parents are likely to have a hard time feeling control due to the added stress placed upon previously existing resources. Research indicates that individuals who experience adversity are less likely to report feelings of self-efficacy, particularly when the adverse situation is something outside of their control [56]. High levels of parental self-efficacy has the potential to positively influence parenting behavior and buffer against the stress related to adverse life events, especially the effects of poverty [11]. Self-efficacy provides parents with the psychological resources necessary to manage adversity and productively engage with stressors. Conversely, individuals with low self-efficacy are more likely to disengage due to feeling that they cannot overcome the adverse situations with the resources available to them [57].

#### **3.2 Resilience**

Many individuals will experience adversity and will effectively adapt and move forward without significant disruption to their developmental or health trajectory. These individuals are often described as having resilience, internal and external qualities that lead to positive outcomes in adverse situations [22, 27, 29]. Often times, resilience is referred to as the ability to "bounce back" after an adverse life situation, however, this implies that an appropriate way to manage adversity is to be able to go back to a previous state of being [22, 58]. This may not accurately describe what occurs after adverse life situations. Other explanations of resilience include experiencing an adverse life event and not having it disrupt developmental trajectories in a negative way [59]. My preference when looking at adversity is to emphasize having gotten through a stressful life event and emerging from it with the knowledge that one can survive adversity and that the skills utilized can be applied to future challenging situations. This strength-based approach allows for an individual to recognize the skill set that now can serve as a resource for coping, building a sense of self-efficacy.

Resilience and adversity are both a natural part of the human condition. While it was once believed that resilience was only present in some individuals, this adaptation strategy can be taught and accessed under the right circumstances. The ability

**175**

*Parental Self-Efficacy and Parenting through Adversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91735*

the individual, family and contextual levels.

to what appears to be a solution.

**3.3 Parenting in context**

to develop and utilize adaptive coping strategies is directly related to the intersection of environmental and personal factors that have been described throughout this chapter, and include the presence of self-efficacy and appropriate social supports to buffer the negative effects of stressors and to encourage recovery from adversity [16]. Adaptive coping strategies may be one way that resilience is demonstrated, however, resilience is a much larger umbrella that encompasses factors at

Resilience occurs at the intersection of risk and protective factors and allows individuals to navigate their way toward healthy adaptation strategies in the presence of social support mechanisms [16]. Protector factors, such as the presence of responsiveness, positive affect, effective parenting practices, social support, supportive kin relationships, and positive self-concept have been found to decrease stress reactions in children experiencing adverse life events [17, 60]. Park and colleagues found that adolescents who perceived stress as a growth opportunity had more positive responses to adverse events than those who believed that stress is detrimental [61]. The development of this mindset may be the result of examples that they have been exposed to of influential adults managing stress and adversity [61]. There is a great deal of research on identifying risk factors related to the development of maladaptive responses; however, an emphasis on targeted social support and systemic contextual factors may allow for protective factors to balance out identified risks. Risk factors for children such as parental mental illness, family discord, high-risk environments, lack of parental supervision, and poor school systems increase the likelihood that adverse events will impact developmental trajectories [60]. Macmillan and Violato found that the presence of two or more forms of parental adversity was correlated with unfavorable emotional and behavioral health [17]. Caution is essential when using the word resilient and when applying it to parents and children. The identification of an individual as resilient, while it is pointing to positive characteristics, is also creating a category of individuals who would not be considered resilient and, therefore, potentially less than optimal [48]. The expectation that resilience is a skill that can be taught to children by their parents and other influential adults while emphasizing opportunities for growth and buffering of negative outcomes also creates opportunities for stigma and criticism should a child not appear to be resilient [48]. Have these parents now somehow failed, should this marker not be met? The creation of additional opportunities for stigma and judgment should be approached with caution as there are always multiple sides

One of key factors that assists in understanding the experience of parents in the face of adversity is the context in which they are parenting. Belsky's Ecological Model provides an understanding of contextual factors that influence parenting on many different levels, and how they combine in systematic ways to influence outcomes [3]. Belsky purports that there is not a linear path to child maltreatment and that parenting practices exist on a continuum between those that inhibit developmental growth and those that facilitate healthy growth and development [62]. This model requires moving beyond traditional research that has looked at individual factors to the inclusion of a parent's immediate context and also the broader community environment, society, and the systems within [2, 3]. Contexts therefore can be categorized as the individual, family, community and cultural milieus that an individual and family are embedded in [62] A systematic approach makes room for the experience of cumulative adversity and co-occurring stressors and the influence

that this has on an individual's functioning and parenting behaviors.

#### *Parental Self-Efficacy and Parenting through Adversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91735*

*Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective*

perception of competence as a parent [55].

situations with the resources available to them [57].

states/stress and the perception of coping efficacy are predictive of future parenting outcomes [54]. Environmental stressors and pressures influence the development and maintenance of self-efficacy. Raikes and Thompson identified that adverse events, particularly socioeconomic disadvantage, can impact how one views their personal characteristics and competencies [11]. Self-efficacy also contains expectations regarding the likelihood of being successful at tasks and amid adversity [11], making it vulnerable to contextual factors that are outside of the control of the individual, such as availability of resources or access to health insurance. A negative self-appraisal has been linked to increased mental health issues and decreased

While studies have shown that general parental self-efficacy is associated with positive child outcomes of psychological health and adaptation, little is known about parental self-efficacy in the context of adversity [42]. Parents with high self-efficacy have been found to increased competence and responsiveness to the needs of the child. In contrast, parents with low self-efficacy have been found to have increased difficulty with parenting decisions, feelings of inadequacy, shame, and increased parental stress [51]. The perception of self-efficacy is linked to how a parent perceives their own and their child's experiences of adversity and adaptation. Parental self-efficacy has been correlated to parental sense of competence, parental psychosocial functioning, and childhood socioemotional adjustment. Particularly interesting is that parental self-efficacy is of significant importance in adverse life situations. However, this is also the time where parents are likely to have a hard time feeling control due to the added stress placed upon previously existing resources. Research indicates that individuals who experience adversity are less likely to report feelings of self-efficacy, particularly when the adverse situation is something outside of their control [56]. High levels of parental self-efficacy has the potential to positively influence parenting behavior and buffer against the stress related to adverse life events, especially the effects of poverty [11]. Self-efficacy provides parents with the psychological resources necessary to manage adversity and productively engage with stressors. Conversely, individuals with low self-efficacy are more likely to disengage due to feeling that they cannot overcome the adverse

Many individuals will experience adversity and will effectively adapt and move forward without significant disruption to their developmental or health trajectory. These individuals are often described as having resilience, internal and external qualities that lead to positive outcomes in adverse situations [22, 27, 29]. Often times, resilience is referred to as the ability to "bounce back" after an adverse life situation, however, this implies that an appropriate way to manage adversity is to be able to go back to a previous state of being [22, 58]. This may not accurately describe what occurs after adverse life situations. Other explanations of resilience include experiencing an adverse life event and not having it disrupt developmental trajectories in a negative way [59]. My preference when looking at adversity is to emphasize having gotten through a stressful life event and emerging from it with the knowledge that one can survive adversity and that the skills utilized can be applied to future challenging situations. This strength-based approach allows for an individual to recognize the skill set that now can serve as a resource for coping,

Resilience and adversity are both a natural part of the human condition. While it was once believed that resilience was only present in some individuals, this adaptation strategy can be taught and accessed under the right circumstances. The ability

**174**

building a sense of self-efficacy.

**3.2 Resilience**

to develop and utilize adaptive coping strategies is directly related to the intersection of environmental and personal factors that have been described throughout this chapter, and include the presence of self-efficacy and appropriate social supports to buffer the negative effects of stressors and to encourage recovery from adversity [16]. Adaptive coping strategies may be one way that resilience is demonstrated, however, resilience is a much larger umbrella that encompasses factors at the individual, family and contextual levels.

Resilience occurs at the intersection of risk and protective factors and allows individuals to navigate their way toward healthy adaptation strategies in the presence of social support mechanisms [16]. Protector factors, such as the presence of responsiveness, positive affect, effective parenting practices, social support, supportive kin relationships, and positive self-concept have been found to decrease stress reactions in children experiencing adverse life events [17, 60]. Park and colleagues found that adolescents who perceived stress as a growth opportunity had more positive responses to adverse events than those who believed that stress is detrimental [61]. The development of this mindset may be the result of examples that they have been exposed to of influential adults managing stress and adversity [61]. There is a great deal of research on identifying risk factors related to the development of maladaptive responses; however, an emphasis on targeted social support and systemic contextual factors may allow for protective factors to balance out identified risks. Risk factors for children such as parental mental illness, family discord, high-risk environments, lack of parental supervision, and poor school systems increase the likelihood that adverse events will impact developmental trajectories [60]. Macmillan and Violato found that the presence of two or more forms of parental adversity was correlated with unfavorable emotional and behavioral health [17].

Caution is essential when using the word resilient and when applying it to parents and children. The identification of an individual as resilient, while it is pointing to positive characteristics, is also creating a category of individuals who would not be considered resilient and, therefore, potentially less than optimal [48]. The expectation that resilience is a skill that can be taught to children by their parents and other influential adults while emphasizing opportunities for growth and buffering of negative outcomes also creates opportunities for stigma and criticism should a child not appear to be resilient [48]. Have these parents now somehow failed, should this marker not be met? The creation of additional opportunities for stigma and judgment should be approached with caution as there are always multiple sides to what appears to be a solution.

#### **3.3 Parenting in context**

One of key factors that assists in understanding the experience of parents in the face of adversity is the context in which they are parenting. Belsky's Ecological Model provides an understanding of contextual factors that influence parenting on many different levels, and how they combine in systematic ways to influence outcomes [3]. Belsky purports that there is not a linear path to child maltreatment and that parenting practices exist on a continuum between those that inhibit developmental growth and those that facilitate healthy growth and development [62]. This model requires moving beyond traditional research that has looked at individual factors to the inclusion of a parent's immediate context and also the broader community environment, society, and the systems within [2, 3]. Contexts therefore can be categorized as the individual, family, community and cultural milieus that an individual and family are embedded in [62] A systematic approach makes room for the experience of cumulative adversity and co-occurring stressors and the influence that this has on an individual's functioning and parenting behaviors.

While society has expectations about right and wrong ways to parent, these constructs do not describe the situations in which parenting is occurring in the face of adverse life situations. Little is written or taught about the development of parenting competence in the context of adversity, making this a common yet poorly understood phenomenon. Belsky makes a distinction between placing an emphasis on development and emphasizing the context in which development occurs which helps to identify factors that may contribute to how someone comes to have the parenting skills and behaviors that they possess [62]. As discussed earlier, failure to recognize the context in which an individual is parenting leads to unrealistic expectations and the perpetuation of stigma and judgment.

When an individual experiences adversity, there is the potential for alterations in psychological and physiological functioning both in the short and long term [8]. These alterations can lead to changes in perception and action both on an individual and family level. Altered perceptions can influence how a parent views their capability to handle stressors, to manage their child's reaction to adversity, and their overall competence to parent effectively. Research has shown that contextual stressors and support are central influences on parenting behaviors and can mediate adjustment to adverse situations [63]. A parent's psychological stability can affect outcomes in a child beyond what is observed through parenting practices, with contextual stress playing a key role in reparation after adversity [63].

#### **4. Social support and potential interventions**

#### **4.1 Social support**

Social support that occurs in direct relationship to the stressor experienced has been found to increase the perception of positive adaptation and decrease stress [64]. While social support has been linked to improved outcomes in the face of adverse life situations, support that is tailored to the source of the stress, for example, parenting stress, has been found to have the greatest influence on reduction of stress and improvement in outcomes for both parents and children [64]. Crnic and Booth found when support services emphasized challenges faced in the parenting role, that this was useful in managing their child's behaviors [9]. Further family support, friendships and intimate support from a partner are helpful in buffering the adverse influence of challenges in the parenting role [9]. Perhaps of greatest concern is the abundance of literature that supports social support and the buffering effect in the face of adversity. Yet, studies that explore parents' experiences of adversity regularly report a lack of support and feeling isolated [49].

Social support is critical to parent success in the face of adversity, and it also increases the ability of children to manage adverse situations [65]. In fact, the absence of social support creates an adversity for children and parents [9]. Social support has also been shown to function as a buffer against the long-term effects of parenting stress. Further, a parent who has access to social support, particularly related to parental stress, can, in turn, provide similar support to their child. Social support can help develop resilience and buffer against the negative impact of adversity [3, 17, 65]. Social support increases an individual's sense of competence to cope with stressful life events and improves available resources, which helps to maintain healthy developmental trajectories [17].

#### **4.2 Potential interventions**

Parental self-efficacy and social supports have been found to be critical ingredients to adaptation following adverse situations. A parent's ability to regulate stress,

**177**

**5. Conclusions**

all members of the family.

The author declares no conflict of interest.

**Conflict of interest**

*Parental Self-Efficacy and Parenting through Adversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91735*

recognize the needs of their child, and interpret behavior are crucial to successful navigation of stressful life events [4–7]. Interventions should target the building of resources for parents that address multilevel contextual factors. While previous research has identified the significance of addressing both parent and child needs in the face of adversity [32], little guidance exists regarding how to cultivate selfefficacy and social support in parents who are experience adversity. Identification of parents and children who are at risk of distress related to adverse events and making connections to health care providers can decrease negative outcomes such as child behavior problems or lack of preparedness to enter school [32]. Parents who experience adversity have additional stressors than those that naturally exist in the parenting role and decreased opportunities to garner supports and resources. Interventions that focuses on increasing parental self-efficacy can have positive effects on the mental health of parents who are raising children with disabilities [53]. Behavioral family intervention programs that seek to address the multiple adversity factors such as the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program [66] have been found to be effective in families with child behavior problems by enhancing parenting skills and strategies, improving stress coping skills for parents, and strengthen support skills in families [6, 66]. Current interventions that target parents mainly focus on the management of children's difficult behaviors or emotions and do not target the experience of the parent [2–7, 17, 32, 33], particularly how they are affected by the adversity themselves. Interventions that provide social support targeted at the stressor will increase the resources that parents have available to them and allow for greater ease in engaging in the parenting role [64]. Social support can mediate parenting stress, thus increasing the likelihood of optimal outcomes for parents and children [64]. While many interventions exist to teach parents targeted skills and responses to their children [2–7, 17, 32, 33], expanding this to include a focus on parental well-being and health will buffer against the potential for adversity to increase parenting stress [11]. Emphasis on parental experiences will also allow for parents to be supported in their own emotional and physiological reactions to adverse situations and will decrease the pathologizing and judgment experienced [34]. Creating room for an emphasis on the parent's experience allows for focus on how to develop the skills necessary to read children's cues, respond effectively to distress in the face of their own responses, and

assist in the development of behavioral and emotional self-regulation.

Adverse events have been shown to have an impact on health outcomes for both parents and children; however, it is not the events themselves that create negative outcomes. It is essential to recognize that the intersection between adverse life events and contextual factors, such as psychological and social support resources, is where the quality of outcomes is determined. When parents experience threats to their safety or security without opportunities for reparation, the potential for lasting negative impacts on development and health trajectory increases significantly. Social support and self-efficacy are important resources that can influence parenting stress and the experience of adversity [11]. Interventions that target the development of parental self-efficacy and target social support can substantially increase parents' sense of competence, satisfaction in the parenting role, and resilience for

#### *Parental Self-Efficacy and Parenting through Adversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91735*

*Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective*

expectations and the perpetuation of stigma and judgment.

contextual stress playing a key role in reparation after adversity [63].

adversity regularly report a lack of support and feeling isolated [49].

healthy developmental trajectories [17].

**4.2 Potential interventions**

Social support is critical to parent success in the face of adversity, and it also increases the ability of children to manage adverse situations [65]. In fact, the absence of social support creates an adversity for children and parents [9]. Social support has also been shown to function as a buffer against the long-term effects of parenting stress. Further, a parent who has access to social support, particularly related to parental stress, can, in turn, provide similar support to their child. Social support can help develop resilience and buffer against the negative impact of adversity [3, 17, 65]. Social support increases an individual's sense of competence to cope with stressful life events and improves available resources, which helps to maintain

Parental self-efficacy and social supports have been found to be critical ingredients to adaptation following adverse situations. A parent's ability to regulate stress,

**4. Social support and potential interventions**

**4.1 Social support**

While society has expectations about right and wrong ways to parent, these constructs do not describe the situations in which parenting is occurring in the face of adverse life situations. Little is written or taught about the development of parenting competence in the context of adversity, making this a common yet poorly understood phenomenon. Belsky makes a distinction between placing an emphasis on development and emphasizing the context in which development occurs which helps to identify factors that may contribute to how someone comes to have the parenting skills and behaviors that they possess [62]. As discussed earlier, failure to recognize the context in which an individual is parenting leads to unrealistic

When an individual experiences adversity, there is the potential for alterations in psychological and physiological functioning both in the short and long term [8]. These alterations can lead to changes in perception and action both on an individual and family level. Altered perceptions can influence how a parent views their capability to handle stressors, to manage their child's reaction to adversity, and their overall competence to parent effectively. Research has shown that contextual stressors and support are central influences on parenting behaviors and can mediate adjustment to adverse situations [63]. A parent's psychological stability can affect outcomes in a child beyond what is observed through parenting practices, with

Social support that occurs in direct relationship to the stressor experienced has been found to increase the perception of positive adaptation and decrease stress [64]. While social support has been linked to improved outcomes in the face of adverse life situations, support that is tailored to the source of the stress, for example, parenting stress, has been found to have the greatest influence on reduction of stress and improvement in outcomes for both parents and children [64]. Crnic and Booth found when support services emphasized challenges faced in the parenting role, that this was useful in managing their child's behaviors [9]. Further family support, friendships and intimate support from a partner are helpful in buffering the adverse influence of challenges in the parenting role [9]. Perhaps of greatest concern is the abundance of literature that supports social support and the buffering effect in the face of adversity. Yet, studies that explore parents' experiences of

**176**

recognize the needs of their child, and interpret behavior are crucial to successful navigation of stressful life events [4–7]. Interventions should target the building of resources for parents that address multilevel contextual factors. While previous research has identified the significance of addressing both parent and child needs in the face of adversity [32], little guidance exists regarding how to cultivate selfefficacy and social support in parents who are experience adversity. Identification of parents and children who are at risk of distress related to adverse events and making connections to health care providers can decrease negative outcomes such as child behavior problems or lack of preparedness to enter school [32]. Parents who experience adversity have additional stressors than those that naturally exist in the parenting role and decreased opportunities to garner supports and resources. Interventions that focuses on increasing parental self-efficacy can have positive effects on the mental health of parents who are raising children with disabilities [53]. Behavioral family intervention programs that seek to address the multiple adversity factors such as the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program [66] have been found to be effective in families with child behavior problems by enhancing parenting skills and strategies, improving stress coping skills for parents, and strengthen support skills in families [6, 66].

Current interventions that target parents mainly focus on the management of children's difficult behaviors or emotions and do not target the experience of the parent [2–7, 17, 32, 33], particularly how they are affected by the adversity themselves. Interventions that provide social support targeted at the stressor will increase the resources that parents have available to them and allow for greater ease in engaging in the parenting role [64]. Social support can mediate parenting stress, thus increasing the likelihood of optimal outcomes for parents and children [64]. While many interventions exist to teach parents targeted skills and responses to their children [2–7, 17, 32, 33], expanding this to include a focus on parental well-being and health will buffer against the potential for adversity to increase parenting stress [11]. Emphasis on parental experiences will also allow for parents to be supported in their own emotional and physiological reactions to adverse situations and will decrease the pathologizing and judgment experienced [34]. Creating room for an emphasis on the parent's experience allows for focus on how to develop the skills necessary to read children's cues, respond effectively to distress in the face of their own responses, and assist in the development of behavioral and emotional self-regulation.

### **5. Conclusions**

Adverse events have been shown to have an impact on health outcomes for both parents and children; however, it is not the events themselves that create negative outcomes. It is essential to recognize that the intersection between adverse life events and contextual factors, such as psychological and social support resources, is where the quality of outcomes is determined. When parents experience threats to their safety or security without opportunities for reparation, the potential for lasting negative impacts on development and health trajectory increases significantly. Social support and self-efficacy are important resources that can influence parenting stress and the experience of adversity [11]. Interventions that target the development of parental self-efficacy and target social support can substantially increase parents' sense of competence, satisfaction in the parenting role, and resilience for all members of the family.
